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Tiadi A, Seassau M, Bui-Quoc E, Gerard CL, Bucci MP. Vertical saccades in dyslexic children. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2014; 35:3175-3181. [PMID: 25151607 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.07.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Vertical saccades have never been studied in dyslexic children. We examined vertical visually guided saccades in fifty-six dyslexic children (mean age: 10.5±2.56 years old) and fifty-six age matched non dyslexic children (mean age: 10.3±1.74 years old). Binocular eye movements were recorded using an infrared video-oculography system (mobileEBT®, e(ye)BRAIN). Dyslexic children showed significantly longer latency than the non dyslexic group, also the occurrence of anticipatory and express saccades was more important in dyslexic than in non dyslexic children. The gain and the mean velocity values were significantly smaller in dyslexic than in non dyslexic children. Finally, the up-down asymmetry reported in normal population for the gain and the velocity of vertical saccades was observed in dyslexic children and interestingly, dyslexic children also reported an up-down asymmetry for the mean latency. Taken together all these findings suggested impairment in cortical areas responsible of vertical saccades performance and also at peripheral level of the extra-ocular oblique muscles; moreover, a visuo-attentionnal bias could explain the up-down asymmetry reported for the vertical saccade triggering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimé Tiadi
- UMR 1141 INSERM-Université Paris 7, Hôpital Robert Debré, 48 Bl Sérurier, 75019 Paris, France.
| | - Magali Seassau
- e(ye) Brain, 1 bis rue Jean le Galleu, 94200, Ivry sur Seine, France
| | - Emmanuel Bui-Quoc
- Service d'Ophtalmologie, Hôpital Robert Debré, 48 Boulevard Sérurier, 75019 Paris, France
| | - Christophe-Loïc Gerard
- Service de Psychopathologie de l'enfant et de l'adolescent, Hôpital Robert Debré, 48 Bl Sérurier, 75019 Paris, France
| | - Maria Pia Bucci
- UMR 1141 INSERM-Université Paris 7, Hôpital Robert Debré, 48 Bl Sérurier, 75019 Paris, France
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52
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Paulsen DJ, Hallquist MN, Geier CF, Luna B. Effects of incentives, age, and behavior on brain activation during inhibitory control: a longitudinal fMRI study. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2014; 11:105-15. [PMID: 25284272 PMCID: PMC4323861 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Revised: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Reward-modulated cognitive control is supported by amygdalar incentive processing. NAcc activation supports inhibitory control in youths. NAcc activation hinders inhibitory control in adults.
We investigated changes in brain function supporting inhibitory control under age-controlled incentivized conditions, separating age- and performance-related activation in an accelerated longitudinal design including 10- to 22-year-olds. Better inhibitory control correlated with striatal activation during neutral trials, while Age X Behavior interactions in the striatum indicated that in the absence of extrinsic incentives, younger subjects with greater reward circuitry activation successfully engage in greater inhibitory control. Age was negatively correlated with ventral amygdala activation during Loss trials, suggesting that amygdala function more strongly mediates bottom-up processing earlier in development when controlling the negative aspects of incentives to support inhibitory control. Together, these results indicate that with development, reward-modulated cognitive control may be supported by incentive processing transitions in the amygdala, and from facilitative to obstructive striatal function during inhibitory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Paulsen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
| | | | - Charles F Geier
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, United States
| | - Beatriz Luna
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, United States; Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, United States
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53
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Peltsch A, Hemraj A, Garcia A, Munoz DP. Saccade deficits in amnestic mild cognitive impairment resemble mild Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2014; 39:2000-13. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Peltsch
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Alisha Hemraj
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Angeles Garcia
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
- Department of Medicine; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
| | - Douglas P. Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies; Queen's University; Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Canada
- Department of Medicine; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
- Department of Psychology; Queen's University; Kingston ON Canada
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54
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Fedorenko E. The role of domain-general cognitive control in language comprehension. Front Psychol 2014; 5:335. [PMID: 24803909 PMCID: PMC4009428 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
What role does domain-general cognitive control play in understanding linguistic input? Although much evidence has suggested that domain-general cognitive control and working memory resources are sometimes recruited during language comprehension, many aspects of this relationship remain elusive. For example, how frequently do cognitive control mechanisms get engaged when we understand language? And is this engagement necessary for successful comprehension? I here (a) review recent brain imaging evidence for the neural separability of the brain regions that support high-level linguistic processing vs. those that support domain-general cognitive control abilities; (b) define the space of possibilities for the relationship between these sets of brain regions; and (c) review the available evidence that constrains these possibilities to some extent. I argue that we should stop asking whether domain-general cognitive control mechanisms play a role in language comprehension, and instead focus on characterizing the division of labor between the cognitive control brain regions and the more functionally specialized language regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelina Fedorenko
- Psychiatry Department, Massachusetts General HospitalCharlestown, MA, USA
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55
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Alahyane N, Brien DC, Coe BC, Stroman PW, Munoz DP. Developmental improvements in voluntary control of behavior: effect of preparation in the fronto-parietal network? Neuroimage 2014; 98:103-17. [PMID: 24642280 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to prepare for an action improves the speed and accuracy of its performance. While many studies indicate that behavior performance continues to improve throughout childhood and adolescence, it remains unclear whether or how preparatory processes change with development. Here, we used a rapid event-related fMRI design in three age groups (8-12, 13-17, 18-25years) who were instructed to execute either a prosaccade (look toward peripheral target) or an antisaccade (look away from target) task. We compared brain activity within the core fronto-parietal network involved in saccade control at two epochs of saccade generation: saccade preparation related to task instruction versus saccade execution related to target appearance. The inclusion of catch trials containing only task instruction and no target or saccade response allowed us to isolate saccade preparation from saccade execution. Five regions of interest were selected: the frontal, supplementary, parietal eye fields which are consistently recruited during saccade generation, and two regions involved in top down executive control: the dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices. Our results showed strong evidence that developmental improvements in saccade performance were related to better saccade preparation rather than saccade execution. These developmental differences were mostly attributable to children who showed reduced fronto-parietal activity during prosaccade and antisaccade preparation, along with longer saccade reaction times and more incorrect responses, compared to adolescents and adults. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was engaged similarly across age groups, suggesting a general role in maintaining task instructions through the whole experiment. Overall, these findings suggest that developmental improvements in behavioral control are supported by improvements in effectively presetting goal-appropriate brain systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Alahyane
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.
| | - Donald C Brien
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Brian C Coe
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Patrick W Stroman
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Douglas P Munoz
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.
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Theleritis C, Evdokimidis I, Smyrnis N. Variability in the decision process leading to saccades: a specific marker for schizophrenia? Psychophysiology 2014; 51:327-36. [PMID: 24397400 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In a previous study, deviance in the reaction time (RT) distribution of saccades for patients with schizophrenia was explained using an oculomotor decision model. Here, RTs of visually guided saccades in young healthy men, healthy children, older adults, patients with schizophrenia, and patients with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) were modeled to study the specificity of this decision process deviance for schizophrenia. The mean decision rate to saccade decreased with age in children and increased in older adults while the decision rate intrasubject variability (ISV) was not modulated by age. A significant increase in ISV of the decision rate was confirmed for patients with schizophrenia but not OCD compared to healthy controls. There was no effect of medication on model parameters in the OCD patient group. These results confirm the specificity of the deviance in a simple oculomotor decision process in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Theleritis
- Laboratory of Sensorimotor Control, University Mental Health Research Institute, Athens, Greece; Psychiatry Department, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Eginition Hospital, Athens, Greece; Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, UK
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Longitudinal growth curves of brain function underlying inhibitory control through adolescence. J Neurosci 2014; 33:18109-24. [PMID: 24227721 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1741-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroimaging studies suggest that developmental improvements in inhibitory control are primarily supported by changes in prefrontal executive function. However, studies are contradictory with respect to how activation in prefrontal regions changes with age, and they have yet to analyze longitudinal data using growth curve modeling, which allows characterization of dynamic processes of developmental change, individual differences in growth trajectories, and variables that predict any interindividual variability in trajectories. In this study, we present growth curves modeled from longitudinal fMRI data collected over 302 visits (across ages 9 to 26 years) from 123 human participants. Brain regions within circuits known to support motor response control, executive control, and error processing (i.e., aspects of inhibitory control) were investigated. Findings revealed distinct developmental trajectories for regions within each circuit and indicated that a hierarchical pattern of maturation of brain activation supports the gradual emergence of adult-like inhibitory control. Mean growth curves of activation in motor response control regions revealed no changes with age, although interindividual variability decreased with development, indicating equifinality with maturity. Activation in certain executive control regions decreased with age until adolescence, and variability was stable across development. Error-processing activation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex showed continued increases into adulthood and no significant interindividual variability across development, and was uniquely associated with task performance. These findings provide evidence that continued maturation of error-processing abilities supports the protracted development of inhibitory control over adolescence, while motor response control regions provide early-maturing foundational capacities and suggest that some executive control regions may buttress immature networks as error processing continues to mature.
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58
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Basagni B, Patané I, Ferrari V, Bruno N. Impaired reading not due to visual field loss in a patient with a right-hemipsheric lesion. Neurocase 2014; 20:510-23. [PMID: 23984952 DOI: 10.1080/13554794.2013.826684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We describe a right-handed patient (M.B.), who developed left hemianopsia and a severe reading impairment after right occipital-parietal hemorrhage. The pattern of his reading deficit was very similar to that of pure alexia (alexia-without-agraphia): extremely slow reading times with frequent grapheme substitutions and omissions. A test of letter reading while controlling for saccadic eye movements and hemifield of presentation ruled out hemianoptic alexia. Although there have already been reports of reading impairments in right handers following right- hemispheric lesions, ours is, to the best of our knowledge, the first where visual field loss can be definitely excluded as the main cause. Based on a standard neuropsychological assessment and on additional behavioral tests, we argue that M.B.'s difficulties are unlikely to be due to right-hemisphere dominance for language. After considering several candidate explanations, we suggest that M.B.'s symptoms may be related to an impairment in attentional processes related to reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedetta Basagni
- a Centro S. Maria ai Servi, Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi , Parma , Italy
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59
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Bucci MP, Seassau M. Vertical saccades in children: a developmental study. Exp Brain Res 2013; 232:927-34. [PMID: 24352609 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-013-3805-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
There are no studies exploring the development of vertical saccades in large populations of children. In this study, we examined the development of vertical saccades in sixty-nine children. Binocular eye movements were recorded using an infrared video oculography system [Mobile EBT(®), e(ye)BRAIN], and movements from both eyes had been analyzed. The gain and the peak velocity of vertical saccades show an up-down asymmetry. Latency value decreases with the age of children, and it does not depend on the direction of the saccades; in contrast, the gain and the peak velocity values of vertical saccades are stable during childhood. We suggest that the up-down asymmetry is developed early, or is innate, in humans. Latencies of vertical saccades develop with the age of children, in relationship with the development of the cortical network responsible for the saccade preparation. In contrast, the precision and the peak velocity are not age-dependent as they are controlled by the cerebellum and brainstem structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pia Bucci
- UMR 676 Inserm, Université Paris Diderot Paris 7, Hôpital Robert Debré, 48 Bl Sérurier, 75019, Paris, France,
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60
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Tajik-Parvinchi DJ, Sandor P. Enhanced antisaccade abilities in children with Tourette syndrome: the Gap-effect Reversal. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:768. [PMID: 24312038 PMCID: PMC3826111 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a childhood onset disorder of motor and vocal tics. The neural networks underlying TS overlap with those of saccade eye movements. Thus, deviations on saccadic tasks can provide important information about psychopathology of TS. Tourette syndrome often coexists with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Hence, we manipulated various components of a saccade task to measure its effects on saccades of children with TS-only, TS+ADHD, TS+ADHD+OCD and healthy controls. Children looked toward (prosaccade) or in the opposite direction (antisaccade) of a peripheral target as soon as it appeared. The prosaccade and antisaccade tasks were presented in three conditions. In the Gap200 condition, the fixation dot disappeared 200 ms prior to the appearance of the peripheral target, In the Gap800 condition, the fixation dot disappeared 800 ms prior to the appearance of the peripheral target and in Overlap200 the fixation dot disappeared 200 ms after the appearance of the peripheral target. Fixation-offset manipulations had different effects on each group's antisaccades. The TS+ADHD+OCD group's antisaccade latencies and error rates remained relatively unchanged in the three conditions and displayed a pattern of eye movements that can be interpreted as enhanced. Alternatively, the TS+ADHD group displayed an overall pattern of longer saccadic latencies. Findings corroborate the hypothesis that the combination of tic disorder and ADHD results in unique behavioral profiles. It is plausible that a subgroup of children with TS develop an adaptive ability to control their tics which generalizes to enhanced volitional control of saccadic behavior as well. Supporting evidence and other findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana J Tajik-Parvinchi
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Vision Research, York University Toronto, ON, Canada ; Tourette Syndrome Neurodevelopmental Clinic and Toronto Western Research Institute, University Health Network Toronto, ON, Canada
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61
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Lukasova K, Sommer J, Nucci-da-Silva MP, Vieira G, Blanke M, Bremmer F, Sato JR, Kircher T, Amaro E. Test-retest reliability of fMRI activation generated by different saccade tasks. J Magn Reson Imaging 2013; 40:37-46. [PMID: 24307559 DOI: 10.1002/jmri.24369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the reproducibility of brain-activation and eye-movement patterns in a saccade paradigm when comparing subjects, tasks, and magnetic resonance (MR) systems. MATERIALS AND METHODS Forty-five healthy adults at two different sites (n = 45) performed saccade tasks with varying levels of target predictability: predictable (PRED), position predictable (pPRED), time predictable (tPRED), and prosaccade (SAC). Eye-movement pattern was tested with a repeated-measures analysis of variance. Activation maps reproducibility were estimated with the cluster overlap Jaccard index and signal variance coefficient of determination for within-subjects test-retest data, and for between-subjects data from the same and different sites. RESULTS In all groups latencies increased with decreasing target predictability: PRED < pPRED < tPRED < SAC (P < 0,001). Activation overlap was good to fair (>0.40) in all tasks in the within-subjects test-retest comparisons and poor (<0.40) in the tPRED for different subjects. The overlap of the different tasks for within-groups data was higher (0.40-0.68) than for the between-groups data (0.30-0.50). Activation consistency was 60-85% in the same subjects, 50-79% in different subjects, and 50-80% in different sites. In SAC, the activation found in the same and in different subjects was more consistent than in other tasks (50-80%). CONCLUSION The predictive saccade tasks produced evidence for brain-activation and eye-movement reproducibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Lukasova
- NIF/LIM44, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil; Faculty of Psychology, Universidade Cruzeiro do Sul, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Crawford TJ, Higham S, Mayes J, Dale M, Shaunak S, Lekwuwa G. The role of working memory and attentional disengagement on inhibitory control: effects of aging and Alzheimer's disease. AGE (DORDRECHT, NETHERLANDS) 2013; 35:1637-1650. [PMID: 22903189 PMCID: PMC3776119 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-012-9466-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Patients with Alzheimer's disease have an impairment of inhibitory control for reasons that are currently unclear. Using an eye-tracking task (the gap-overlap paradigm), we examined whether the uncorrected errors relate to the task of attentional disengagement in preparation for action. Alternatively, the difficulty in correcting for errors may be caused by the working memory representation of the task. A major aim of this study was to distinguish between the effects of healthy aging and neurodegenerative disease on the voluntary control of saccadic eye movements. Using the antisaccade task (AST) and pro-saccade task (PST) with the 'gap' and 'overlap' procedures, we obtained detailed eye-tracking measures in patients, with 18 patients with probable Alzheimer's disease, 25 patients with Parkinson's disease and 17 healthy young and 18 old participants. Uncorrected errors in the AST were selectively increased in Alzheimer's disease, but not in Parkinson's disease compared to the control groups. These uncorrected errors were strongly correlated with spatial working memory. There was an increase in the saccade reaction times to targets that were presented simultaneously with the fixation stimulus, compared to the removal of fixation. This 'gap' effect (i.e. overlap-gap) saccade reaction time was elevated in the older groups compared to young group, which yielded a strong effect of aging and no specific effect of neurodegenerative disease. Healthy aging, rather than neurodegenerative disease, accounted for the increase in the saccade reaction times to the target that are presented simultaneously with a fixation stimulus. These results suggest that the impairment of inhibitory control in the AST may provide a convenient and putative mark of working memory dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor J Crawford
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Human Learning and Development, Centre for Aging Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YF, UK,
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63
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Mucke S, Strang NC, Aydin S, Mallen EAH, Seidel D, Manahilov V. Spatial frequency selectivity of visual suppression during convergence eye movements. Vision Res 2013; 89:96-101. [PMID: 23880124 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2013.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Revised: 07/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Visual suppression of low-spatial frequency information during eye movements is believed to contribute to a stable perception of our visual environment. While visual perception has been studied extensively during saccades, vergence has been somewhat neglected. Here, we show that convergence eye movements reduce contrast sensitivity to low spatial frequency information around the onset of the eye movements, but do not affect sensitivity to higher spatial frequencies. This suggests that visual suppression elicited by convergence eye movements may have the same temporal and spatial characteristics as saccadic suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Mucke
- Glasgow Caledonian University, 70 Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK.
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64
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Bonnet C, Hanuška J, Rusz J, Rivaud-Péchoux S, Sieger T, Majerová V, Serranová T, Gaymard B, Růžička E. Horizontal and vertical eye movement metrics: what is important? Clin Neurophysiol 2013; 124:2216-29. [PMID: 23806744 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2013.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assist other eye movement investigators in the design and analysis of their studies. METHODS We examined basic saccadic eye movements and smooth pursuit in the horizontal and vertical directions with video-oculography in a group of 145 healthy subjects between 19 and 82 years of age. RESULTS Gender and education level did not influence eye movement metrics. With age, the latency of leftward and vertical pro- and antisaccades increased (p<0.001), velocity of upward prosaccades decreased (p<0.001), gain of rightward and upward prosaccades diminished (p<0.001), and the error rate of antisaccades increased (p<0.001). Prosaccades and antisaccades were influenced by the direction of the target, resulting in a right/left and up/down asymmetry. The skewness of the saccade velocity profile was stable throughout the lifespan, and within the range of saccades analyzed in the present study, correlated with amplitude and duration only for antisaccades (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS Some eye movement metrics must be separated by the direction of movement, others according to subject age, while others may be pooled. SIGNIFICANCE This study provides important information for new oculomotor laboratories concerning the constitution of subject groups and the analysis of eye movement metrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Bonnet
- Dept. of Neurology and Centre of Clinical Neuroscience, Charles University in Prague, 1st Faculty of Medicine and General University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic.
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65
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Mueller SC, Daniele T, MacIntyre J, Korelitz K, Carlisi C, Hardin MG, VanRyzin C, Merke DP, Ernst M. Incentive processing in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): a reward-based antisaccade study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:716-21. [PMID: 22917623 PMCID: PMC3522784 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 08/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about how steroid hormones contribute to the beneficial effect of incentives on cognitive control during adolescent development. In this study, 27 adolescents with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH, mean age 15.6 years, 12 female), a disorder of cortisol deficiency and androgen excess, and 36 healthy participants (mean age 16.3 years, 18 female) completed a reward-based antisaccade task. In this mixed-saccade task, participants performed eye movements towards (prosaccades) or away (antisaccades) from a peripherally occuring stimulus. On incentive trials, monetary reward was provided for correct performance, while no such reward was provided on no-incentive trials. Consistent with the hypothesis, the results showed that healthy, but not CAH adolescents, significantly improved their inhibitory control (antisaccade accuracy) during incentive trials relative to no-incentive trials. These findings were not driven by severity of CAH (salt wasters vs. simple virilizers), individual hormone levels, sex, age-at-diagnosis, or medication type (dexamethasone vs. hydrocortisone). In addition, no significant differences between groups were found on orienting responses (prosaccades). Additional analyses revealed an impact of glucocorticoid (GC) dosage, such that higher GC dose predicted better antisaccade performance. However, this effect did not impact incentive processing. The data are discussed within the context of steroid hormone mediated effects on cognitive control and reward processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven C. Mueller
- Section of Developmental and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA,Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium,Corresponding author: Sven Mueller Dept. of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology Ghent University Henri Dunantlaan 2 9000 Ghent, Belgium Tel: +32 - 9 - 2648622 Fax: +32 - 9- 2646489
| | - Teresa Daniele
- Section of Developmental and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Jessica MacIntyre
- Section of Developmental and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Katherine Korelitz
- Section of Developmental and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Christina Carlisi
- Section of Developmental and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Michael G. Hardin
- Section of Developmental and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | | | - Deborah P. Merke
- NIH Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA,Program in Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Monique Ernst
- Section of Developmental and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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Luna B, Paulsen DJ, Padmanabhan A, Geier C. Cognitive Control and Motivation. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2013; 22:94-100. [PMID: 25574074 DOI: 10.1177/0963721413478416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is associated with heightened mortality rates due in large measure to negative consequences from risky behaviors. Theories of adolescent risk taking posit that immature cognitive control coupled with heightened reward reactivity drive adolescent risk-taking, yet surprisingly few empirical studies have examined these neurobiological systems together. In this paper, we describe a related series of studies from our laboratory aimed at further delineating the maturation of cognitive control through adolescence, as well as how rewards influence a key aspect of cognitive control, response inhibition. Our findings indicate that adolescents can exert adult-like control over their behavior, but that they have limitations regarding the consistency with which they can generate optimal responses compared to adults. Moreover, we demonstrate that the brain circuitry supporting mature cognitive (inhibitory) control is still undergoing development. Our work using the rewarded antisaccade task, a paradigm that enables concurrent assessment of rewards and inhibitory control, indicates that adolescents show delayed but heightened responses in key reward regions along with concurrent activation in brain systems that support behaviors leading to reward acquisition. Considered together, our results highlight adolescent-specific differences in the integration of basic brain processes that may underlie decision-making and more complex risk taking in adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Luna
- Deparment of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh ; Deparment of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh
| | | | | | - Charles Geier
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University
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67
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Padmanabhan A, Geier CF, Ordaz SJ, Teslovich T, Luna B. Developmental changes in brain function underlying the influence of reward processing on inhibitory control. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2013; 1:517-29. [PMID: 21966352 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aarthi Padmanabhan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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68
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Abstract
Adolescence is a critical transition period, during which fundamental changes prepare the adolescent for becoming an adult. Heuristic models of the neurobiology of adolescent behavior have emerged, promoting the central role of reward and motivation, coupled with cognitive immaturities. Here, we bring focus to two basic sets of processes, attention and conditioning, which are essential for adaptive behavior. Using the dual-attention model developed by Corbetta and Shulman (2002), which identifies a stimulus-driven and a goal-driven attention network, we propose a balance that favors stimulus-driven attention over goal-driven attention in youth. Regarding conditioning, we hypothesize that stronger associations tend to be made between environmental cues and appetitive stimuli, and weaker associations with aversive stimuli, in youth relative to adults. An attention system geared to prioritize stimulus-driven attention, together with more powerful associative learning with appetitive incentives, contribute to shape patterns of adolescent motivated behavior. This proposed bias in attention and conditioning function could facilitate the impulsive, novelty-seeking and risk-taking behavior that is typical of many adolescents.
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69
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Eldreth D, Hardin MG, Pavletic N, Ernst M. Adolescent Transformations of Behavioral and Neural Processes as Potential Targets for Prevention. PREVENTION SCIENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR PREVENTION RESEARCH 2013; 14:257-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s11121-012-0322-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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70
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Knox PC, Amatya N, Jiang X, Gong Q. Performance deficits in a voluntary saccade task in Chinese "express saccade makers". PLoS One 2012; 7:e47688. [PMID: 23091639 PMCID: PMC3472994 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Differences in behaviour and cognition have been observed in different human populations. It has been reported that in various types of complex visual task, eye movement patterns differ systematically between Chinese and non-Chinese participants, an observation that has been related to differences in culture between groups. However, we confirm here that, in healthy, naïve adult Chinese participants, a far higher proportion (22%) than expected (1-5%) exhibit a pattern of reflexive eye movement behaviour (high numbers of low latency express saccades) in circumstances designed to inhibit such responses (prosaccade overlap tasks). These participants are defined as "express saccade makers" (ESMs). We then show using the antisaccade paradigm, which requires the inhibition of reflexive responses and the programming and execution of voluntary saccades, that the performance of ESMs is compromised; they have higher antisaccade directional error rates, and the latency distributions of their error saccades again exhibit a higher proportion of low latency express saccade errors consistent with a reduced ability to inhibit reflexive responses. These results are difficult to reconcile with a cultural explanation as they relate to important and specific performance differences within a particular population. They suggest a potential unexpected confound relevant to those studies of Chinese versus other groups which have investigated group differences using oculomotor measures, and explained them in terms of culture. The confirmation of higher numbers of ESMs among Chinese participants provides new opportunities for examining oculomotor control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul C Knox
- Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
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71
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Saccadic eye movements in children: a developmental study. Exp Brain Res 2012; 222:21-30. [PMID: 22836522 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-012-3192-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
To our knowledge, there are no studies exploring the development of voluntary and reflexive saccades in children using different types of paradigms to investigate horizontal saccades. In the present study, we examined the development of horizontal saccades in children aged 6-15 years. Binocular eye movements were recorded using an infrared video-oculography system (mobileEBT(®), e(ye)BRAIN) in seventy-two children (aged 6-15). Several paradigms were used to stimulate reflexive and voluntary horizontal saccades: gap, step and overlap paradigms. Horizontal anti-saccades were also examined. In all paradigms, the latency of saccades decreased with the age of children and it did not depend on the direction of the saccades (left/right); the error rate in the anti-saccade task decreased with age; the gain of horizontal saccades improved with age; the peak velocity of horizontal saccades was stable throughout childhood. We conclude that saccadic performances are influenced by age and cortical circuits responsible for the preparation of reflexive or voluntary saccades are completed at 12 years old. These data could be used as reference values for further studies dealing with pathologic development.
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72
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Bonifacci P, Giombini L, Bellocchi S, Contento S. Speed of processing, anticipation, inhibition and working memory in bilinguals. Dev Sci 2012; 14:256-69. [PMID: 22213899 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00974.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Literature on the so-called bilingual advantage is directed towards the investigation of whether the mastering of two languages fosters cognitive skills in the non-verbal domain. The present study aimed to evaluate whether the bilingual advantage in non-verbal skills could be best defined as domain-general or domain-specific, and, in the latter case, at identifying the basic cognitive skills involved. Bilingual and monolingual participants were divided into two different age groups (children, youths) and were tested on a battery of elementary cognitive tasks which included a choice reaction time task, a go/no-go task, two working memory tasks (numbers and symbols) and an anticipation task. Bilingual and monolingual children did not differ from each other except for the anticipation task, where bilinguals were found to be faster and more accurate than monolinguals. These findings suggest that anticipation, which has received little attention to date, is an important cognitive domain which needs to be evaluated to a greater extent both in bilingual and monolingual participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Bonifacci
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
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73
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Hellmuth J, Mirsky J, Heuer HW, Matlin A, Jafari A, Garbutt S, Widmeyer M, Berhel A, Sinha L, Miller BL, Kramer JH, Boxer AL. Multicenter validation of a bedside antisaccade task as a measure of executive function. Neurology 2012; 78:1824-31. [PMID: 22573640 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0b013e318258f785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To create and validate a simple, standardized version of the antisaccade (AS) task that requires no specialized equipment for use as a measure of executive function in multicenter clinical studies. METHODS The bedside AS (BAS) task consisted of 40 pseudorandomized AS trials presented on a laptop computer. BAS performance was compared with AS performance measured using an infrared eye tracker in normal elders (NE) and individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia (n = 33). The neuropsychological domain specificity of the BAS was then determined in a cohort of NE, MCI, and dementia (n = 103) at UCSF, and the BAS was validated as a measure of executive function in a 6-center cohort (n = 397) of normal adults and patients with a variety of brain diseases. RESULTS Performance on the BAS and laboratory AS task was strongly correlated and BAS performance was most strongly associated with neuropsychological measures of executive function. Even after controlling for disease severity and processing speed, BAS performance was associated with multiple assessments of executive function, most strongly the informant-based Frontal Systems Behavior Scale. CONCLUSIONS The BAS is a simple, valid measure of executive function in aging and neurologic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hellmuth
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco, USA
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74
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Abstract
Inhibitory control and incentive processes underlie decision making, yet few studies have explicitly examined their interaction across development. Here, the effects of potential rewards and losses on inhibitory control in 64 adolescents (13- to 17-year-olds) and 42 young adults (18- to 29-year-olds) were examined using an incentivized antisaccade task. Notably, measures were implemented to minimize age-related differences in reward valuation and potentially confounding motivation effects. Incentives affected antisaccade metrics differently across the age groups. Younger adolescents generated more errors than adults on reward trials, but all groups performed well on loss trials. Adolescent saccade latencies also differed from adults across the range of reward trials. Overall, results suggest persistent immaturities in the integration of reward and inhibitory control processes across adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles F Geier
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, 120 South Henderson, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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75
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Is there a common control mechanism for anti-saccades and reading eye movements? Evidence from distributional analyses. Vision Res 2012; 57:35-50. [PMID: 22260785 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2012.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Revised: 12/30/2011] [Accepted: 01/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the saccadic literature, the voluntary control of eye movement involves inhibiting automatic saccadic plans. In contrast, the dominant view in reading is that linguistic processes trigger saccade planning. The present study explores the possibility of a common control mechanism, in which cognitively driven responses compete to inhibit automatic, perceptually driven saccade plans. A probabilistic model is developed to account for empirical distributions of saccadic response time in anti-saccade tasks (Studies 1 and 2) and fixation duration in reading and reading-like tasks (Studies 3 and 4). In all cases the distributions can be decomposed into a perceptually based component and a component sensitive to cognitive demands. Parametric similarities among the models strongly suggest a shared cognitive control mechanism between reading and other voluntary saccadic tasks.
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76
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Bowling AC, Hindman EA, Donnelly JF. Prosaccade errors in the antisaccade task: differences between corrected and uncorrected errors and links to neuropsychological tests. Exp Brain Res 2011; 216:169-79. [PMID: 22057780 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2921-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2011] [Accepted: 10/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The relations among spatial memory, Stroop-like colour-word subtests, and errors on antisaccade and memory-guided saccadic eye-movement trials for older and younger adults were tested. Two types of errors in the antisaccade task were identified: short latency prosaccade errors that were immediately corrected and longer latency uncorrected prosaccade errors. The age groups did not differ on percentages of either corrected or uncorrected errors, but the latency and time to correct prosaccade errors were shorter for younger than older adults. Uncorrected prosaccade errors correlated significantly with spatial memory accuracy and errors on the colour-word subtests, but neither of these neuropsychological indices correlated with corrected prosaccade errors. These findings suggest that uncorrected prosaccade errors may be a result of cognitive factors involving a failure to maintain the goal of the antisaccade task in working memory. In contrast, corrected errors may be a consequence of a fixation system involving an initial failure to inhibit a reflexive prosaccade but with active goal maintenance enabling correction to take place.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison C Bowling
- School of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, NSW 2450, Australia.
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77
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Kuhn G, Tewson L, Morpurgo L, Freebody SF, Musil AS, Leekam SR. Developmental Changes in the Control of Saccadic Eye Movements in Response to Directional Eye Gaze and Arrows. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2011; 64:1919-29. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2011.592592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We investigated developmental differences in oculomotor control between 10-year-old children and adults using a central interference task. In this task, the colour of a fixation point instructed participants to saccade either to the left or to the right. These saccade directions were either congruent or incongruent with two types of distractor cue: either the direction of eye gaze of a centrally presented schematic face, or the direction of arrows. Children had greater difficulties inhibiting the distractor cues than did adults, which revealed itself in longer saccade latencies for saccades that were incongruent with the distractor cues as well as more errors on these incongruent trials than on congruent trials. Counter to our prediction, in terms of saccade latencies, both children and adults had greater difficulties inhibiting the arrow than the eye gaze distractors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustav Kuhn
- Department of Psychology, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Lauren Tewson
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Lea Morpurgo
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | | | - Anna S. Musil
- Department of Psychology, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Susan R. Leekam
- Wales Autism Research Centre, School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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78
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Pel J, Does LVD, Boot F, Faber TD, Steen-Kant SVD, Willemsen S, Steen HVD. Effects of visual processing and congenital nystagmus on visually guided ocular motor behaviour. Dev Med Child Neurol 2011; 53:344-9. [PMID: 21166674 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2010.03857.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM The aim of this study was to compare visually guided ocular motor behaviour in children with visual processing and/or motor deficits with an age-matched comparison group and an adult group. METHOD Visual stimuli were shown to 28 children with visual processing and/or motor deficits (11 females, 17 males; mean age 7y 5mo, SD 2y 9mo, range 2-14y;) and an age-matched comparison group of 213 typically developing children (115 females, 98 males; mean age 5y 8mo, SD 3y 5mo, range 0-12y). The adult group consisted of nine females and two males with (mean age of 24y 4mo, SD 4y 8mo). Individuals who had a likely diagnosis of cerebral visual impairment (CVI), an opticopathy with unknown location, nystagmus, glaucoma, or a cataract were included in the study. Exclusion criteria were a visual acuity below 0.2, a developmental age under 1 year, and the presence of brain tumours, autism, and anxiety disorders. Orientating eye movements to large cartoons were quantified using the reaction time to fixation (RTF) and gaze fixation area (GFA). A Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the differences between groups and Bonferroni post-hoc testing was used to analyse age dependence of RTF and GFA values within the comparison group. RESULTS Individuals with CVI showed significantly prolonged RTF values; those with congenital nystagmus showed significantly increased GFA values. In the comparison group, RTF was significantly longer in children under the age of 2 years than in children aged 4 years and older (290 and 200 ms respectively; p < 0.001). No developmental change was found for GFA values. INTERPRETATION Increased RTF values in individuals with CVI relate to visual processing deficits. The data suggest that visually guided ocular motor responses mature during the first 3 years of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Pel
- Vestibular and Ocular Motor Research Group, Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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79
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Krause M, Mahant N, Kotschet K, Fung VS, Vagg D, Wong CH, Morris JGL. Dysexecutive behaviour following deep brain lesions--a different type of disconnection syndrome? Cortex 2011; 48:97-119. [PMID: 21546014 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2011.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The suppression of automatic prepotent behaviour in favour of more successful, more 'appropriate' behaviour is the primary function of the frontal lobe. Five frontal-subcortical circuits connect the frontal lobe to the basal ganglia and the thalamus. We report 17 patients with small lesions in the downstream structures of the frontal-subcortical circuits displaying severe dysexecutive behaviour. Positron emission tomography (PET) demonstrated hypometabolism of the frontal lobe in some of these patients. The literature on frontal lobe dysfunction after lesions in the basal ganglia and thalamus is discussed and the semiology of frontal lobe dysfunction in relation to the frontal-subcortical circuits is highlighted. Derived from our findings we suggest a disconnection syndrome of the frontal lobe caused by lesions in the downstream structures of the frontal-subcortical circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Krause
- Sydney Medical School-Nepean, University of Sydney, Nepean Hospital, Penrith, Australia.
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80
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Patterns of change in ocular motor development. Exp Brain Res 2011; 210:33-44. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2601-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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81
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Abstract
PURPOSE Given evidence of limitations in neuropsychological performance in epilepsy, we probed the integrity of components of cognition--including speed of processing, response inhibition, and spatial working memory--supporting executive function in pediatric epilepsy patients and matched controls. METHODS A total of 44 pairs of controls and medically treated pediatric epilepsy patients with no known brain pathology completed cognitive oculomotor tasks, computerized neuropsychological testing, and psychiatric assessment. KEY FINDINGS Patients showed slower reaction time to initiate a saccadic response compared to controls but had intact saccade accuracy. Cognitively driven responses including response inhibition were impaired in the patient group. Patients had increased incidence of comorbid psychopathology, but comorbidity did not predict worse functioning compared to patients with no Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Epilepsy type and medication status were not predictive of outcome. More complex neuropsychological performance was impaired in tasks requiring visual memory and sequential processing, which was correlated with inhibitory control and antisaccade accuracy. SIGNIFICANCE Pediatric epilepsy may be associated with vulnerabilities that specifically undermine speed of processing and response inhibition but not working memory, and may underlie known neuropsychological performance limitations. This particular profile of abnormalities may be associated with seizure-mediated compromises in brain maturation early in development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miya R Asato
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
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82
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Goepel J, Kissler J, Rockstroh B, Paul-Jordanov I. Medio-frontal and anterior temporal abnormalities in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) during an acoustic antisaccade task as revealed by electro-cortical source reconstruction. BMC Psychiatry 2011; 11:7. [PMID: 21226906 PMCID: PMC3025949 DOI: 10.1186/1471-244x-11-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent disorders in children and adolescence. Impulsivity is one of three core symptoms and likely associated with inhibition difficulties. To date the neural correlate of the antisaccade task, a test of response inhibition, has not been studied in children with (or without) ADHD. METHODS Antisaccade responses to visual and acoustic cues were examined in nine unmedicated boys with ADHD (mean age 122.44 ± 20.81 months) and 14 healthy control children (mean age 115.64 ± 22.87 months, three girls) while an electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded. Brain activity before saccade onset was reconstructed using a 23-source-montage. RESULTS When cues were acoustic, children with ADHD had a higher source activity than control children in Medio-Frontal Cortex (MFC) between -230 and -120 ms and in the left-hemispheric Temporal Anterior Cortex (TAC) between -112 and 0 ms before saccade onset, despite both groups performing similarly behaviourally (antisaccades errors and saccade latency). When visual cues were used EEG-activity preceding antisaccades did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION Children with ADHD exhibit altered functioning of the TAC and MFC during an antisaccade task elicited by acoustic cues. Children with ADHD need more source activation to reach the same behavioural level as control children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Goepel
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Johanna Kissler
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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83
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Abstract
This review article examines theoretical and methodological issues in the construction of a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Unlike most reviews of EF, which focus on preschoolers, this review focuses on studies that include large age ranges. It outlines the development of the foundational components of EF-inhibition, working memory, and shifting. Cognitive and neurophysiological assessments show that although EF emerges during the first few years of life, it continues to strengthen significantly throughout childhood and adolescence. The components vary somewhat in their developmental trajectories. The article relates the findings to long-standing issues of development (e.g., developmental sequences, trajectories, and processes) and suggests research needed for constructing a developmental framework encompassing early childhood through adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Best
- University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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84
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Abstract
This review article examines theoretical and methodological issues in the construction of a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Unlike most reviews of EF, which focus on preschoolers, this review focuses on studies that include large age ranges. It outlines the development of the foundational components of EF-inhibition, working memory, and shifting. Cognitive and neurophysiological assessments show that although EF emerges during the first few years of life, it continues to strengthen significantly throughout childhood and adolescence. The components vary somewhat in their developmental trajectories. The article relates the findings to long-standing issues of development (e.g., developmental sequences, trajectories, and processes) and suggests research needed for constructing a developmental framework encompassing early childhood through adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Best
- University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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85
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Bruno N, Knox PC, de Grave DDJ. A metanalysis of the effect of the Müller-Lyer illusion on saccadic eye movements: no general support for a dissociation of perception and oculomotor action. Vision Res 2010; 50:2671-82. [PMID: 20858510 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2010] [Revised: 09/10/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Milner and Goodale's (1995) proposal of a functional division of labor between vision-for-perception and vision-for-action is supported by neuropsychological, brain-imaging, and psychophysical evidence. However, there remains considerable debate as to whether, as their proposal would predict, the effect of contextual illusions on vision-for-action can be dissociated from that on vision-for-perception. Meta-analytical efforts examining the effect of the Müller-Lyer (ML) illusion on pointing (Bruno, Bernardis, & Gentilucci, 2008) or grasping (Bruno & Franz, 2009) have been conducted to resolve the controversy. To complement this work, here we re-analyzed 17 papers detailing 21 independent studies investigating primary saccades to target locations that were perceptually biased by the ML illusion. Using a corrected percent illusion effect measure to compare across different studies and across experimental conditions within studies, we find that saccadic eye movements are always strongly biased by the illusion although the size of this effect can be reduced by factors such as display duration and between-trials variability in display length and orientation, possibly due to a process of saccadic adaptation. In contrast to some reports, we find no general support for differences between voluntary and reflexive saccades or between saccades performed in conjunction with a pointing movement and saccades performed without pointing. We conclude that studies on the effect of the Müller-Lyer illusion do not provide evidence for a functional dissociation between primary saccades and perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Bruno
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università di Parma, Italy.
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86
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87
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Effects of response preparation on developmental improvements in inhibitory control. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2010; 134:253-63. [PMID: 20347061 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Revised: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 02/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies in adults indicate that response preparation is crucial to inhibitory control, but it remains unclear whether preparation contributes to improvements in inhibitory control over the course of childhood and adolescence. In order to assess the role of response preparation in developmental improvements in inhibitory control, we parametrically manipulated the duration of the instruction period in an antisaccade (AS) task given to participants from ages 8 to 31 years. Regressions showing a protracted development of AS performance were consistent with existing research, and two novel findings emerged. First, all participants showed improved performance with increased preparation time, indicating that response preparation is crucial to inhibitory control at all stages of development. Preparatory processes did not deteriorate at even the longest preparatory period, indicating that the youngest participants were able to sustain preparation at even the longest interval. Second, developmental trajectories did not differ for different preparatory period lengths, highlighting that the processes supporting response preparation continue to mature in tandem with improvements in AS performance. Our findings suggest that developmental improvements are not simply due to an inhibitory system that is faster to engage but may also reflect qualitative changes in the processes engaged during the preparatory period.
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88
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Jackson CPT, Miall RC, Balslev D. Spatially valid proprioceptive cues improve the detection of a visual stimulus. Exp Brain Res 2010; 205:31-40. [PMID: 20567807 PMCID: PMC2908745 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-010-2330-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2009] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Vision and proprioception are the main sensory modalities that convey hand location and direction of movement. Fusion of these sensory signals into a single robust percept is now well documented. However, it is not known whether these modalities also interact in the spatial allocation of attention, which has been demonstrated for other modality pairings. The aim of this study was to test whether proprioceptive signals can spatially cue a visual target to improve its detection. Participants were instructed to use a planar manipulandum in a forward reaching action and determine during this movement whether a near-threshold visual target appeared at either of two lateral positions. The target presentation was followed by a masking stimulus, which made its possible location unambiguous, but not its presence. Proprioceptive cues were given by applying a brief lateral force to the participant's arm, either in the same direction (validly cued) or in the opposite direction (invalidly cued) to the on-screen location of the mask. The d' detection rate of the target increased when the direction of proprioceptive stimulus was compatible with the location of the visual target compared to when it was incompatible. These results suggest that proprioception influences the allocation of attention in visual space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl P. T. Jackson
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Botterell Hall, Rm. 234, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6 Canada
- Behavioural Brain Sciences, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - R. Chris Miall
- Behavioural Brain Sciences, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Daniela Balslev
- Behavioural Brain Sciences, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre, Denmark
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89
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Luna B, Padmanabhan A, O'Hearn K. What has fMRI told us about the development of cognitive control through adolescence? Brain Cogn 2010; 72:101-13. [PMID: 19765880 PMCID: PMC2815087 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2009.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 524] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive control, the ability to voluntarily guide our behavior, continues to improve throughout adolescence. Below we review the literature on age-related changes in brain function related to response inhibition and working memory, which support cognitive control. Findings from studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) indicate that processing errors, sustaining a cognitive control state, and reaching adult levels of precision, persist through adolescence. Developmental changes in patterns of brain function suggest that core regions of the circuitry underlying cognitive control are on-line early in development. However, age-related changes in localized processes across the brain, and in establishing long range connections that support top-down modulation of behavior, more effective neural processing for optimal mature executive function. While great progress has been made in understanding the age-related changes in brain processes underlying cognitive development, there are still important challenges in developmental neuroimaging methods and the interpretation of data that need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Luna
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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90
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Geier CF, Terwilliger R, Teslovich T, Velanova K, Luna B. Immaturities in reward processing and its influence on inhibitory control in adolescence. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 20:1613-29. [PMID: 19875675 PMCID: PMC2882823 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhp225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The nature of immature reward processing and the influence of rewards on basic elements of cognitive control during adolescence are currently not well understood. Here, during functional magnetic resonance imaging, healthy adolescents and adults performed a modified antisaccade task in which trial-by-trial reward contingencies were manipulated. The use of a novel fast, event-related design enabled developmental differences in brain function underlying temporally distinct stages of reward processing and response inhibition to be assessed. Reward trials compared with neutral trials resulted in faster correct inhibitory responses across ages and in fewer inhibitory errors in adolescents. During reward trials, the blood oxygen level-dependent signal was attenuated in the ventral striatum in adolescents during cue assessment, then overactive during response preparation, suggesting limitations during adolescence in reward assessment and heightened reactivity in anticipation of reward compared with adults. Importantly, heightened activity in the frontal cortex along the precentral sulcus was also observed in adolescents during reward-trial response preparation, suggesting reward modulation of oculomotor control regions supporting correct inhibitory responding. Collectively, this work characterizes specific immaturities in adolescent brain systems that support reward processing and describes the influence of reward on inhibitory control. In sum, our findings suggest mechanisms that may underlie adolescents' vulnerability to poor decision-making and risk-taking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- C F Geier
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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91
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Velanova K, Wheeler ME, Luna B. The maturation of task set-related activation supports late developmental improvements in inhibitory control. J Neurosci 2009; 29:12558-67. [PMID: 19812330 PMCID: PMC2788337 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1579-09.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2009] [Revised: 07/16/2009] [Accepted: 09/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to voluntarily inhibit a single response is evident early in development, even as the ability to maintain an inhibitory "task set" continues to improve. To date, functional neuroimaging studies have detailed developmental changes in systems supporting inhibitory control exerted at the single-trial level, but changes underlying the ability to maintain an inhibitory task set remain little understood. Here we present findings from a functional magnetic resonance imaging study that characterizes the development of systems supporting both transient (trial-related) and sustained (task set-related) activation during performance of the antisaccade task-an oculomotor test of inhibitory control (Hallett, 1978). Transient activation decreased from childhood to adolescence in regions known to support inhibitory processes and oculomotor control, likely reflecting less effortful response production. In contrast, sustained activation increased to adulthood in regions implicated in control. Our results suggest that development of the ability to maintain a task set is primary to the maturation of inhibitory control and, furthermore, that this ability is still immature in adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Velanova
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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92
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Abstract
Understanding how immaturities in the reward system affect decision-making can inform us on adolescent vulnerabilities to risk-taking, which is a primary contributor to mortality and substance abuse in this age group. In this paper, we review the literature characterizing the neurodevelopment of reward and cognitive control and propose a model for adolescent reward processing. While the functional neuroanatomy of the mature reward system has been well-delineated, adolescent reward processing is just beginning to be understood. Results indicate that adolescents relative to adults demonstrate decreased anticipatory processing and assessment of risk, but an increased consummatory response. Such differences could result in suboptimal representations of reward valence and value and bias adolescent decision-making. These functional differences in reward processing occur in parallel with on-going structural and pharmacological maturation in the adolescent brain. In addition to limitations in incentive processing, basic cognitive control abilities, including working memory and inhibitory control, continue to mature during adolescence. Consequently, adolescents may be limited, relative to adults, in their abilities to inhibit impulsive behaviors and reliably hold 'on-line' comparisons of potential rewards/punishments during decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Geier
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States.
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93
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van Koningsbruggen MG, Pender T, Machado L, Rafal RD. Impaired control of the oculomotor reflexes in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 2009; 47:2909-15. [PMID: 19560476 PMCID: PMC2778793 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2008] [Revised: 06/09/2009] [Accepted: 06/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the role of the basal ganglia in integrating voluntary and reflexive behaviour, the current study examined the ability of patients with Parkinson's disease to voluntarily control oculomotor reflexes. We measured the size of the fixation offset effect (the reduction in saccadic reaction time when a fixation point is removed) during a block of pro- and a block of anti-saccades. Healthy controls showed the expected reduction of the FOE during the anti-saccades, which results from efforts to suppress reflexive eye movements (a preparatory set characterized by increased internal control and reduced external control). However, there was no reduction of the FOE in the anti-saccade task in Parkinson's patients, indicating that they are impaired in exerting control over oculomotor reflexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn G van Koningsbruggen
- Wolfson Center for Clinical and Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology, Bangor University, Bangor, United Kingdom.
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94
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Memory pointing in children and adults: dissociations in the maturation of spatial and temporal movement parameters. Exp Brain Res 2009; 196:319-28. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-009-1850-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Accepted: 05/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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95
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Feng G, Miller K, Shu H, Zhang H. Orthography and the Development of Reading Processes: An Eye-Movement Study of Chinese and English. Child Dev 2009; 80:720-35. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01293.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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96
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Peltsch A, Hemraj A, Garcia A, Munoz DP. Age-related trends in saccade characteristics among the elderly. Neurobiol Aging 2009; 32:669-79. [PMID: 19414208 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2008] [Revised: 02/02/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Eye movement recordings are useful for assessing neurological disorders, the prevalence of which increases with age. However, there is little rigorous quantitative data on describing oculomotor changes that occur during healthy aging. Here, we measured the ability of 81 normal elderly subjects (60-85 years) to perform two saccadic eye movement tasks: a pro-saccade task, requiring an automatic response to look towards a stimulus and an anti-saccade task, requiring inhibition of the automatic response to instead initiate a voluntary saccade away from the stimulus. Saccadic ability decreased with age: the oldest subjects were slower to initiate saccades and they made more direction errors (i.e., erroneous pro-saccades) in the anti-saccade task. Intra-subject variability in reaction time also correlated positively with age in both saccade tasks. Voluntary saccade control, as assessed by the anti-saccade task, was far more affected by aging than automatic control, as assessed by the pro-saccade task, suggesting that the mechanisms driving voluntary and automatic saccade performance deteriorate at different rates in the aging brain, and therefore likely involves different neural substrates. Our data provide insight into deficits due to normal brain changes in aging as well as a baseline to evaluate deficits caused by neurological disorders common in this age range.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Peltsch
- Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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97
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Oculomotor performance identifies underlying cognitive deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2009; 48:431-440. [PMID: 19238098 PMCID: PMC3045710 DOI: 10.1097/chi.0b013e31819996da] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate cognitive control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using oculomotor tests of executive function. METHOD Cross-sectional study of children aged 8 to 13 years with ADHD (n = 26) and controls (n = 33) used oculomotor tasks to assess sensorimotor function (visually guided saccades), resistance to peripheral distractors (fixation), response inhibition (antisaccades), and spatial working memory (memory-guided saccades). RESULTS All children had intact sensorimotor function and working memory. Children with ADHD showed susceptibility to peripheral distractors and deficits in response inhibition. Increased interstimulus (IS) fixation periods on the antisaccade task were associated with improved performance and decreased reaction times on correct trials for controls but not for children with ADHD. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-combined and inattentive subtypes showed different patterns of reaction time as a function of IS periods. CONCLUSIONS Response inhibition deficits in ADHD on oculomotor tasks are consistent with other studies. The failure of children with ADHD to use IS time to decrease response inhibition errors and reaction time suggests that IS time is not used to prepare a response. These findings highlight the importance of considering cognitive processing components affected by ADHD in addition to core behavioral symptoms, particularly in designing new treatment strategies.
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98
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Michel F, Anderson M. Using the antisaccade task to investigate the relationship between the development of inhibition and the development of intelligence. Dev Sci 2009; 12:272-88. [PMID: 19143800 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00759.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A number of authors have proposed models of cognitive development that explain improvements in intelligence over the course of childhood via changes in the efficiency of inhibitory processes (Anderson, 2001; Bjorklund & Harnishfeger, 1990; Dempster, 1991, 1992; Dempster & Corkill, 1999a; Harnishfeger, 1995; Harnishfeger & Bjorklund, 1993). A review of the literature reveals little empirical support for the thesis. This is largely due to a failure to distinguish between age-related and non-age-related changes in both inhibitory ability and intelligence. Empirical evidence is presented from a developmental study employing the antisaccade task to provide support for the role of inhibitory processes in the development of intelligence. Additionally, a case is made for a functional difference underlying antisaccade errors that are subsequently corrected and those that remain uncorrected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Michel
- School of Psychology, University of Western Australia, Australia.
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99
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Irving EL, Tajik-Parvinchi DJ, Lillakas L, González EG, Steinbach MJ. Mixed pro and antisaccade performance in children and adults. Brain Res 2009; 1255:67-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2008] [Revised: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 12/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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100
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Luna B. Developmental changes in cognitive control through adolescence. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2009; 37:233-78. [PMID: 19673164 PMCID: PMC2782527 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2407(09)03706-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Luna
- Laboratory of Neurocognitive Development, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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