Measurement of 240Pu/239Pu isotopic ratios in soils from the Marshall Islands using ICP-MS

Sources of plutonium in the atmosphere and stratosphere-troposphere mixing

Plutonium isotopes have primarily been injected to the stratosphere by the atmospheric nuclear weapon tests and the burn-up of the SNAP-9A satellite. Here we show by using published data that the stratospheric plutonium exponentially decreased with apparent residence time of 1.5 ± 0.5 years, and that the temporal variations of plutonium in surface air followed the stratospheric trends until the early 1980s. In the 2000s, plutonium and its isotope ratios in the atmosphere varied dynamically, and sporadic high concentrations of ^239,240Pu reported for the lower stratospheric and upper tropospheric aerosols may be due to environmental events such as the global dust outbreaks and biomass burning.

Pu isotopes in soils collected downwind from Lop Nor: regional fallout vs. global fallout

For the first time, soil core samples from the Jiuquan region have been analyzed for Pu isotopes for radioactive source identification and radiological assessment. The Jiuquan region is in downwind from the Lop Nor Chinese nuclear test (CNT) site. The high Pu inventories (13 to 546 Bq/m²) in most of the sampling locations revealed that this region was heterogeneously contaminated by the regional fallout Pu from the CNTs. The contributions of the CNTs to the total Pu in soils were estimated to be more than 40% in most cases. The ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu atom ratios in the soils ranged from 0.059 to 0.186 with an inventory-weighted average of 0.158, slightly lower than that of global fallout. This atom ratio could be considered as a mixed fingerprint of Pu from the CNTs. In addition, Pu in soils of Jiuquan region had a faster downward migration rate compared with other investigated places in China.

Vertical distribution and migration of global fallout Pu in forest soils in southwestern China

Soil samples collected in southwestern China were analyzed for Pu isotopes. The (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios were around 0.18, which indicated the dominant source of global fallout. Consistent sub-surface maximums followed by exponential decline of (239+240)Pu activities in the soil cores were observed. Most of the Pu has still remained in the 0-10 cm layers since its deposition. Convection velocities and dispersion coefficients for Pu migration in the soils were estimated by the convection-dispersion equation (CDE) model. The effective convection velocities and effective dispersion coefficients ranged from 0.05 to 0.11 cm/y and from 0.06 to 0.29 cm(2)/y, respectively. Other factors that control the vertical migration of Pu in soil besides precipitation, soil particle size distribution and organic matter were suggested. Long-term migration behaviors of Pu in the soils were simulated. The results provide the Pu background baseline for further environmental monitoring and source identification of non-global fallout Pu inputs in the future.

Release of Pu isotopes from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident to the marine environment was negligible

Atmospheric deposition of Pu isotopes from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident has been observed in the terrestrial environment around the FDNPP site; however, their deposition in the marine environment has not been studied. The possible contamination of Pu in the marine environment has attracted great scientific and public concern. To fully understand this possible contamination of Pu isotopes from the FDNPP accident to the marine environment, we collected marine sediment core samples within the 30 km zone around the FDNPP site in the western North Pacific about two years after the accident. Pu isotopes ((239)Pu, (240)Pu, and (241)Pu) and radiocesium isotopes ((134)Cs and (137)Cs) in the samples were determined. The high activities of radiocesium and the (134)Cs/(137)Cs activity ratios with values around 1 (decay corrected to 15 March 2011) suggested that these samples were contaminated by the FDNPP accident-released radionuclides. However, the activities of (239+240)Pu and (241)Pu were low compared with the background level before the FDNPP accident. The Pu atom ratios ((240)Pu/(239)Pu and (241)Pu/(239)Pu) suggested that global fallout and the pacific proving ground (PPG) close-in fallout are the main sources for Pu contamination in the marine sediments. As Pu isotopes are particle-reactive and they can be easily incorporated with the marine sediments, we concluded that the release of Pu isotopes from the FDNPP accident to the marine environment was negligible.

Vertical distributions of radionuclides ((239+240)Pu, (240)Pu/(239)Pu, and (137)Cs) in sediment cores of Lake Bosten in Northwestern China

Artificial radionuclides ((137)Cs, (239+240)Pu, (241)Pu, (241)Am) deposited in lacustrine sediments have been used for dating as well as radionuclide source identification. In the present work, we investigated the vertical distributions of (239+240)Pu and (137)Cs activities, (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios, and (239+240)Pu/(137)Cs activity ratios in sediment cores collected from Lake Bosten, which is the lake closest to the Lop Nor Chinese Nuclear Weapon Test site in northwestern China. Uniformly high concentrations of (239+240)Pu and (137)Cs were found in the upper layers deposited since 1964 in the sediment cores, and these were controlled by the resuspension of soil containing radionuclides from the nearby land surface. As the Chinese nuclear tests varied remarkably in yield, the mixing of the tropospheric deposition from these tests and the stratospheric deposition of global fallout has led to a (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio that is similar to that of global fallout and to a (239+240)Pu/(137)Cs activity ratio that is slightly higher than that of global fallout. However, a low (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio of 0.080 and high (239+240)Pu/(137)Cs activity ratio of 0.087, significantly different from the global fallout values, were observed in one sediment core (07BS10-2), indicating the inhomogenous tropospheric deposition from the Chinese nuclear tests in Lake Bosten during 1967-1973. These results are important to understand the influence of the CNTs on the radionuclide contamination in Lake Bosten.

Isotopic composition and distribution of plutonium in northern South China Sea sediments revealed continuous release and transport of Pu from the Marshall Islands

The (239+240)Pu activities and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios in sediments of the northern South China Sea and its adjacent Pearl River Estuary were determined to examine the spatial and temporal variations of Pu inputs. We clarified that Pu in the study area is sourced from a combination of global fallout and close-in fallout from the Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands where above-ground nuclear weapons testing was carried out during the period of 1952-1958. The latter source dominated the Pu input in the 1950s, as evidenced by elevated (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios (>0.30) in a dated sediment core. Even after the 1950s, the Pacific Proving Grounds was still a dominant Pu source due to continuous transport of remobilized Pu from the Marshall Islands, about 4500 km away, along the North Equatorial Current followed by the transport of the Kuroshio current and its extension into the South China Sea through the Luzon Strait. Using a simple two end-member mixing model, we have quantified the contributions of Pu from the Pacific Proving Grounds to the northern South China Sea shelf and the Pearl River Estuary are 68% ± 1% and 30% ± 5%, respectively. This study also confirmed that there were no clear signals of Pu from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident impacting the South China Sea.

The release and persistence of radioactive anthropogenic nuclides

Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons during the period 1945–1980 ushered in the ‘atomic age’ and released large quantities of anthropogenic radiogenic nuclides into the atmosphere. These radionuclides were subsequently deposited as fallout to the entire surface of the planet. While many have decayed to negligible levels, long-lived radionuclides persist and will do so for thousands of years. Isotopes of plutonium, 239Pu (half-life 24 100 years) and 240Pu (half-life 6563 years), provide the best chronological markers for the onset of this anthropogenic event both now and into the future due to their long half-lives, particle-reactivity, and the fact that they were present in negligible quantities prior to anthropogenic production and release. Chronostratigraphic markers established by distinct Pu concentration profiles and Pu isotope changes in sediment sequences and ice and coral cores can provide high-resolution dating over the last 60 years. However, even though fallout has ceased, it is found that the Pu inventory currently held in surface soil layers and the oceans will continue to supply Pu to sediment deposition zones for millennia and centuries, respectively. The delivery of this Pu will depend on soil erosion and bioturbation rates, and the rate of removal of dissolved Pu from the ocean.

A method of measurement of (239)Pu, (240)Pu, (241)Pu in high U content marine sediments by sector field ICP-MS and its application to Fukushima sediment samples

An accurate and precise analytical method is highly needed for the determination of Pu isotopes in marine sediments for the long-term marine environment monitoring that is being done since the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant accident. The elimination of uranium from the sediment samples needs to be carefully checked. We established an analytical method based on anion-exchange chromatography and SF-ICP-MS in this work. A uranium decontamination factor of 2 × 10(6) was achieved, and the U concentrations in the final sample solutions were typically below 4 pg mL(-1), thus no extra correction of (238)U interferences from the Pu spectra was needed. The method was suitable for the analysis of (241)Pu in marine sediments using large sample amounts (>10 g). We validated the method by measuring marine sediment reference materials and our results agreed well with the certified and the literature values. Surface sediments and one sediment core sample collected after the nuclear accident were analyzed. The characterization of (241)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios in the surface sediments and the vertical distribution of Pu isotopes showed that there was no detectable Pu contamination from the nuclear accident in the marine sediments collected 30 km off the plant site.

Plutonium concentration and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio in biota collected from Amchitka Island, Alaska: recent measurements using ICP-SFMS

Three underground nuclear tests, including the Unites States' largest, were conducted on Amchitka Island, Alaska. Monitoring of the radiological environment around the island is challenging because of its remote location. In 2008, the Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Legacy Management (LM) became responsible for the long term maintenance and surveillance of the Amchitka site. The first DOE LM environmental survey occurred in 2011 and is part of a cycle of activities that will occur every 5 years. The University of Alaska Fairbanks, a participant in the 2011 study, provided the lichen (Cladonia spp.), freshwater moss (Fontinalis neomexicanus), kelp (Eualaria fistulosa) and horse mussel (Modiolus modiolus) samples from Amchitka Island and Adak Island (a control site). These samples were analyzed for (239)Pu and (240)Pu concentration and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio using inductively coupled plasma sector field mass spectrometry (ICP-SFMS). Plutonium concentrations and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios were generally consistent with previous terrestrial and marine studies in the region. The ((239)+)(240)Pu levels (mBq kg(-1), dry weight) ranged from 3.79 to 57.1 for lichen, 167-700 for kelp, 27.9-148 for horse mussel, and 560-573 for moss. Lichen from Adak Island had higher Pu concentrations than Amchitka Island, the difference was likely the result of the higher precipitation at Adak compared to Amchitka. The (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios were significantly higher in marine samples compared to terrestrial and freshwater samples (t-test, p < 0.001); lichen and moss averaged 0.184 ± 0.007, similar to the integrated global fallout ratio, whereas kelp and mussel (soft tissue) averaged 0.226 ± 0.003. These observations provide supporting evidence that a large input of isotopically heavier Pu occurred into the North Pacific Ocean, likely from the Marshall Island high yield nuclear tests, but other potential sources, such as the Kamchatka Peninsula Rybachiy Naval Base and Amchitka Island underground nuclear test site cannot be ruled out.

Release of plutonium isotopes into the environment from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident: what is known and what needs to be known

The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident has caused serious contamination in the environment. The release of Pu isotopes renewed considerable public concern because they present a large risk for internal radiation exposure. In this Critical Review, we summarize and analyze published studies related to the release of Pu from the FDNPP accident based on environmental sample analyses and the ORIGEN model simulations. Our analysis emphasizes the environmental distribution of released Pu isotopes, information on Pu isotopic composition for source identification of Pu releases in the FDNPP-damaged reactors or spent fuel pools, and estimation of the amounts of Pu isotopes released from the FDNPP accident. Our analysis indicates that a trace amount of Pu isotopes (∼2 × 10(-5)% of core inventory) was released into the environment from the damaged reactors but not from the spent fuel pools located in the reactor buildings. Regarding the possible Pu contamination in the marine environment, limited studies suggest that no extra Pu input from the FDNPP accident could be detected in the western North Pacific 30 km off the Fukushima coast. Finally, we identified knowledge gaps remained on the release of Pu into the environment and recommended issues for future studies.

240Pu/239Pu mass ratio in environmental samples in Finland

The (240)Pu/(239)Pu mass ratio was determined with SF-ICP-MS in lichen, peat, grass, air filter, and hot particle samples obtained in Finland. The main part of the air filters were sampled in northern Finland in 1963, whereas all the other samples were collected in southern and central Finland immediately after the Chernobyl accident in 1986. The (240)Pu/(239)Pu mass ratio varied between 0.13 ± 0.01 and 0.53 ± 0.03 in the environmental samples analyzed. The values for the (240)Pu/(239)Pu ratio confirm previous estimations, based on the (238)Pu/(239+240)Pu alpha activity ratio in the same samples, that global fallout from nuclear weapons testing and deposition from the Chernobyl accident have been the main Pu contamination sources in the environment in Finland.

Plutonium in the WIPP environment: its detection, distribution and behavior

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is the only operating deep underground geologic nuclear repository in the United States. It is located in southeastern New Mexico, approximately 655 m (2150 ft) below the surface of the Earth in a bedded Permian evaporite salt formation. This mined geologic repository is designed for the safe disposal of transuranic (TRU) wastes generated from the US defense program. Aerosol and soil samples have been collected near the WIPP site to investigate the sources of plutonium in the WIPP environment since the late 1990s, well before WIPP received its first shipment. Activities of (238)Pu, (239+240)Pu and (241)Am were determined by alpha spectrometry following a series of chemical separations. The concentrations of Al and U were determined in a separate set of samples by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The annual airborne concentrations of (239+240)Pu during the period from 1998 to 2010 show no systematic interannual variations. However, monthly (239+240)Pu particulate concentrations show a typical seasonal variation with a maximum in spring, the time when strong and gusty winds frequently give rise to blowing dust. Resuspension of soil particles containing weapons fallout is considered to be the predominant source of plutonium in the WIPP area. Further, this work characterizes the source, temporal variation and its distribution with depth in a soil profile to evaluate the importance of transport mechanisms affecting the fate of these radionuclides in the WIPP environment. The mean (137)Cs/(239+240)Pu, (241)Am/(239+240)Pu activity ratio and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio observed in the WIPP samples are consistent with the source being largely global fallout. There is no evidence of any release from the WIPP contributing to radionuclide concentrations in the environment.

Spatial and temporal distribution of Pu in the Northwest Pacific Ocean using modern coral archives

Historical (239)Pu activity concentrations and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios were determined in skeletons of dated modern corals collected from three locations (Chuuk Lagoon, Ishigaki Island and Iki Island) to identify spatial and temporal variations in Pu inputs to the Northwest Pacific Ocean. The main Pu source in the Northwest Pacific is fallout from atmospheric nuclear weapons testing which consists of global fallout and close-in fallout from the former US Pacific Proving Grounds (PPG) in the Marshall Islands. PPG close-in fallout dominated the Pu input in the 1950s, as was observed with higher (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios (>0.30) at the Ishigaki site. Specific fallout Pu contamination from the Nagasaki atomic bomb and the Ivy Mike thermonuclear detonation at the PPG were identified at Ishigaki Island from the (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios of 0.07 and 0.46, respectively. During the 1960s and 1970s, global fallout was the major Pu source to the Northwest Pacific with over 60% contribution to the total Pu. After the cessation of the atmospheric nuclear tests, the PPG again dominated the Pu input due to the continuous transport of remobilised Pu from the Marshall Islands along the North Equatorial Current and the subsequent Kuroshio Current. The Pu contributions from the PPG in recent coral bands (1984 onwards) varied over time with average estimated PPG contributions between 54% and 72% depending on location.

Temporal record of Pu isotopes in inter-tidal sediments from the northeastern Irish Sea

A depth profile of (239)Pu and (240)Pu specific activities and isotope ratios was determined in an inter-tidal sediment core from the Esk Estuary in the northeastern Irish Sea. The study site has been impacted with plutonium through routine radionuclide discharges from the Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant in Cumbria, NW England. A pronounced sub-surface maximum of ~10 k Bq kg(-1) was observed for (239+240)Pu, corresponding to the peak in Pu discharge from Sellafield in 1973, with a decreasing trend with depth down to ~0.04 k Bq kg(-1) in the deeper layers. The depth profile of (239+240)Pu specific activities together with results from gamma-ray spectrometry for (137)Cs and (241)Am was compared with reported releases from the Sellafield plant in order to estimate a reliable sediment chronology. The upper layers (1992 onwards) showed higher (239+240)Pu specific activities than would be expected from the direct input of annual Sellafield discharges, indicating that the main input of Pu is from the time-integrated contaminated mud patch of the northeastern Irish Sea. The (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios ranged from ~0.03 in the deepest layers to >0.20 in the sub-surface layers with an activity-weighted average of 0.181. The decreasing (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio with depth reflects the changing nature of operations at the Sellafield plant from weapons-grade Pu production to reprocessing spent nuclear fuel with higher burn-up times in the late 1950s. In addition, recent annual (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios in winkles collected during 2003-2008 from three stations along the Cumbrian coastline showed no significant spatial or temporal differences with an overall average of 0.204, which supports the hypothesis of diluted Pu input from the contaminated mud patch.

Anomalous plutonium isotopic ratios in sediments of Lake Qinghai from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China

The vertical profiles of (239+240)Pu and (137)Cs activities and (240)Pu/(239)Pu isotopic ratios are determined for three sediment cores of Lake Qinghai from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China, and compared with those in sediments of another three lakes (Lakes Bosten, Sugan, and Shuangta), the only existing ones closest to Lop Nor area, China's nuclear weapons test site in the northwestern part of the country. The mean inventory of 47.7 ± 18.7 MBq km(-2) for (239+240)Pu activity in Lake Qinghai is comparable to the average value of global fallout expected at the same latitude, yet the mean inventory of 1112.0 ± 78.0 MBq km(-2) for (137)Cs is slightly lower than that of global fallout. Anomalously low (240)Pu/(239)Pu isotopic ratios (0.038-0.125) were found in the 3-6.5 cm deep sediment layers, indicating the trace Pu input from early nuclear weapons research activities at Atomic City in the lake's watershed during the 1950-60s. Model calculation indicated that the Pu input accounted for approximately 5-16% of the total Pu inventory. The observation of low (240)Pu/(239)Pu ratio in the deep sediment layer provided a new time marker for recent sediment dating in the lake and around the area. The results are of great significance to the further understanding of sources, records, and environmental impacts of global and regional nuclear activities in the environment and provide important chronological information for further studies on the water eutrophication process and climatic change, and reconstruction of pollution history of organic contaminants and heavy metals in the watershed of Lake Qinghai.

(137)Cs, (239+240)Pu concentrations and the (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio in a sediment core from the sub-aqueous delta of Yangtze River estuary

A sediment core collected from the sub-aqueous delta of the Yangtze River estuary was subjected to analyses of (137)Cs and plutonium (Pu) isotopes. The (137)Cs was measured using γ-spectrometry at the laboratories at the Nanjing University and Pu isotopes were determined with Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), measurements made at the Australian National University. The results show considerable structure in the depth concentration profiles of the (137)Cs and (239+240)Pu. The shape of the vertical (137)Cs distribution in the sediment core was similar to that of the Pu. The maximum (137)Cs and (239+240)Pu concentrations were 16.21 ± 0.95 mBq/g and 0.716 ± 0.030 mBq/g, respectively, and appear at same depth. The average (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio was 0.238 ± 0.007 in the sediment core, slightly higher than the average global fallout value. The changes in the (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios in the sediment core indicate the presence of at least two different Pu sources, i.e., global fallout and another source, most likely close-in fallout from the Pacific Proving Grounds (PPG) in the Marshall Islands, and suggest the possibility that Pu isotopes are useful as a geochronological tool for coastal sediment studies. The (137)Cs and (239+240)Pu inventories were estimated to be 7100 ± 1200 Bq/m(2) and 407 ± 27 Bq/m(2), respectively. Approximately 40% of the (239+240)Pu inventory originated from the PPG close-in fallout and about 50% has derived from land-origin global fallout transported to the estuary by the river. This study confirms that AMS is a useful tool to measure (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio and can provide valuable information on sedimentary processes in the coastal environment.

Plutonium isotopes concentration in seawater and bottom sediment off the Pacific coast of Aomori sea area during 1991-2005

A radioactivity survey was launched in 1991 to determine the background levels of ²³⁹+²⁴⁰Pu in the marine environment off a commercial spent nuclear fuel reprocessing plant before full operation of the facility. Particular attention was focused on the ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu atom ratio in seawater and bottom sediment to identify the origins of Pu isotopes. The concentration of ²³⁹+²⁴⁰Pu was almost uniform in surface water, decreasing slowly over time. Conversely, the ²³⁹+²⁴⁰Pu concentration varied markedly in the bottom water and was dependent upon the sampling point, with higher concentrations of ²³⁹+²⁴⁰Pu observed in the bottom water sample at sampling points having greater depth. The ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu atom ratio in the seawater and sediment samples was higher than that of global fallout Pu, and comparable with the data in the other sea area around Japan which has likely been affected by close-in fallout Pu originating from the Pacific Proving Grounds. The ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu atom ratio in bottom sediment samples decreased with sea depth. The land-originated Pu is not considered as the reason of the increasing ²³⁹+²⁴⁰Pu concentration and also decreasing the ²⁴⁰Pu/²³⁹Pu atom ratio with sea depth, and further study is required to clarify it.

Concentrations of 137Cs, 90Sr, 108m Ag, 239+240 Pu and atom ratio of 240Pu/239Pu in tanner crabs, Chionoecetes japonicus and Chionoecetes opilio collected around Japan

The anthropogenic radionuclides, (137)Cs, (90)Sr, (108m)Ag, (239+240)Pu, were measured in two Chionoecetes species, red queen crab (Chionoecetes japonicus) and snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) collected around Japan during 1996-2007. There was no increase in the concentrations of these radionuclides and no large variation of the atom ratio of (240)Pu/(239)Pu during this research period. These results indicated that the source of the radionuclides was not the radioactive wastes dumped by the former USSR and Russia and originated from past nuclear weapon tests. The higher atom ratio in the crab species than that from global fallout would be contributed by the Pacific Proving Grounds close-in fallout. The variability of the concentration of radionuclides in the crab species would result from the variability of the composition and quantity in the diet. However, the decrease in the concentration of radionuclides with sampling depth would depend on the concentration in the seawater and diet.

Characterization of plutonium in deep-sea sediments of the Sulu and South China Seas

Anthropogenic Pu isotopes are important geochemical tracers for sediment studies. Their distributions and sources in the water columns as well as the sediments of the North Pacific have been intensively studied; however, information about Pu in the Southeast Asian seas is limited. To study the isotopic composition of Pu, and thus to identify its sources, we collected sediment core samples in the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea during the KH-96-5 Cruise of the R/V Hakuho Maru. We analysed the activities of (239+240)Pu and the atom ratios of (240)Pu/(239)Pu using isotope dilution sector-field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SF-ICP-MS). The (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios in the sediments of both areas (inventory weighted mean: 0.251 for the South China Sea and 0.280 for the Sulu Sea) were higher than the global fallout value (0.178+/-0.019), suggesting the existence of Pu from the Pacific Proving Grounds in the North Pacific. Low inventories of (239+240)Pu in sediments were observed in the South China Sea (3.75 Bq/m(2)) and the Sulu Sea (1.38 Bq/m(2)). Most of the Pu input is still present in the water column. Scavenging and benthic mixing processes were considered to be the main processes controlling the distribution of Pu in the deep-sea sediments of both study areas.

Plutonium isotopes as tracers for ocean processes: a review

Since the first nuclear weapons tests in the 1940s, pulsed inputs of plutonium isotopes have served as excellent tracers for understanding sources, pathways, dynamics and the fate of pollutants and particles in the marine environment. Due to the well-defined spatial and temporal inputs of Pu, the long half-lives of (240)Pu and (239)Pu and its unique chemical properties, Pu is a potential tracer for various physical and biogeochemical ocean processes, including circulation, sedimentation and biological productivity, and hence a means of assessing the impacts of global climate change. Due to the source dependency of the Pu isotopic signature, plutonium isotopes are beginning to be exploited as tools for the evaluation and improvement of regional and global ocean models that will enhance understanding of past and future changes in the oceans. This paper addresses the major sources of Pu and the physical and biogeochemical behaviour in the marine environment. Finally, the use of Pu isotopes as tracers for various oceanic processes (e.g. water mass transport, particle export, and sedimentation) is considered.

Characterization of Pu concentration and its isotopic composition in a reference fallout material

Because there is no reference material for fallout plutonium isotope monitoring, preparation of such a material is necessary for quality control of fallout radionuclides analysis for atmospheric environmental studies. In this work, we report the characterization of Pu activity and its isotopic composition in a reference fallout material prepared by the Meteorological Research Institute (MRI), Japan. This material was prepared from samples collected at 14 stations throughout Japan in 1963-1979, with reference values of (137)Cs, (90)Sr and (239)(+)(240)Pu activities. We analyzed the activities of (239)(+)(240)Pu and (241)Pu, and the atom ratios of (240)Pu/(239)Pu and (241)Pu/(239)Pu using an isotope dilution sector-field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SF-ICP-MS). The (239)(+)(240)Pu activities in this fallout material using acid leaching and total digestion were 6.56+/-0.20 mBq/g and 6.79+/-0.16 mBq/g, respectively. Atom ratios of (240)Pu/(239)Pu were 0.1915+/-0.0030 and 0.1922+/-0.0044, respectively. Both (240)Pu/(239)Pu and (241)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios were slightly higher than those of global fallout, which could be attributed to the deposition of fallout radionuclides resulting from the Chinese nuclear weapons tests conducted in the 1970s. The dominant host phases of (239)(+)(240)Pu were found to be organic matter-sulfides (70%) with a relative high (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio, and Fe-Mn oxides (19%) using a sequential extraction method.

Characterization of Pu concentration and its isotopic composition in soils of Gansu in northwestern China

The total 239+240Pu activities and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in surface soil samples (0-5cm) in the Kumtag Desert in western Gansu Province, and in a soil core sample in Lanzhou were investigated using a sector-field ICP-MS. In the surface soil samples, 239+240Pu activities in fine particles (<150microm) were 1.3-2.1 times of those in coarse particles (150microm-1mm) which ranged from 0.005 to 0.157mBq/g. Atom ratios of 240Pu/239Pu in the surface soils ranged from 0.168 to 0.192 with a mean of 0.182+/-0.008. The mean ratio was similar to the typical global fallout value although the Kumtag Desert was believed to have received close-in fallout derived from Chinese nuclear weapons tests mainly conducted in the 1970s. Furthermore, the mean 240Pu/239Pu atom ratio observed in the soil core sample in Lanzhou was similar to the typical global fallout value. In the soil core sample, 239+240Pu activities in the various layers ranged from 0.012 to 0.23mBq/g, and the inventory of 239+240Pu (32.4Bq/m2, 0-23cm) was slightly lower than that expected from global fallout (42Bq/m2) at the same latitude. Rapid downward migration of Pu isotopes was observed in Lanzhou soil core sample layers. The contribution of the 10-cm deep top layers of surface soils to total inventory was only 17%, while the contribution of deeper layers (10-23cm) was as high as 83%. The 239+240Pu activity levels and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in soils in Gansu Province, China are similar to those in atmospheric deposition samples collected in the spring in recent years in Japan.

Determination of 240Pu/239Pu atom ratio in coastal surface seawaters from the western North Pacific Ocean and Japan Sea

Surface seawater samples were collected from a site in the vicinity of the nuclear fuel reprocessing facility at Rokkasho, Japan and sites along the Japan Sea coast. (239+240)Pu activities and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios were determined by alpha-spectrometry and isotope-dilution sector-field ICP-MS. The (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratio with the mean value of 0.227 +/- 0.006 was significantly higher than the mean global fallout ratio of 0.18. The contribution of the Pacific Proving Grounds close-in fallout was estimated to be 33% of the (239+240)Pu.

Preliminary evaluation of (135)Cs/(137)Cs as a forensic tool for identifying source of radioactive contamination

Ratios of the fission products (135)Cs and (137)Cs were determined in soil and sediment samples contaminated from three different sources, to assess the use of (135)Cs/(137)Cs as an indicator of source of radioactive contamination. Soil samples from the Chernobyl exclusion zone were found to have to be heavily depleted in (135)Cs ((135)Cs/(137)Cs approximately 0.45), indicative of a high thermal neutron flux at the source. Sludge samples from a nuclear waste treatment pond were found to have a (135)Cs/(137)Cs ratio of approximately 1, whereas sediment collected downstream from a nuclear reactor was highly variable in both (137)Cs activity and (135)Cs/(137)Cs ratio. Comparison of these preliminary results of variability in radiocaesium isotope ratios with reports of Pu isotope ratios suggests (135)Cs/(137)Cs similarly varies with fuel and reactor conditions, and may be used to corroborate other methods of characterizing radioactive contamination.

Application of ICP-QMS for the determination of plutonium in environmental samples for safeguards purposes

Aiming to determine the plutonium amount as well as its isotopic composition, in particular, in swipe samples for safeguards purposes, an analytical method was developed with a plutonium separation step based on extraction chromatography using 2 cm TEVA columns and detection with quadrupole ICP-MS applying an ultra-sonic nebulizer coupled with membrane desolvation system. The method was successfully applied to New Brunswick plutonium certified reference materials as well as to Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory round robin samples, based on the round robin samples provided by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (Belgium), as part of the Regular European Interlaboratory Measurement Evaluation Programme (REIMEP), campaign 16 (isotopic abundances of plutonium in plutonium nitrate samples), with a total plutonium amount between 1 and 0.25 ng per sample. After the introduction of an additional separation step, it was also possible to carry out precise and accurate total plutonium, (240)Pu/(239)Pu, (241)Pu/(239)Pu and (242)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios determination in sediment sample showing its applicability to environmental samples in general, reaching a detection limit equivalent to 5 mBq(239)Pu kg(-1).

Plutonium concentration and 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratio in liver of squid collected in the coastal sea areas of Japan

Plutonium isotopes, 239Pu and 240Pu, were measured in liver samples from Surume squid using a sector-field high resolution ICP-MS after radiochemical purification. Surume squid samples were obtained from nine landing ports in Japanese inshore during fishery season from September to December 2002. Concentrations of 239Pu and 240Pu ranged from 1.5 to 28 mBq kg(-1) and 1.1 to 24 mBq kg(-1), respectively. Plutonium (239,240Pu) concentrations in liver were several thousand times higher than levels found in seawater. The concentration factor (CF) compared to seawater for 239,240Pu and 13 other elements ranged from 10(0) to 10(7). The CF values for 239,240Pu, V and Th were 10(2)-10(4). Pu had an intermediate CF between conservative and scavenged elements. 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratios in the squid liver ranged from 0.177 to 0.237 which were slightly higher than 0.178+/-0.014 for global fallout. The variations of 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratios in ocean currents with different source functions are important for interpreting high 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratios in Surume squid liver. It seems likely that Pu with high 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratio is continuously transported through the solubilization and seawater transport from the North Equatorial Current to Kuroshio and its branch, Tsushima Current. By assuming that Pu found in Surume squid liver is a mixture of global fallout Pu (0.178) and close-in fallout Pu with high 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratio (0.30-0.36) around Bikini Atoll, Pu contribution from Bikini close-in fallout Pu accounts for close to 35% of the whole plutonium in Surume squid liver. These results highlight that Surume squid is a useful organism for evaluating environmental Pu levels of larger sea area and facilitate the development of models to understand oceanic transport of close-in fallout Pu from Bikini Atoll.

239+240Pu concentration and isotope ratio (240Pu/239Pu) in aerosols during high dust (Yellow Sand) period, Korea

Concentration and isotope ratio of Pu were analyzed for aerosols collected at Anmyeondo located in the western coast of Korea using multiple collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer equipped with desolvated micro-concentric nebulizer. Aerosols were collected from June 2001 to April 2002 using high volume air sampler. The samples consist of high dust samples (Yellow Sand), and also low dust samples; maximum Al concentration was 74.2 microg/m(3) and minimum was 0.17 microg/m(3). Pu was concentrated using 0.1 ml TEVA resin columns after conc. HNO(3) extraction. Isotope dilution using (242)Pu spike and mass bias correction using (233)U and (236)U mixed solution enabled the quantification of Pu and measurement of isotope ratio simultaneously. The contribution of (238)U from both spikes and samples was minimized by careful chemical separation and optimization of spike concentration. The (238)U(1)H and tail contribution on (239)Pu peak were about 0.75 x 10(-5) and 1 x 10(-5) of (238)U intensity, respectively, and they were corrected from (239)Pu using externally determined ((238)U(1)H + tailing)/(238)U ratio and (238)U measurement during acquisition. The detection limits of this analytical procedure were 0.61 fg/ml and 0.56 fg/ml for (239)Pu and (240)Pu, respectively (4 nBq/m(3) and 12 nBq/m(3) for (239)Pu and (240)Pu, respectively). The precision of isotope ratio measurement was better than 2% for larger quantity than 20 fg of (239)Pu. In spring, maximum concentration of 0.580 microBq/m(3) for (239)Pu and 0.404 microBq/m(3) for (240)Pu was observed when Al concentration was maximum, so called as Yellow Sand event. Pu concentrations in aerosols are well correlated with Al, a tracer of soil dust. The ratios of Pu/Al were 0.0082 (microBq/microg) and 0.0055 (microBq/microg) for (239)Pu/Al and (240)Pu/Al, respectively. Isotope ratios of Pu ((240)Pu/(239)Pu) in Yellow Sand samples show 0.191+/-0.014 close to those of global fallout. These facts indicate that Yellow Sand plays an important role in the behavior of Pu in the environment like other concomitant metals such as Al, Fe etc.

Plutonium isotopes in settling particles: transport and scavenging of Pu in the western Northwest Pacific

We examined the vertical distributions of 239+240Pu activity and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratio in settling particles and quantified the particulate 239+240Pu fluxes in the water column in the western Northwest Pacific. Settling particle samples were collected using sediment traps. Plutonium isotopes were analyzed using a sector field high-resolution ICP-MS. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that both Pu activity and Pu isotope ratio data have been obtained for settling particles in the Pacific Ocean. The high (>0.18) 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in settling particles indicate that plutonium from the Pacific Proving Grounds (PPG) source in the central Pacific is transported toward the western Northwest Pacific. Evidence indicates that Pu scavenging onto the settling particles is strongly dependent upon the bulk mass flux. The results suggest that advective lateral transport of dissolved Pu from the open ocean to the ocean margin and removal of Pu into the margin sediments by particle scavenging is a common phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean. Plutonium can be considered as a useful tracer to study the transport and fate of other contaminants that readily adsorb to particles in marine environments.

Vertical distributions of 239+240Pu activities and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in sediment cores: implications for the sources of Pu in the Japan Sea

The vertical distributions of 239+240Pu-specific activities and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in sediment cores of the Japan Sea were investigated. For comparison, the 239+240Pu-specific activities and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in the surface layer of bottom sediments in the Sea of Okhotsk were also determined. The 239+240Pu-specific activities in the surface layer sediments varied from 0.43 to 2.65 mBq/g in the Japan Sea. The lowest value was seen in the eastern Japan Basin, while the highest value was found in a sample collected from a coastal area off Hokkaido in the northern Japan Sea. It was found that the 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in the surface sediments for the Japanese side of the Japan Sea ranged from 0.15 to 0.22. The 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in the surface sediments collected from the Yamato Basin and Japan Basin were typically close to the global fallout value of 0.18, but higher 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios (0.20-0.22) were seen in samples from the northern Japan Sea. Vertical profiles of 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios revealed that these atom ratios were higher than the global fallout value in the deeper layers in the sediment cores from the northern Japan Sea on the Hokkaido coast and the Yamato Basin. In addition, the sediment cores from the northern Japan Sea near the Soya Strait and in the Ishikari Estuary had a constant vertical distribution of 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios with a value around 0.20. The results obtained in this work support the hypothesis that the prevailing ocean currents transported Pu derived from the Pacific Proving Grounds to the Japan Sea, and this contributed to the general elevated Pu inventory in the Japan Sea.

Wet and dry deposition patterns of plutonium in Daejeon, Korea

Plutonium in wet and dry deposition samples collected monthly at the Korea Institute of Nuclear Safety (KINS), Daejeon, Korea was determined during the period from January 2000 to August 2000. Monthly 239,240Pu deposition in Korea showed a maximum in the spring season (March to May), which was several times greater than that in Japan and corresponds to a seasonal cycle of soil dust fallout originating from the East Asian arid areas. The trajectory analysis of dust storms suggests that 239,240Pu deposition in Korea in spring is originating from plutonium-bearing surface soil particles from the East Asian arid areas. A significant part of the 239,240Pu deposition in spring in Korea is attributable to dry deposition.

Sediment core record of global fallout and Bikini close-in fallout Pu in Sagami Bay, Western Northwest Pacific margin

The total 239-240Pu activity and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratio in the sediments in Sagami Bay of the western Northwest Pacific margin were investigated using ICP-MS with a shield torch system. 239+240Pu inventories in the examined sediment cores were found to be much higher than those predicted from atmospheric global fallout (42 MBq/km2) at the same latitude. In addition, elevated 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios ranging from 0.22 to 0.28 were observed in the sediment samples. On the basis of the vertical profiles of 239+240Pu and characterized 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in a sediment core collected in the center of Sagami Bay, we identified two distinct sources of fallout Pu in the bay: the global stratospheric fallout with characteristic 240Pu/239Pu ratio of 0.18 and the transported close-in fallout derived from Bikini and Enewetak surface nuclear weapon test series in the 1950s. We propose that the Pu transportation was mainly due to oceanic processes (for example, through the North Equatorial Current and the Kuroshio Current). Using a two fallout end-member model, we find that the contribution of Bikini close-in fallout Pu ranged from 44 to 59% in Sagami Bay sediments. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report that Pu contamination, which originated from Bikini and Enewetak nuclear weapon test series in the 1950s, has extended westwards as far as the Japanese coast.

Rapid dating of recent sediments in Loch Ness: inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometric measurements of global fallout plutonium

The (239+240)Pu activity profile is determined for a sediment core collected from 170-m depth at Loch Ness, Scotland. These measurements use magnetic sector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry for rapid determination of Pu activities and (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios. A (239+240)Pu detection limit of 0.1 Bq/kg is obtained for 2 g of acid-leached sediment; (242)Pu is used as a spike isotope. The Pu activity profile exhibits a maximum of 42.7+/-0.3 Bq/kg (239+240)Pu in the 9-10-cm depth interval. The position of this maximum coincides with peaks in the (241)Am and (137)Cs activity profiles. These peak activities are ascribed to the 1963/1964 peak fallout from atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. The (240)Pu/(239)Pu atom ratios are in the range 0.15-0.20, in agreement with the expected range of 0.166-0.194 for Northern Hemisphere fallout, and do not suggest the presence of other contributing sources. This study demonstrates that ICPMS has considerable potential for rapid determination of the chronology of post-1950 sediments, and also for validating (210)Pb dates where chronologies over longer time-scales are needed.

Plutonium isotopes in seas around the Korean Peninsula

239+240Pu concentrations and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in coastal seas adjacent to the Korean Peninsula were determined, during the period 1999 to 2002, to assess the current distribution and to identify sources of Pu isotopes. 239+240Pu concentrations in surface waters ranged from 3.1 to 22.3 mBq m(-3) with higher concentrations in winter than in summer. 239+240Pu concentrations in seawaters around the Korean Peninsula are greater than that in the western North Pacific. 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios ranged from 0.18 to 0.33 with an average value of 0.25+/-0.03, which is significantly higher than the global fallout average. The 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios of the 2000 m deep entire water column in the south western part of the East Sea (Sea of Japan) was comparable to that observed in waters near Bikini Atoll. The higher 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios than that of global fallout may be explained by the hypothesis that the earlier input signal of low 240Pu/239Pu atom ratio (0.18-0.19) of global fallout plutonium in seas adjacent to the Korean Peninsula is being gradually diluted by the high 240Pu/239Pu atom ratio plutonium transported from the tropical Pacific Proving Grounds via prevailing ocean current.