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Sensing and responding to allergic response cytokines through a genetically encoded circuit. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1101. [PMID: 29062109 PMCID: PMC5653676 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01211-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While constantly rising, the prevalence of allergies is globally one of the highest among chronic diseases. Current treatments of allergic diseases include the application of anti-histamines, immunotherapy, steroids, and anti-immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies. Here we report mammalian cells engineered with a synthetic signaling cascade able to monitor extracellular pathophysiological levels of interleukin 4 and interleukin 13, two main cytokines orchestrating allergic inflammation. Upon activation of transgenic cells by these cytokines, designed ankyrin repeat protein (DARPin) E2_79, a non-immunogenic protein binding human IgE, is secreted in a precisely controlled and reversible manner. Using human whole blood cell culturing, we demonstrate that the mammalian dual T helper 2 cytokine sensor produces sufficient levels of DARPin E2_79 to dampen histamine release in allergic subjects exposed to allergens. Hence, therapeutic gene networks monitoring disease-associated cytokines coupled with in situ production, secretion and systemic delivery of immunomodulatory biologics may foster advances in the treatment of allergies. The standard treatment for an allergic response is anti-histamines, steroids and anti-IgE antibodies. Here the authors present a genetic circuit that senses IL-4 and IL-13 and responses with DARPin production to bind IgE.
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Sequeida A, Maisey K, Imarai M. Interleukin 4/13 receptors: An overview of genes, expression and functional role in teleost fish. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2017; 38:66-72. [PMID: 28988781 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2017.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In superior vertebrates, Interleukin 4 (IL-4) and Interleukin 13 (IL-13) play key and diverse roles to support immune responses acting on cell surface receptors. When stimulated, receptors activate intracellular signalling cascades switching cell phenotypes according to stimuli. In teleost fish, Interleukin 4/13 (IL-4/13) is the ancestral family cytokine related to both IL-4 and IL-13. Every private and common receptor subunit for IL-4/13 have in fish at least two paralogues and, as in mammals, soluble forms are also part of the receptor system. Reports for findings of fish IL-4/13 receptors have covered comparative analysis, transcriptomic profiles and to a lesser extent, functional analysis regarding ligand-receptor interactions and their biological effects. This review addresses available information from fish IL-4/13 receptors and discusses overall implications on teleost immunity, summarized gene induction strategies and pathogen-induced gene modulation, which may be useful tools to enhance immune response. Additionally, we present novel coding sequences for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) common gamma chain receptor (γC), Interleukin 13 receptor alpha 1A chain (IL-13Rα1A) and Interleukin 13 receptor alpha 1B chain (IL-13Rα1B).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sequeida
- Laboratory of Immunology, Center for Aquatic Biotechnology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, University of Santiago of Chile, Av. Bernardo O'Higgins, 3363 Santiago, Chile
| | - K Maisey
- Laboratory of Immunology, Center for Aquatic Biotechnology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, University of Santiago of Chile, Av. Bernardo O'Higgins, 3363 Santiago, Chile; Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, Center for Aquatic Biotechnology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, University of Santiago of Chile,Av. Bernardo O'Higgins, 3363 Santiago, Chile
| | - M Imarai
- Laboratory of Immunology, Center for Aquatic Biotechnology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, University of Santiago of Chile, Av. Bernardo O'Higgins, 3363 Santiago, Chile.
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Diogo GR, Sparrow A, Paul MJ, Copland A, Hart PJ, Stelter S, van Dolleweerd C, Drake PMW, Macallan DC, Reljic R. Murine IL-4Δ2 splice variant down-regulates IL-4 activities independently of IL-4Rα binding and STAT-6 phosphorylation. Cytokine 2017; 99:154-162. [PMID: 28917204 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
IL-4 is a pleiotropic cytokine that is highly Th2 polarizing. The ratio of IL-4 and its splice variant IL-4Δ2 observed in human health and disease suggests a role for both isoforms. In the present study, the biological function of murine IL-4Δ2 and the potential mechanism of action were studied. We report for the first time the generation of a functional, recombinant murine IL-4Δ2 form which is suggestive of its possible biological role in this species. Recombinant murine IL-4Δ2 inhibited IL-4 mediated cellular processes in macrophages and lymphocytes. Specifically, (i) it reversed IL-4 mediated inhibition of IFN-γ induced nitric oxide release by macrophages, (ii) inhibited IL-4 mediated induction of T cell proliferation, and (iii) prevented IL-4 stimulation of IgE synthesis by B cells. However, IL-4Δ2 did not compete with IL-4 for IL-4Rα binding and did not interfere with the downstream STAT-6 phosphorylation in T cells, suggesting an alternative mechanism for its antagonism of specific IL4-driven effects. These findings suggest that the mouse is a suitable experimental model for studies of the biology of IL-4 and its alternative splice variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil R Diogo
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Adam Sparrow
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Matthew J Paul
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Alastair Copland
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Peter J Hart
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Szymon Stelter
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Craig van Dolleweerd
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Pascal M W Drake
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Derek C Macallan
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK
| | - Rajko Reljic
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrace, SW17 0RE London, UK.
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Tsianakas A, Luger TA. Dupilumab Use in Atopic Conditions and Its Side Effects. CURRENT DERMATOLOGY REPORTS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13671-017-0179-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Arouche-Delaperche L, Allenbach Y, Amelin D, Preusse C, Mouly V, Mauhin W, Tchoupou GD, Drouot L, Boyer O, Stenzel W, Butler-Browne G, Benveniste O. Pathogenic role of anti-signal recognition protein and anti-3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase antibodies in necrotizing myopathies: Myofiber atrophy and impairment of muscle regeneration in necrotizing autoimmune myopathies. Ann Neurol 2017; 81:538-548. [DOI: 10.1002/ana.24902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Louiza Arouche-Delaperche
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
| | - Yves Allenbach
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
- Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, University Hospital Department of Inflammation, Immunopathology, and Biotherapy, Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Public Hospital Network of Paris; Paris France
| | - Damien Amelin
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
| | - Corinna Preusse
- Department of Neuropathology; Charité-Universitätsmedizin; Berlin Germany
| | - Vincent Mouly
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
| | - Wladimir Mauhin
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
| | - Gaelle Dzangue Tchoupou
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
| | - Laurent Drouot
- Department of Immunology; University of Normandy UNIROUEN, National Institute of Health and Medical Research U1234, Rouen University Hospital; Rouen France
| | - Olivier Boyer
- Department of Immunology; University of Normandy UNIROUEN, National Institute of Health and Medical Research U1234, Rouen University Hospital; Rouen France
| | - Werner Stenzel
- Department of Neuropathology; Charité-Universitätsmedizin; Berlin Germany
| | - Gillian Butler-Browne
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
| | - Olivier Benveniste
- Pierre and Marie Curie University, Sorbonne Universities, National Institute of Health and Medical Research, National Center for Scientific Research, Myology Research Center; Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Paris France
- Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, University Hospital Department of Inflammation, Immunopathology, and Biotherapy, Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital; Public Hospital Network of Paris; Paris France
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Di Mise A, Wang YX, Zheng YM. Role of Transcription Factors in Pulmonary Artery Smooth Muscle Cells: An Important Link to Hypoxic Pulmonary Hypertension. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 967:13-32. [PMID: 29047078 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-63245-2_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxia, namely a lack of oxygen in the blood, induces pulmonary vasoconstriction and vasoremodeling, which serve as essential pathologic factors leading to pulmonary hypertension (PH). The underlying molecular mechanisms are uncertain; however, pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) play an essential role in hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction, vasoremodeling, and PH. Hypoxia causes oxidative damage to DNAs, proteins, and lipids. This damage (oxidative stress) modulates the activity of ion channels and elevates the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i, Ca2+ signaling) of PASMCs. The oxidative stress and increased Ca2+ signaling mutually interact with each other, and synergistically results in a variety of cellular responses. These responses include functional and structural abnormalities of mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and nucleus; cell contraction, proliferation, migration, and apoptosis, as well as generation of vasoactive substances, inflammatory molecules, and growth factors that mediate the development of PH. A number of studies reveal that various transcription factors (TFs) play important roles in hypoxia-induced oxidative stress, disrupted PAMSC Ca2+ signaling and the development and progress of PH. It is believed that in the pathogenesis of PH, hypoxia facilitates these roles by mediating the expression of multiple genes. Therefore, the identification of specific genes and their transcription factors implicated in PH is necessary for the complete understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms. Moreover, this identification may aid in the development of novel and effective therapeutic strategies for PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarita Di Mise
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Physiology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Yong-Xiao Wang
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Physiology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY, 12208, USA.
| | - Yun-Min Zheng
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Physiology, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY, 12208, USA.
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Schachner L, Han G, Dillon M, Zhou J, McCarty L, Ellerman D, Yin Y, Spiess C, Lill JR, Carter PJ, Sandoval W. Characterization of Chain Pairing Variants of Bispecific IgG Expressed in a Single Host Cell by High-Resolution Native and Denaturing Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2016; 88:12122-12127. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Schachner
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Guanghui Han
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Michael Dillon
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Jianhui Zhou
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Luke McCarty
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Diego Ellerman
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Yiyuan Yin
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Christoph Spiess
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Jennie R. Lill
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Paul J. Carter
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Wendy Sandoval
- Departments of Proteomics & Biological Resources, ‡Antibody Engineering, and §Protein Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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Palamides P, Jodeleit H, Föhlinger M, Beigel F, Herbach N, Mueller T, Wolf E, Siebeck M, Gropp R. A mouse model for ulcerative colitis based on NOD-scid IL2R γnull mice reconstituted with peripheral blood mononuclear cells from affected individuals. Dis Model Mech 2016; 9:985-97. [PMID: 27491073 PMCID: PMC5047691 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.025452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models reflective of ulcerative colitis (UC) remain a major challenge, and yet are crucial to understand mechanisms underlying the onset of disease and inflammatory characteristics of relapses and remission. Mouse models in which colitis-like symptoms are induced through challenge with toxins such as oxazolone, dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) or 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) have been instrumental in understanding the inflammatory processes of UC. However, these neither reflect the heterogeneous symptoms observed in the UC-affected population nor can they be used to test the efficacy of inhibitors developed against human targets where high sequence and structural similarity of the respective ligands is lacking. In an attempt to overcome these problems, we have developed a mouse model that relies on NOD-scid IL2R γnull mice reconstituted with peripheral blood mononuclear cells derived from UC-affected individuals. Upon challenge with ethanol, mice developed colitis-like symptoms and changes in the colon architecture, characterized by influx of inflammatory cells, edema, crypt loss, crypt abscesses and epithelial hyperplasia, as previously observed in immune-competent mice. TARC, TGFβ1 and HGF expression increased in distal parts of the colon. Analysis of human leucocytes isolated from mouse spleen revealed an increase in frequencies of CD1a+, CD64+, CD163+ and TSLPR+ CD14+ monocytes, and antigen-experienced CD44+ CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells in response to ethanol. Analysis of human leucocytes from the colon of challenged mice identified CD14+ monocytes and CD11b+ monocytes as the predominant populations. Quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR) analysis from distal parts of the colon indicated that IFNγ might be one of the cytokines driving inflammation. Treatment with infliximab ameliorated symptoms and pathological manifestations, whereas pitrakinra had no therapeutic benefit. Thus, this model is partially reflective of the human disease and might help to increase the translation of animal and clinical studies. Summary: The phenotype and colitis-like symptoms induced in NSG mice reconstituted with PBMCs derived from ulcerative-colitis-affected donors reflect the human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Palamides
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Gene Center, LMU Munich, Munich 81377, Germany Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis (LAFUGA), Gene Center, LMU Munich, Munich 81377, Germany
| | - Henrika Jodeleit
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Gene Center, LMU Munich, Munich 81377, Germany Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis (LAFUGA), Gene Center, LMU Munich, Munich 81377, Germany
| | - Michael Föhlinger
- Department of General- Visceral-, and Transplantation Surgery, Hospital of the University of Munich, Nussbaumstr. 20, Munich 80336, Germany
| | - Florian Beigel
- Department of Medicine II-Grosshadern, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Nadja Herbach
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Mueller
- Julius von Sachs Institute, University of Würzburg, Würzburg 97082, Germany
| | - Eckhard Wolf
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Gene Center, LMU Munich, Munich 81377, Germany Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis (LAFUGA), Gene Center, LMU Munich, Munich 81377, Germany
| | - Matthias Siebeck
- Department of General- Visceral-, and Transplantation Surgery, Hospital of the University of Munich, Nussbaumstr. 20, Munich 80336, Germany
| | - Roswitha Gropp
- Department of General- Visceral-, and Transplantation Surgery, Hospital of the University of Munich, Nussbaumstr. 20, Munich 80336, Germany
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Interleukin-4 receptor signaling and its binding mechanism: A therapeutic insight from inhibitors tool box. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2016; 32:3-15. [PMID: 27165851 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Studies on Interlukin-4 (IL-4) disclosed great deal of information about its various physiological and pathological roles. All these roles depend upon its interaction and signaling through either type-I (IL-4Rα/common γ-chain) or type-II (IL-4Rα/IL-13Rα) receptors. Another cytokine, IL-13, shares some of the functions of IL-4, because both cytokines use a common receptor subunit, IL-4Rα. Here in this review, we discuss the structural details of IL-4 and IL-4Rα subunit and the structural similarities between IL-4 and IL-13. We also describe detailed chemistry of type-I and type-II receptor complexes and their signaling pathways. Furthermore, we elaborate the strength of type-II hetero dimer signals in response to IL-4 and IL-13. These cytokines are prime players in pathogenesis of allergic asthma, allergic hypersensitivity, different cancers, and HIV infection. Recent advances in the structural and binding chemistry of these cytokines various types of inhibitors were designed to block the interaction of IL-4 and IL-13 with their receptor, including several IL-4 mutant analogs and IL-4 antagonistic antibodies. Moreover, different targeted immunotoxins, which is a fusion of cytokine protein with a toxin or suicidal gene, are the new class of inhibitors to prevent cancer progression. In addition few small molecular inhibitors such as flavonoids have also been developed which are capable of binding with high affinity to IL-4Rα and, therefore, can be very effective in blocking IL-4-mediated responses.
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Romero R, Grivel JC, Tarca AL, Chaemsaithong P, Xu Z, Fitzgerald W, Hassan SS, Chaiworapongsa T, Margolis L. Evidence of perturbations of the cytokine network in preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2015; 213:836.e1-836.e18. [PMID: 26232508 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2015.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Revised: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Intraamniotic inflammation/infection is the only mechanism of disease with persuasive evidence of causality for spontaneous preterm labor/delivery. Previous studies about the behavior of cytokines in preterm labor have been largely based on the analysis of the behavior of each protein independently. Emerging evidence indicates that the study of biologic networks can provide insight into the pathobiology of disease and improve biomarker discovery. The goal of this study was to characterize the inflammatory-related protein network in the amniotic fluid of patients with preterm labor. STUDY DESIGN A retrospective cohort study was conducted that included women with singleton pregnancies who had spontaneous preterm labor and intact membranes (n = 135). These patients were classified according to the results of amniotic fluid culture, broad-range polymerase chain reaction coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and amniotic fluid concentration of interleukin (IL)-6 into the following groups: (1) those without intraamniotic inflammation (n = 85), (2) those with microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation (n = 15), and (3) those with intraamniotic inflammation without detectable bacteria (n = 35). Amniotic fluid concentrations of 33 inflammatory-related proteins were determined with the use of a multiplex bead array assay. RESULTS Patients with preterm labor and intact membranes who had microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation had a higher amniotic fluid inflammatory-related protein concentration correlation than those without intraamniotic inflammation (113 perturbed correlations). IL-1β, IL-6, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, and IL-1α were the most connected nodes (highest degree) in this differential correlation network (degrees of 20, 16, 12, and 12, respectively). Patients with sterile intraamniotic inflammation had correlation patterns of inflammatory-related proteins, both increased and decreased, when compared to those without intraamniotic inflammation (50 perturbed correlations). IL-1α, MIP-1α, and IL-1β were the most connected nodes in this differential correlation network (degrees of 12, 10, and 7, respectively). There were more coordinated inflammatory-related protein concentrations in the amniotic fluid of women with microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation than in those with sterile intraamniotic inflammation (60 perturbed correlations), with IL-4 and IL-33 having the largest number of perturbed correlations (degrees of 15 and 13, respectively). CONCLUSIONS We report for the first time an analysis of the inflammatory-related protein network in spontaneous preterm labor. Patients with preterm labor and microbial-associated intraamniotic inflammation had more coordinated amniotic fluid inflammatory-related proteins than either those with sterile intraamniotic inflammation or those without intraamniotic inflammation. The correlations were also stronger in patients with sterile intraamniotic inflammation than in those without intraamniotic inflammation. The findings herein could be of value in the development of biomarkers of preterm labor.
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Targeting IL4/IL4R for the treatment of epithelial cancer metastasis. Clin Exp Metastasis 2015; 32:847-56. [PMID: 26385103 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-015-9747-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
While progress has been made in treating primary epithelial tumors, metastatic tumors remain largely incurable and still account for 85-90 % of all cancer-related deaths. Interleukin-4 (IL4), a Th2 cytokine, and the IL4/IL4 receptor (IL4R) interaction have well defined roles in the immune system. Yet, IL4 receptors are over-expressed by many epithelial cancers and could be a promising target for metastatic tumor therapy. The IL4/IL4R signaling axis is a strong promoter of pro-metastatic phenotypes in epithelial cancer cells including enhanced migration, invasion, survival, and proliferation. The promotion of breast cancer growth specifically is also supported in part by IL4-induced glutamine metabolism, and we have shown that IL4 is also capable of inducing glucose metabolism in breast cancer cells. Importantly, there are several types of FDA approved medications for use in asthma patients that inhibit the IL4/IL4R signaling axis. However, these approved medications inhibit both the type I IL4 receptor found on immune cells, and the type II IL4 receptor that is predominantly expressed by some non-hematopoietic cells including epithelial cancer cells. This article reviews existing therapies targeting IL4, IL4R, or IL4/IL4R signaling, and recent findings guiding the creation of novel therapies that specifically inhibit the type II IL4R, while taking into consideration effects on immune cells within the tumor microenvironment. Some of these therapies are currently in clinical trials for cancer patients, and may be exploitable for the treatment of metastatic disease.
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Lin Y, Chen Z, Kato S. Receptor-selective IL-4 mutein modulates inflammatory vascular cell phenotypes and attenuates atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-knockout mice. Exp Mol Pathol 2015; 99:116-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2015.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Franco R, Fernández-Suárez D. Alternatively activated microglia and macrophages in the central nervous system. Prog Neurobiol 2015; 131:65-86. [PMID: 26067058 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 495] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are important players in the fight against viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections. From a resting state they may undertake two activation pathways, the classical known as M1, or the alternative known as M2. M1 markers are mostly mediators of pro-inflammatory responses whereas M2 markers emerge for resolution and cleanup. Microglia exerts in the central nervous system (CNS) a function similar to that of macrophages in the periphery. Microglia activation and proliferation occurs in almost any single pathology affecting the CNS. Often microglia activation has been considered detrimental and drugs able to stop microglia activation were considered for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Cumulative evidence shows that microglia may undergo the alternative activation pathway, express M2-type markers and contribute to neuroprotection. This review focuses on details about the role of M2 microglia and in the approaches available for its identification. Approaches to drive the M2 phenotype and data on its potential in CNS diseases are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Franco
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red: Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Spain.
| | - Diana Fernández-Suárez
- Division of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Chi L, Na MH, Jung HK, Vadevoo SMP, Kim CW, Padmanaban G, Park TI, Park JY, Hwang I, Park KU, Liang F, Lu M, Park J, Kim IS, Lee BH. Enhanced delivery of liposomes to lung tumor through targeting interleukin-4 receptor on both tumor cells and tumor endothelial cells. J Control Release 2015; 209:327-36. [PMID: 25979323 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.05.260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence suggests that pathological lesions express tissue-specific molecular targets or biomarkers within the tissue. Interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R) is overexpressed in many types of cancer cells, including lung cancer. Here we investigated the properties of IL-4R-binding peptide-1 (IL4RPep-1), a CRKRLDRNC peptide, and its ability to target the delivery of liposomes to lung tumor. IL4RPep-1 preferentially bound to H226 lung tumor cells which express higher levers of IL-4R compared to H460 lung tumor cells which express less IL-4R. Mutational analysis revealed that C1, R2, and R4 residues of IL4RPep-1 were the key binding determinants. IL4RPep-1-labeled liposomes containing doxorubicin were more efficiently internalized in H226 cells and effectively delivered doxorubicin into the cells compared to unlabeled liposomes. In vivo fluorescence imaging of nude mice subcutaneously xenotransplanted with H226 tumor cells indicated that IL4RPep-1-labeled liposomes accumulate more efficiently in the tumor and inhibit tumor growth more effectively compared to unlabeled liposomes. Interestingly, expression of IL-4R was high in vascular endothelial cells of tumor, while little was detected in vascular endothelial cells of control organs including the liver. IL-4R expression in cultured human vascular endothelial cells was also up-regulated when activated by a pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α. Moreover, the up-regulation of IL-4R expression was observed in primary human lung cancer tissues. These results indicate that IL-4R-targeting nanocarriers may be a useful strategy to enhance drug delivery through the recognition of IL-4R in both tumor cells and tumor endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianhua Chi
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; CMRI, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon-Hee Na
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Kyung Jung
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; CMRI, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Sri Murugan Poongkavithai Vadevoo
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; CMRI, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheong-Wun Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; CMRI, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Guruprasath Padmanaban
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; CMRI, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-In Park
- Department of Pathology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Yong Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Ilseon Hwang
- Dongsan Medical Center, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Keon Uk Park
- Dongsan Medical Center, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Frank Liang
- Industrial Technology Research Institute, HsinChu, Taiwan
| | - Maggie Lu
- Industrial Technology Research Institute, HsinChu, Taiwan
| | - Jiho Park
- Department of Bio and Brain engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - In-San Kim
- Biomedical Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung-Heon Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Department of Biomedical Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea; CMRI, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.
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Gandhi H, Worch R, Kurgonaite K, Hintersteiner M, Schwille P, Bökel C, Weidemann T. Dynamics and interaction of interleukin-4 receptor subunits in living cells. Biophys J 2014; 107:2515-27. [PMID: 25468331 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2014.07.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It has long been established that dimerization of Interleukin-4 receptor (IL-4R) subunits is a pivotal step for JAK/STAT signal transduction. However, ligand-induced complex formation at the surface of living cells has been challenging to observe. Here we report an experimental assay employing trisNTA dyes for orthogonal, external labeling of eGFP-tagged receptor constructs that allows the quantification of receptor heterodimerization by dual-color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy. Fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy analysis at the plasma membrane shows that IL-4R subunit dimerization is indeed a strictly ligand-induced process. Under conditions of saturating cytokine occupancy, we determined intramembrane dissociation constants (K(d,2D)) of 180 and 480 receptors per μm(2) for the type-2 complexes IL-4:IL-4Rα/IL-13Rα1 and IL-13:IL-13Rα1/IL-4Rα, respectively. For the lower affinity type-1 complex IL-4:IL-4Rα/IL-2Rγ, we estimated a K(d,2D) of ∼1000 receptors per μm(2). The receptor densities required for effective dimerization thus exceed the typical, average expression levels by several orders of magnitude. In addition, we find that all three receptor subunits accumulate rapidly within a subpopulation of early sorting and recycling endosomes stably anchored just beneath the plasma membrane (cortical endosomes, CEs). The receptors, as well as labeled IL-4 and trisNTA ligands are specifically trafficked into CEs by a constitutive internalization mechanism. This may compensate for the inherent weak affinities that govern ligand-induced receptor dimerization at the plasma membrane. Consistently, activated receptors are also concentrated at the CEs. Our observations thus suggest that receptor trafficking may play an important role for the regulation of IL-4R-mediated JAK/STAT signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hetvi Gandhi
- BIOTEC/Biophysics, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Remigiusz Worch
- BIOTEC/Biophysics, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kristina Kurgonaite
- Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Petra Schwille
- BIOTEC/Biophysics, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Christian Bökel
- Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Thomas Weidemann
- BIOTEC/Biophysics, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany.
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Jovanovic K, Siebeck M, Gropp R. The route to pathologies in chronic inflammatory diseases characterized by T helper type 2 immune cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2014; 178:201-11. [PMID: 24981014 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
T helper type 2 (Th2)-characterized inflammatory responses are highly dynamic processes initiated by epithelial cell damage resulting in remodelling of the tissue architecture to prevent further harm caused by a dysfunctional epithelial barrier or migrating parasites. This process is a temporal and spatial response which requires communication between immobile cells such as epithelial, endothelial, fibroblast and muscle cells and the highly mobile cells of the innate and adaptive immunity. It is further characterized by a high cellular plasticity that enables the cells to adapt to a specific inflammatory milieu. Incipiently, this milieu is shaped by cytokines released from epithelial cells, which stimulate Th2, innate lymphoid and invariant natural killer (NK) T cells to secrete Th2 cytokines and to activate dendritic cells which results in the further differentiation of Th2 cells. This milieu promotes wound-healing processes which are beneficial in parasitic infections or toxin exposure but account for increasingly dysfunctional vital organs, such as the lung in the case of asthma and the colon in ulcerative colitis. A better understanding of the dynamics underlying relapses and remissions might lead ultimately to improved therapeutics for chronic inflammatory diseases adapted to individual needs and to different phases of the inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Jovanovic
- Department of General-, Visceral-, Transplantation- and Thoracic Surgery, University Clinics of Munich, Munich, Germany
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67
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Dorosti Z, Tolouei S, Khanahmad H, Jafari R, Jafaee F, Sharafi SM, Darani HY. IL-4 gene expression in adventitial layer (fibrous layer) of hepatic ovine and bovine hydatid cysts. J Parasit Dis 2014; 40:855-9. [PMID: 27605798 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-014-0593-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystic Echinococcosis is a parasitic disease with cosmopolitan distribution caused by the tape worm Echinococcus granulosus. Fibrous layer is developed around the cyst as a host immune response reaction. The aim of this study was to evaluate the rate of IL-4 gene expression in fibrous layer of bovine and ovine hepatic hydatid cysts using quantitative technique of Real-Time PCR. In this descriptive study the samples of hydatid cyst fibrous layer were taken from 6 bovine and 6 ovine hepatic hydatid cysts. Samples of normal liver tissue close to the cyst were also taken as controls. Total RNA from each sample was extracted and then converted to cDNA. Afterward, the rate of IL-4 gene expression for each sample was evaluated using real-time PCR technique. Data were analyzed by REST software (version 2.0.13, 2009). In sheep the rate of IL-4 gene expression in the fibrous layer of hepatic hydatid cysts was 1.98 times more than the rate of IL4 gene expression in control samples, but the difference was not significant (P = 0.561). In cattle the rate of IL-4 gene expression in the fibrous layer of hepatic hydatid cysts was 9.84 times more than that of control samples which was statistically significant (P < 0.001). With high rate of IL4 expression especially in fibrous layer of bovine hydatid cyst, it can be concluded that this interleukin may play an important role in host parasite relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Dorosti
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Sepideh Tolouei
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Hossein Khanahmad
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Science, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Rasool Jafari
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Fereshteh Jafaee
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Seyedeh Marayam Sharafi
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Hossein Yousofi Darani
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran ; Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
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Li W, Holsinger RMD, Kruse CA, Flügel A, Graeber MB. The potential for genetically altered microglia to influence glioma treatment. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2014; 12:750-62. [PMID: 24047526 DOI: 10.2174/18715273113126660171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Revised: 12/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Diffuse and unstoppable infiltration of brain and spinal cord tissue by neoplastic glial cells is the single most important therapeutic problem posed by the common glioma group of tumors: astrocytoma, oligoastrocytoma, oligodendroglioma, their malignant variants and glioblastoma. These neoplasms account for more than two thirds of all malignant central nervous system tumors. However, most glioma research focuses on an examination of the tumor cells rather than on host-specific, tumor micro-environmental cells and factors. This can explain why existing diffuse glioma therapies fail and why these tumors have remained incurable. Thus, there is a great need for innovation. We describe a novel strategy for the development of a more effective treatment of diffuse glioma. Our approach centers on gaining control over the behavior of the microglia, the defense cells of the CNS, which are manipulated by malignant glioma and support its growth. Armoring microglia against the influences from glioma is one of our research goals. We further discuss how microglia precursors may be genetically enhanced to track down infiltrating glioma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Li
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
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69
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The role of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:561459. [PMID: 24876674 PMCID: PMC4021678 DOI: 10.1155/2014/561459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1023] [Impact Index Per Article: 102.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common chronic disease of human joints. The basis of pathologic changes involves all the tissues forming the joint; already, at an early stage, it has the nature of inflammation with varying degrees of severity. An analysis of the complex relationships indicates that the processes taking place inside the joint are not merely a set that (seemingly) only includes catabolic effects. Apart from them, anti-inflammatory anabolic processes also occur continually. These phenomena are driven by various mediators, of which the key role is attributed to the interactions within the cytokine network. The most important group controlling the disease seems to be inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, TNFα, IL-6, IL-15, IL-17, and IL-18. The second group with antagonistic effect is formed by cytokines known as anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13. The role of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of OA with respect to inter- and intracellular signaling pathways is still under investigation. This paper summarizes the current state of knowledge. The cytokine network in OA is put in the context of cells involved in this degenerative joint disease. The possibilities for further implementation of new therapeutic strategies in OA are also pointed.
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70
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Goindi S, Kumar G, Kaur A. Novel flexible vesicles based topical formulation of levocetirizine: in vivo evaluation using oxazolone-induced atopic dermatitis in murine model. J Liposome Res 2014; 24:249-57. [PMID: 24646413 DOI: 10.3109/08982104.2014.899365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Levocetirizine, an active enantiomer of cetirizine is third generation antihistaminic agent used for treating various allergies like atopic dermatitis, chronic idiopathic urticaria and allergic rhinitis. OBJECTIVE Development of novel topical formulation of levocetirizine based on flexible vesicles (FVs) with an aim to have targeted peripheral antihistaminic effect. MATERIALS AND METHODS The FVs were prepared by thin film hydration method and characterized for drug content, entrapment efficiency, pH, vesicular size, spreadability, morphological characteristics and drug leakage studies. Franz diffusion cell assembly was used to carry out the ex vivo permeation studies through mice skin and the permeation profile of the developed FV formulation was compared with conventional formulations of levocetirizine. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The ex vivo permeation studies revealed 1.78-fold increase in percent permeation of levocetirizine from FV formulation as compared to conventional formulations of levocetirizine in 8 h. Further, oxazolone induced atopic dermatitis murine model was selected to study the in vivo pharmacodynamic activity. The developed formulation was evaluated for scratching score, erythema score and histological evaluation. There was marked reduction in scratching score from 15.25 scratches/20 min with conventional levocetirizine cream to 6.75 scratches/20 min with application of levocetirizine FV formulation. Also, there was significant reduction in erythema score as well as dermal eosinophil count. Results of skin sensitivity and toxicity studies suggest that the developed formulation was dermally safe and nontoxic. CONCLUSION A novel FVs based topical formulation of levocetirizine was successfully developed for treatment of atopic dermatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shishu Goindi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Panjab University , Chandigarh , India
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71
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IL-21 receptor expression in human tendinopathy. Mediators Inflamm 2014; 2014:481206. [PMID: 24757284 PMCID: PMC3976844 DOI: 10.1155/2014/481206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenetic mechanisms underlying tendinopathy remain unclear, with much debate as to whether inflammation or degradation has the prominent role. Increasing evidence points toward an early inflammatory infiltrate and associated inflammatory cytokine production in human and animal models of tendon disease. The IL-21/IL-21R axis is a proinflammatory cytokine complex that has been associated with chronic inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. This project aimed to investigate the role and expression of the cytokine/receptor pair IL-21/IL-21R in human tendinopathy. We found significantly elevated expression of IL-21 receptor message and protein in human tendon samples but found no convincing evidence of the presence of IL-21 at message or protein level. The level of expression of IL-21R message/protein in human tenocytes was significantly upregulated by proinflammatory cytokines (TNFα/IL-1β) in vitro. These findings demonstrate that IL-21R is present in early human tendinopathy mainly expressed by tenocytes and macrophages. Despite a lack of IL-21 expression, these data again suggest that early tendinopathy has an inflammatory/cytokine phenotype, which may provide novel translational targets in the treatment of tendinopathy.
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72
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Li R, Xie C, Zhang Y, Li B, Donelan W, Li S, Han S, Wang X, Cui T, Tang D. Expression of recombinant human IL-4 in Pichia pastoris and relationship between its glycosylation and biological activity. Protein Expr Purif 2014; 96:1-7. [PMID: 24468271 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2014.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Revised: 12/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Secretory human interleukin 4 (hIL4) is an N-glycosylated pleiotropic cytokine. It is unknown if these N-linked glycans are required and essential for hIL4 protein stability, expression, secretion, and activity in vivo, and hIL4 expressed from Pichia pastoris yeast has not been tested to date. In this study, we successfully expressed human hIL4 in P. pastoris, the methylotrophic yeast, with a yield of 15.0mg/L. Using the site-directed mutagenesis technique, we made two mutant hIL4 cDNA clones (N38A and N105L) and subsequently expressed them in P. pastoris to analyze the relevant function of each N-glycosylation site on hIL4. Our results demonstrate that the glycosylation only occurs at position Asn38, but not Asn105. The glycosylated form of hIL4 unexpectedly has lower biological activity and lower stability when compared to its non-glycosylated form. The implications of this are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Li
- Center for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China; Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
| | - Chao Xie
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, PR China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Center for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China; Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
| | - Bin Li
- Center for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China; Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
| | - William Donelan
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Shiwu Li
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Shuhong Han
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Xingli Wang
- Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China
| | - Taixing Cui
- Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China; Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of South Carolina of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209, USA.
| | - Dongqi Tang
- Center for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China; Shandong University Qilu Hospital Research Center for Cell Therapy, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan 250012, PR China.
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Dhakal M, Hardaway JC, Guloglu FB, Miller MM, Hoeman CM, Zaghouani AA, Wan X, Rowland LM, Cascio JA, Sherman MP, Zaghouani H. IL-13Rα1 is a surface marker for M2 macrophages influencing their differentiation and function. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:842-55. [PMID: 24281978 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 11/03/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we examined the role IL-13 receptor alpha 1 (IL-13Rα1) plays in macrophage differentiation and function. The findings indicate that IL-13Rα1 is expressed on the M2 but not on the M1 subset of macrophages and specifically heterodimerizes with the IL-4Rα chain to form a type II receptor, which controls the differentiation and function of these cells. Indeed, BM cells from IL-13Rα1(+/+) and IL-13Rα1(-/-) mice yield equivalent numbers of macrophages when cultured under M2 polarizing conditions. However, IL-13Rα1(-/-) BM cells yield a much higher number of macrophages than IL-13Rα1(+/+) BM cells when the differentiation is carried out under M1-polarizing conditions. Further analyses indicated that macrophages that express IL-13Rα1 also display surface markers associated with an M2 phenotype. In addition, the IL-13Rα1(+) macrophages were highly efficient in phagocytizing zymosan bioparticles both in vitro and in vivo, and supported differentiation of naïve T cells to a Th2 phenotype. Finally, when stimulated by IL-13, a cytokine that uses the heteroreceptor, the cells were able to phosphorylate STAT6 efficiently. These previously unrecognized findings indicate that IL-13Rα1 serves as a marker for M2 macrophages and the resulting heteroreceptor influences both their differentiation and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mermagya Dhakal
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, USA
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Duppatla V, Gjorgjevikj M, Schmitz W, Hermanns HM, Schäfer CM, Kottmair M, Müller T, Sebald W. IL-4 analogues with site-specific chemical modification at position 121 inhibit IL-4 and IL-13 biological activities. Bioconjug Chem 2013; 25:52-62. [PMID: 24341642 DOI: 10.1021/bc400307k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
IL-4 signaling into a cell occurs via assembly of a receptor complex that consists of a high-affinity IL-4Rα chain and a low affinity chain, where the low-affinity chain is either γc or IL-13Rα1. It has been previously shown that mutational disruption of the low affinity interface in the IL-4DM (double mutein) yields an antagonist that inhibits IL-4 as well as IL-13-dependent responses. The present study reveals that new types of IL-4 antagonists can be generated by site-specific chemical modification. The chemically modified IL-4 analogues consist of (1) mixed disulfides created by refolding IL-4 cysteine muteins in the presence of different thiol compounds or (2) maleimide conjugates created by modifying cysteine muteins with maleimide derivatives. IL-4 analogues chemically modified at position 121 retain marginal binding affinity to γc or IL-13Rα1 receptor ectodomains during SPR interaction analysis. The biological activity of the analogues is strongly reduced in HEK-Blue IL-4/IL-13 cells as well as in Jurkat cells. Since the IL-4 analogues modified at position 121 have the ability to inhibit γc (IL-4)- and IL13Rα1 (IL-4/IL-13)-dependent responses in Jurkat and HEK-Blue cell lines, they effectively act as IL-4 antagonists. The results of our IL-4 study provide the first example of a cytokine that is transformed into a competitive inhibitor by site-specific chemical modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viswanadham Duppatla
- Lehrstuhl für Physiologische Chemie II, Theodor-Boveri-Institut für Biowissenschaften (Biozentrum) der Universität Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
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75
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Klementiev B, Enevoldsen MN, Li S, Carlsson R, Liu Y, Issazadeh-Navikas S, Bock E, Berezin V. Antiinflammatory properties of a peptide derived from interleukin-4. Cytokine 2013; 64:112-21. [PMID: 23972727 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2013.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a potent antiinflammatory cytokine. However its use in the clinic is hampered by side effects. We here describe the identification of a novel synthetic peptide, termed Ph8, derived from α-helix C of IL-4, which interacts with IL-4 receptor α (IL-4Rα). Employing various cultured genetically engineered cell lines and primary lymphocytes, surface plasmon resonance, qPCR, ELISA and immunoblotting techniques we found that Ph8 bound IL-4Rα and mimicked the anti-inflammatory effects of IL-4 by inhibiting TNF-α production by macrophages in vitro. It induced phosphorylation of STAT6 65kD but inhibited phosphorylation of STAT6 110 kD induced by IL-4 in a B-cell line that expressed the type I receptor. It also inhibited the IL-4-stimulated expression of a STAT6-inducible reporter gene in cells that expressed the type II receptor. Ph8 inhibited the proliferation of Th1/2 cells and downregulated the production of IFN-γ in stimulated Th1 cells. Moreover, Ph8 did not induce any shift in Th1/Th2 profile. This is a favorable effect and it is indicating that Ph8 could block general T cell activation and inflammatory responses without further inducing the side effects generally associated with IL-4 signaling. These data collectively show that Ph8 is only a partial agonist of IL-4 mimicking its desirable properties. In agreement, Ph8 treatment of rats with collagen-induced arthritis, a Th1- and antibody- mediated disease of joint, delayed the manifestation of chronic inflammation and reduced acute inflammation in carrageenan-induced edema. Our findings indicate that Ph8 is a promising potential drug candidate for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Klementiev
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Kim YH, Yoshimoto M, Nakayama K, Tanino S, Fujimura Y, Yamada K, Tachibana H. Tannic acid, a higher galloylated pentagalloylglucose, suppresses antigen-specific IgE production by inhibiting ɛ germline transcription induced by STAT6 activation. FEBS Open Bio 2013; 3:341-5. [PMID: 24251093 PMCID: PMC3821021 DOI: 10.1016/j.fob.2013.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-4 is a critical stimulator that induces ɛ germline transcripts (ɛGT) for switch recombination to initiate immunoglobulin (Ig) E and is important in allergic disease pathogenesis. We found pentagalloylglucose (PGG) inhibited IL-4-induced ɛGT expression. PGG exerted its inhibitory function by suppressing IL-4-induced activation of IL-4Rα, JAK3 and STAT6. Furthermore, tannic acid, a higher galloylated PGG, attenuated ovalbumin-induced IgE production in vivo by inhibiting IL-4-induced ɛGT expression and the IL-4 signaling pathway. In conclusion, our results suggest that tannic acid may attenuate allergic diseases by suppressing IgE production by inhibiting IL-4-induced signaling. Tannic acid (TA) is highly galloylated pentagalloylglucose derived from oriental herbs. Germline transcript (GT) expression is indispensable for immunoglobulin (Ig) E class switching. PGG and TA inhibit ɛGT expression by attenuating IL-4 signaling. TA attenuates ovalbumin-induced IgE production in vivo.
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Key Words
- IFN-γ, interferon-gamma
- IL, interleukin
- IgE
- IgE, immunoglobulin E
- JAK, Janus kinase
- OVA, ovalbumin
- PGG, 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-d-glucose
- Pentagalloylglucose
- STAT, signal transducer and activator of transcription
- Signal transducers and activators of transcription6
- TGF-β, transforming growth factor-beta
- Tannic acid
- ɛ Germline transcript
- ɛGT, ɛ germline transcript
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Hee Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan
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77
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Spiess C, Bevers J, Jackman J, Chiang N, Nakamura G, Dillon M, Liu H, Molina P, Elliott JM, Shatz W, Scheer JM, Giese G, Persson J, Zhang Y, Dennis MS, Giulianotti J, Gupta P, Reilly D, Palma E, Wang J, Stefanich E, Scheerens H, Fuh G, Wu LC. Development of a human IgG4 bispecific antibody for dual targeting of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13) cytokines. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:26583-93. [PMID: 23880771 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.480483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human bispecific antibodies have great potential for the treatment of human diseases. Although human IgG1 bispecific antibodies have been generated, few attempts have been reported in the scientific literature that extend bispecific antibodies to other human antibody isotypes. In this paper, we report our work expanding the knobs-into-holes bispecific antibody technology to the human IgG4 isotype. We apply this approach to generate a bispecific antibody that targets IL-4 and IL-13, two cytokines that play roles in type 2 inflammation. We show that IgG4 bispecific antibodies can be generated in large quantities with equivalent efficiency and quality and have comparable pharmacokinetic properties and lung partitioning, compared with the IgG1 isotype. This work broadens the range of published therapeutic bispecific antibodies with natural surface architecture and provides additional options for the generation of bispecific antibodies with differing effector functions through the use of different antibody isotypes.
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78
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Nolte T, Zadeh-Khorasani M, Safarov O, Rueff F, Gülberg V, Herbach N, Wollenberg A, Mueller T, Siebeck M, Wolf E, Gropp R. Oxazolone and ethanol induce colitis in non-obese diabetic-severe combined immunodeficiency interleukin-2Rγ(null) mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2013; 172:349-62. [PMID: 23574330 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxazolone-induced colitis in mice has become a recognized model to study the efficacy of therapeutics targeting the immunological response underlying the development of inflammatory bowel disease. However, this model cannot be used when therapeutics designed to address human targets do not interact with the respective murine counterpart. In this study, we examined the induction of oxazolone mediated colitis in non-obese diabetic-severe combined immunodeficiency interleukin-2Rγ(null) (NOD-SCID IL2Rγ(null)) mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMC) derived from patients suffering from ulcerative colitis (UC), atopic dermatitis (AD) and healthy volunteers. NOD-SCID IL2Rγ (null) mice were engrafted with hPBMC followed by challenge with oxazolone or ethanol vehicle. Mice developed the same symptoms as observed previously in immunocompetent mice. The clinical activity score increased and the colon architecture was characterized by the development of oedema, fibrosis, crypt loss and dense infiltration of predominantly T cells into the lamina propria. Fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis of lymphocytes in the colon identified natural killer (NK) T cells as a major constituent. In contrast to studies with immunocompetent mice, we observed the same phenotype in the group challenged with ethanol vehicle. The phenotype was most pronounced in mice engrafted with PBMC derived from a patient suffering from UC, suggesting that the immunological history of the donors predisposes the engrafted mice to react to ethanol. The model described here has the potential to study the efficacy of therapeutics targeting human lymphocytes in a model which is more reflective of the human disease. In addition, it might be developed to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nolte
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis, Gene Center, LMU Munich, Germany
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79
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Neves F, Abrantes J, Steinke JW, Esteves PJ. Maximum-likelihood approaches reveal signatures of positive selection in IL genes in mammals. Innate Immun 2013; 20:184-91. [PMID: 23775092 DOI: 10.1177/1753425913486687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ILs are part of the immune system and are involved in multiple biological activities. ILs have been shown to evolve under positive selection; however, little information exists regarding which codons are specifically selected. By using different codon-based maximum-likelihood (ML) approaches, signatures of positive selection in mammalian ILs were searched for. Sequences of 46 ILs were retrieved from publicly available databases of mammalian genomes to detect signatures of positive selection in individual codons. Evolutionary analyses were conducted under two ML frameworks, the HyPhy package implemented in the Data Monkey Web Server and CODEML implemented in PAML. Signatures of positive selection were found in 28 ILs: IL-1A and B; IL-2, IL-4 to IL-10, IL-12A and B; IL-14 to IL-17A and C; IL-18, IL-20 to IL-22, IL-25, IL-26, IL-27B, IL-31, IL-34, IL-36A; and G. Codons under positive selection varied between 1 and 15. No evidence of positive selection was detected in IL-13; IL-17B and F; IL-19, IL-23, IL-24, IL-27A; or IL-29. Most mammalian ILs have sites evolving under positive selection, which may be explained by the multitude of biological processes in which ILs are enrolled. The results obtained raise hypotheses concerning the ILs functions, which should be pursued by using mutagenesis and crystallographic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Neves
- 1CIBIO/UP - Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
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80
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Walford HH, Doherty TA. STAT6 and lung inflammation. JAKSTAT 2013; 2:e25301. [PMID: 24416647 PMCID: PMC3876430 DOI: 10.4161/jkst.25301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung inflammation has many etiologies, including diseases of Th2-type immunity, such as asthma and anti-parasitic responses. Inflammatory diseases of the lung involve complex interactions among structural cells (airway epithelium, smooth muscle, and fibroblasts) and immune cells (B and T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and innate lymphoid cells). Signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) has been demonstrated to regulate many pathologic features of lung inflammatory responses in animal models including airway eosinophilia, epithelial mucus production, smooth muscle changes, Th2 cell differentiation, and IgE production from B cells. Cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 that are upstream of STAT6 are found elevated in human asthma and clinical trials are underway to therapeutically target the IL-4/IL-13/STAT6 pathway. Additionally, recent work suggests that STAT6 may also regulate lung anti-viral responses and contribute to pulmonary fibrosis. This review will focus on the role of STAT6 in lung diseases and mechanisms by which STAT6 controls immune and structural lung cell function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah H Walford
- Department of Medicine; University of California, San Diego; La Jolla, CA USA ; Department of Pediatrics; University of California, San Diego; La Jolla, CA USA
| | - Taylor A Doherty
- Department of Medicine; University of California, San Diego; La Jolla, CA USA
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81
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Liang J, Wu YL, Chen BJ, Zhang W, Tanaka Y, Sugiyama H. The C-kit receptor-mediated signal transduction and tumor-related diseases. Int J Biol Sci 2013; 9:435-43. [PMID: 23678293 PMCID: PMC3654492 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.6087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
As an important member of tyrosine kinase family, c-kit receptor causes specific expression of certain genes, regulates cell differentiation and proliferation, resists cell apoptosis, and plays a key role in tumor occurrence, development, migration and recurrence through activating the downstream signaling molecules following interaction with stem cell factor (SCF). The abnormality of SCF/c-kit signaling pathway is closely related to some certain tumors. The discovery of c-kit receptor-targeted drugs has promoted clinical-related cancer's diagnosis and treatment. In this paper, we review recent research progress on c-kit receptor-mediated signal transduction and its potential therapeutic application as a target in tumor-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liang
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, 18 Chaowang Road, Hangzhou, 310014, China
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82
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Ultsch M, Bevers J, Nakamura G, Vandlen R, Kelley RF, Wu LC, Eigenbrot C. Structural basis of signaling blockade by anti-IL-13 antibody Lebrikizumab. J Mol Biol 2013; 425:1330-9. [PMID: 23357170 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2012] [Revised: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The cytokine interleukin 13 (IL-13) is a major effector molecule for T-helper type 2 inflammation and is pathogenic in allergic diseases such as asthma. The effects of IL-13 are mediated via a pathway that is initiated by binding to a heterodimeric receptor consisting of IL-13Rα1 and IL-4Rα. Antibodies raised against IL-13 can block its inflammatory effects by interfering with binding to either of the two receptor polypeptides. Lebrikizumab is a monoclonal anti-IL-13 antibody that has shown clinical benefit in a phase II study for the treatment of moderate-to-severe uncontrolled asthma. Here we report the molecular structure of IL-13 in complex with the Fab from lebrikizumab by X-ray crystallography at 1.9Å resolution. We show that lebrikizumab inhibits IL-13 signaling by binding to IL-13 with very high affinity and blocking IL-13 binding to IL-4Rα. In addition, we use site-directed mutations to identify the most important antibody contributors to binding. Our studies define key features of lebrikizumab binding and its mechanism of action that may contribute to its clinical effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Ultsch
- Department of Structural Biology, Genentech Inc., 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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83
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Zadeh-Khorasani M, Nolte T, Mueller TD, Pechlivanis M, Rueff F, Wollenberg A, Fricker G, Wolf E, Siebeck M, Gropp R. NOD-scid IL2R γnull mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells as a model to test therapeutics targeting human signaling pathways. J Transl Med 2013; 11:4. [PMID: 23294516 PMCID: PMC3558457 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-11-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animal models of human inflammatory diseases have limited predictive quality for human clinical trials for various reasons including species specific activation mechanisms and the immunological background of the animals which markedly differs from the genetically heterogeneous and often aged patient population. OBJECTIVE Development of an animal model allowing for testing therapeutics targeting pathways involved in the development of Atopic Dermatitis (AD) with better translatability to the patient. METHODS NOD-scid IL2R γnull mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMC) derived from patients suffering from AD and healthy volunteers were treated with IL-4 and the antagonistic IL-4 variant R121/Y124D (Pitrakinra). Levels of human (h)IgE, amount of B-, T- and plasma- cells and ratio of CD4 : CD8 positive cells served as read out for induction and inhibition of cell proliferation and hIgE secretion. Results were compared to in vitro analysis. RESULTS hIgE secretion was induced by IL-4 and inhibited by the IL-4 antagonist Pitrakinra in vivo when formulated with methylcellulose. B-cells proliferated in response to IL-4 in vivo; the effect was abrogated by Pitrakinra. IL-4 shifted CD4 : CD8 ratios in vitro and in vivo when hPBMC derived from healthy volunteers were used. Pitrakinra reversed the effect. Human PBMC derived from patients with AD remained inert and engrafted mice reflected the individual responses observed in vitro. CONCLUSION NOD-scid IL2R γnull mice engrafted with human PBMC reflect the immunological history of the donors and provide a complementary tool to in vitro studies. Thus, studies in this model might provide data with better translatability from bench to bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Zadeh-Khorasani
- Department of Surgery, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München, Munich, Germany
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84
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Junttila IS, Creusot RJ, Moraga I, Bates DL, Wong MT, Alonso MN, Suhoski MM, Lupardus P, Meier-Schellersheim M, Engleman EG, Utz PJ, Fathman CG, Paul WE, Garcia KC. Redirecting cell-type specific cytokine responses with engineered interleukin-4 superkines. Nat Chem Biol 2012; 8:990-8. [PMID: 23103943 PMCID: PMC3508151 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines dimerize their receptors, with the binding of the 'second chain' triggering signaling. In the interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 system, different cell types express varying numbers of alternative second receptor chains (γc or IL-13Rα1), forming functionally distinct type I or type II complexes. We manipulated the affinity and specificity of second chain recruitment by human IL-4. A type I receptor-selective IL-4 'superkine' with 3,700-fold higher affinity for γc was three- to ten-fold more potent than wild-type IL-4. Conversely, a variant with high affinity for IL-13Rα1 more potently activated cells expressing the type II receptor and induced differentiation of dendritic cells from monocytes, implicating the type II receptor in this process. Superkines showed signaling advantages on cells with lower second chain numbers. Comparative transcriptional analysis reveals that the superkines induce largely redundant gene expression profiles. Variable second chain numbers can be exploited to redirect cytokines toward distinct cell subsets and elicit new actions, potentially improving the selectivity of cytokine therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilkka S. Junttila
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
- School of Medicine, University of Tampere, 33014, Tampere, Finland
- Fimlab Laboratories, Pirkanmaa Hospital District, 33521, Tampere, Finland
| | - Remi J. Creusot
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology & Rheumatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Ignacio Moraga
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Structural Biology, and Program in Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Darren L. Bates
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Structural Biology, and Program in Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Michael T. Wong
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology & Rheumatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Michael N. Alonso
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Megan M. Suhoski
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Patrick Lupardus
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Structural Biology, and Program in Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Martin Meier-Schellersheim
- Laboratory of Systems Biology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Edgar G. Engleman
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - Paul J. Utz
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology & Rheumatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - C. Garrison Fathman
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology & Rheumatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
| | - William E. Paul
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - K. Christopher Garcia
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Structural Biology, and Program in Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305
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85
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Borowski A, Vetter T, Kuepper M, Wohlmann A, Krause S, Lorenzen T, Virchow JC, Luttmann W, Friedrich K. Expression analysis and specific blockade of the receptor for human thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) by novel antibodies to the human TSLPRα receptor chain. Cytokine 2012. [PMID: 23199813 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2012.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) is an interleukin-7 (IL-7)-like cytokine with a pivotal role in development and maintenance of atopic diseases such as allergic asthma and atopic dermatitis. Moreover, recent studies show an involvement of TSLP in the progression of various cancers. TSLP signaling is mediated by the TSLP receptor (TSLPR), a heterodimeric type I cytokine receptor. It consists of the IL-7 receptor alpha chain (IL-7Rα), which is shared with the IL-7 receptor, and the TSLPRα chain as a specific subunit. Blocking signal release by TSLP without affecting IL-7 function is a potentially interesting option for the treatment of atopic diseases or certain tumors. By employing the extracellular domain of human TSLPRα chain (hTSLPRα(ex)) as an antigen, we generated a set of monoclonal antibodies. Several binders to native and/or denatured receptor protein were identified and characterized by cytometry and Western blot analysis. A screen based on a STAT3-driven reporter gene assay in murine pro-B cells expressing a functional hTSLPR yielded two hybridoma clones with specific antagonistic properties towards hTSLP, but not IL-7. Kinetic studies measuring blockade of hTSLP-dependent STAT phosphorylation in a TSLP-responsive cell line revealed an inhibitory constant in the nanomolar range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Borowski
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
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86
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Nolte T, Zadeh-Khorasani M, Safarov O, Rueff F, Varga R, Herbach N, Wanke R, Wollenberg A, Mueller T, Gropp R, Wolf E, Siebeck M. Induction of oxazolone-mediated features of atopic dermatitis in NOD-scid IL2Rγ(null) mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Dis Model Mech 2012; 6:125-34. [PMID: 22822046 PMCID: PMC3529345 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.009167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal models mimicking human diseases have been used extensively to study the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and the efficacy of potential therapeutics. They are, however, limited with regard to their similarity to the human disease and cannot be used if the antagonist and its cognate receptor require high similarity in structure or binding. Here, we examine the induction of oxazolone-mediated features of atopic dermatitis (AD) in NOD-scid IL2Rγ(null) mice engrafted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The mice developed the same symptoms as immunocompetent BALB/c mice. Histological alterations induced by oxazolone were characterized by keratosis, epithelial hyperplasia and influx of inflammatory cells into the dermis and epidermis. The cellular infiltrate was identified as human leukocytes, with T cells being the major constituent. In addition, oxazolone increased human serum IgE levels. The response, however, required the engraftment of PBMC derived from patients suffering from AD, which suggests that this model reflects the immunological status of the donor. Taken together, the model described here has the potential to evaluate the efficacy of therapeutics targeting human lymphocytes in vivo and, in addition, might be developed further to elucidate molecular mechanisms inducing and sustaining flares of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Nolte
- Institute of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, and Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis, Gene Center, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
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87
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Luzina IG, Keegan AD, Heller NM, Rook GAW, Shea-Donohue T, Atamas SP. Regulation of inflammation by interleukin-4: a review of "alternatives". J Leukoc Biol 2012; 92:753-64. [PMID: 22782966 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0412214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of IL-4 have revealed a wealth of information on the diverse roles of this cytokine in homeostatic regulation and disease pathogenesis. Recent data suggest that instead of simple linear regulatory pathways, IL-4 drives regulation that is full of alternatives. In addition to the well-known dichotomous regulation of Th cell differentiation by IL-4, this cytokine is engaged in several other alternative pathways. Its own production involves alternative mRNA splicing, yielding at least two functional isoforms: full-length IL-4, encoded by the IL-4 gene exons 1-4, and IL-4δ2, encoded by exons 1, 3, and 4. The functional effects of these two isoforms are in some ways similar but in other ways quite distinct. When binding to the surface of target cells, IL-4 may differentially engage two different types of receptors. By acting on macrophages, a cell type critically involved in inflammation, IL-4 induces the so-called alternative macrophage activation. In this review, recent advances in understanding these three IL-4-related branch points--alternative splicing of IL-4, differential receptor engagement by IL-4, and differential regulation of macrophage activation by IL-4--are summarized in light of their contributions to inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina G Luzina
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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88
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Duppatla V, Gjorgjevikj M, Schmitz W, Kottmair M, Mueller TD, Sebald W. Enzymatic deglutathionylation to generate interleukin-4 cysteine muteins with free thiol. Bioconjug Chem 2012; 23:1396-405. [PMID: 22681442 DOI: 10.1021/bc2004389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a prototypical regulator protein of the immune system that is crucial for the pathogenesis and maintenance of asthma and other atopic diseases. It, together with IL-13, uses the IL-4 receptor α chain (IL-4Rα) to signal into immune and other cells. An IL-4 mutein acting as a dual IL-4/IL-13 receptor antagonist is in clinical development. Here, it is described how IL-4 muteins containing a single engineered cysteine with a free thiol can be prepared and used for site-specific chemical modification. The muteins were initially expressed in E. coli, refolded, and purified, but not in a fully reduced nonconjugated form. Attempts to reduce the cysteine chemically failed because the native disulfide bonds of IL-4 were also reduced under similar conditions. Therefore, an enzymatic procedure was developed to reduce glutathionylated IL-4 cysteine muteins employing glutaredoxin and reduced glutathione. Cysteine muteins engineered at four different positions around the IL-4Rα binding site were enzymatically reduced at different rates. All muteins were prepared with free thiol in reasonable yield and were modified by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) or maleimido-PEG. The effect on IL-4Rα binding of cysteine substitution and of the site-specific modification by glutathione, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM), or a branched 2.36 kDa poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viswanadham Duppatla
- Lehrstuhl für Physiologische Chemie II, Theodor-Boveri-Institut für Biowissenschaften (Biozentrum) der Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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89
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Okwor I, Mou Z, Liu D, Uzonna J. Protective immunity and vaccination against cutaneous leishmaniasis. Front Immunol 2012; 3:128. [PMID: 22661975 PMCID: PMC3361738 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although a great deal of knowledge has been gained from studies on the immunobiology of leishmaniasis, there is still no universally acceptable, safe, and effective vaccine against the disease. This strongly suggests that we still do not completely understand the factors that control and/or regulate the development and sustenance of anti-Leishmania immunity, particularly those associated with secondary (memory) immunity. Such an understanding is critically important for designing safe, effective, and universally acceptable vaccine against the disease. Here we review the literature on the correlate of protective anti-Leishmania immunity and vaccination strategies against leishmaniasis with a bias emphasis on experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ifeoma Okwor
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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90
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Godava M, Kopriva F, Bohmova J, Vodicka R, Dusek L, Cvanova M, Muzik J, Markova M, Schneiderova E, Vrtel R. Association of STAT6 and ADAM33 single nucleotide polymorphisms with asthma bronchiale and IgE level and its possible epigenetic background. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2012; 156:236-47. [PMID: 22660217 DOI: 10.5507/bp.2012.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND ADAM33 and STAT6 belong to the candidate genes that have been commonly associated with asthma, bronchial hyperresponsiveness or IgE levels. Our objective was to assess the association of 11 SNPs of the ADAM33 and 6 of the STAT6 and their haplotypes with IgE levels and asthma. We also evaluated the possible role of parental origin of haplotypes on IgE levels. METHODS We enrolled 109 children with asthma and 45 healthy controls. Genotyping was performed by TaqMan probes and confirmed by sequencing. Haplotype construction was based on the knowledge of parental genotypes and also inferred by using the EM algorithm and Bayes' theorem. RESULTS None of the SNPs were associated with elevated IgE level or asthma. We found that the most frequent STAT6 haplotype ATTCAA (built from rs324012, rs324011, rs841718, rs3024974, rs3024974, rs4559 SNPs, respectively) was associated with elevated total IgE levels (P=0.01) and this haplotype was predominantly transmitted paternally (P<0.001). We compared our results with those of studies performed on German and Australian Caucasian populations and found that rs324011, rs3024974 and rs4559 SNPs in STAT6 should have a major effect on IgE levels. Therefore, we suggest the TCA haplotype alone (built from rs324011, rs3024974 and rs4559 SNPs, respectively) in STAT6 is associated with total IgE elevation. CONCLUSIONS The influence of paternal origin of the STAT6 haplotype on IgE levels is surprising but the exact role of possible paternal imprinting in STAT6 regulation should be investigated and confirmed in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Godava
- Department of Medical Genetics and Fetal Medicine, University Hospital Olomouc and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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Forlenza M, Fink IR, Raes G, Wiegertjes GF. Heterogeneity of macrophage activation in fish. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 35:1246-1255. [PMID: 21414343 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Revised: 02/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we focus on four different activation states of fish macrophages. In vitro, stimulation with microbial ligands induces the development of innate activated macrophages whereas classically activated macrophages can be induced by stimulation with LPS in combination with (recombinant) IFNγ. Both types of macrophages show elevated phagocytic activity, expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes and radical production. Alternatively activated macrophages require the cytokines IL-4/IL-13 for induction of, among others, arginase activity. Until in vitro studies identify the effects of putative IL-4 and IL-13 homologues on fish macrophages, arginase enzyme activity remains the most reliable marker for the presence of alternatively activated macrophages in fish. The best evidence for the existence of regulatory macrophages, associated with the presence of IL-10, comes from in vivo studies, for example during parasitic infections of carp. Altogether, differentially activated macrophages in fish largely resemble the phenotypes of mammalian macrophages. However, the presence of fish-specific ligand recognition by TLRs and of duplicated genes coding for proteins with particular activities, poses additional challenges for the characterization of phenotype-specific gene signatures and cell surface markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Forlenza
- Department of Animal Sciences, Cell Biology and Immunology Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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92
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Yang L, Horibe T, Kohno M, Haramoto M, Ohara K, Puri RK, Kawakami K. Targeting interleukin-4 receptor α with hybrid peptide for effective cancer therapy. Mol Cancer Ther 2011; 11:235-43. [PMID: 22084165 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-11-0363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-4 receptor α (IL-4Rα) chain is highly expressed on the surface of various human solid tumors. We designed a novel hybrid peptide termed IL-4Rα-lytic peptide that targets the IL-4Rα chain. The IL-4Rα-lytic peptide contains a target moiety to bind to IL-4Rα and a cellular toxic lytic peptide that selectively kills cancer cells. The anticancer activity of the IL-4Rα-lytic peptide was evaluated in vitro and in vivo. It was found that the IL-4Rα-lytic peptide has cytotoxic activity in cancer cell lines expressing IL-4Rα, determined by quantitative real-time PCR. The IC(50) ratios of the lytic peptide to the IL-4Rα-lytic peptide correlated well with the expression levels of IL-4Rα on cancer cells (r = 0.80). In addition, IL-4Rα-lytic peptide administered either intratumoraly or intravenously significantly inhibited tumor growth in xenograft model of human pancreatic cancer (BXPC-3) in mice. These results indicate that the IL-4Rα-lytic peptide generated in this study has a potent and selective anticancer potential against IL-4Rα-positive solid cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liying Yang
- Department of Pharmacoepidemiology, Graduate School of Medicine and Public Health, Kyoto University, Yoshidakonoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
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93
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BROEN JASPERC, DIEUDE PHILLIPE, VONK MADELONC, BERETTA LORENZO, CARMONA FRANCISCOD, HERRICK ARIANE, WORTHINGTON JANE, HUNZELMANN NICHOLAS, RIEMEKASTEN GABRIELA, KIENER HANS, SCORZA RAFAELLA, SIMEON CARMENP, FONOLLOSA VICENT, CARREIRA PATRICIA, ORTEGO-CENTENO NORBERTO, GONZALEZ-GAY MIGUELA, AIRO’ PAOLO, COENEN MARIEKEJ, TSANG KELLY, ALIPRANTIS ANTONIOSO, MARTIN JAVIER, ALLANORE YANNICK, RADSTAKE TIMOTHYR. Polymorphisms in the Interleukin 4, Interleukin 13, and Corresponding Receptor Genes Are Not Associated with Systemic Sclerosis and Do Not Influence Gene Expression. J Rheumatol 2011; 39:112-8. [DOI: 10.3899/jrheum.110235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Objective.Polymorphisms in the genes encoding interleukin 4 (IL4), interleukin 13 (IL13), and their corresponding receptors have been associated with multiple immune-mediated diseases. Our aim was to validate these previous observations in patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc) and scrutinize the effect of the polymorphisms on gene expression in various populations of peripheral blood leukocytes.Methods.We genotyped a cohort of 2488 patients with SSc and 2246 healthy controls from The Netherlands, Spain, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, and France. Taqman assays were used to genotype single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the following genes: (1) IL4 (−590C>T/rs2243250); (2) IL4 receptor alpha (IL4RA) (Q576R/rs1801275); (3) IL13 (R130Q/rs20541 and −1112C>T/rs1800925); and (4) IL13RA1 (43163G>A/rs6646259). The effect of these polymorphisms on expression of the corresponding genes was assessed using quantitative RT-PCR on RNA derived from peripheral blood B cells, T cells, plasmacytoid dendritic cells, monocytes, and myeloid dendritic cells. We investigated whether these polymorphisms influenced development of pulmonary complications over 15 years in patients with SSc.Results.None of the investigated polymorphisms was associated with SSc or any SSc clinical subtype. We did not observe any effect on transcript levels in the cell subtypes or on development of pulmonary complications.Conclusion.Our data showed that polymorphisms in IL4, IL13, and their receptors do not play a role in SSc and do not influence the expression of their corresponding transcript in peripheral blood cells.
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94
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Abstract
Interleukin-4 (IL4) is a pleiotropic cytokine involved in host protection from gastrointestinal nematodes. Here, we review the structure, function, and evolutionary history of IL4. Cumulative evidence indicates that over 100 million years of eutherian mammalian evolution, IL4 has experienced multiple episodes of positive selection. We argue that IL4 may have evolved in conflict with pathogen-derived antagonists, and therefore diversified to escape antagonism while being constrained to maintain binding to its cellular receptors. Selective pressure driving IL4 diversification may have arisen from ancient episodes of conflict with parasitic worm-derived IL4 antagonists. Descendants of such antagonists may still equip the armamentarium of contemporary gastrointestinal nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meenu R Pillai
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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95
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Wang HW, Joyce JA. Alternative activation of tumor-associated macrophages by IL-4: priming for protumoral functions. Cell Cycle 2010; 9:4824-35. [PMID: 21150330 PMCID: PMC3047808 DOI: 10.4161/cc.9.24.14322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2010] [Accepted: 11/30/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Although macrophages were originally recognized as major immune effector cells, it is now appreciated that they also play many important roles in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis, and are involved in a variety of pathological conditions including cancer. Several studies have demonstrated the contributions of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis. However, the detailed mechanisms underlying how TAMs differ molecularly from their normal counterparts and how the conversion to TAMs occurs have only just begun to be understood. TAMs have been proposed to exhibit phenotypes of 'alternatively activated' macrophages, though there has been limited evidence directly linking the phenotypes of TAMs to the alternative activation of macrophages. This review will focus on IL-4, the prototypic cytokine that induces the alternative activation of macrophages, and review current knowledge regarding the contributions of IL-4 to the phenotypes of TAMs and its effects on tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Wei Wang
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
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96
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Lee SI, Jeong SR, Kang YM, Han DH, Jin BK, Namgung U, Kim BG. Endogenous expression of interleukin-4 regulates macrophage activation and confines cavity formation after traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:2409-19. [PMID: 20623539 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers inflammatory reactions in which various types of cells and cytokines are involved. Several proinflammatory cytokines are up-regulated after SCI and play crucial roles in determining the extent of secondary tissue damage. However, relatively little is known about antiinflammatory cytokines and their roles in spinal cord trauma. Recent studies have shown that an antiinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-4 (IL-4), is expressed and exerts various modulatory effects in CNS inflammation. We found in the present study that IL-4 was highly expressed at 24 hr after contusive SCI in rats and declined thereafter, with concurrent up-regulation of IL-4 receptor subunit IL-4alpha. The majority of IL-4-producing cells were myeloperoxidase-positive neutrophils. Injection of neutralizing antibody against IL-4 into the contused spinal cord did not significantly affect the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha or other antiinflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta. Instead, attenuation of IL-4 activity led to a marked increase in the extent of ED1-positive macrophage activation along the rostrocaudal extent at 7 days after injury. The enhanced macrophage activation was preceded by an increase in the level of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1/CCL2). Finally, IL-4 neutralization resulted in more extensive cavitation at 4 weeks after injury. These results suggest that endogenous expression of antiinflammatory cytokine IL-4 regulates the extent of acute macrophage activation and confines the ensuing secondary cavity formation after spinal cord trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Ihm Lee
- Brain Disease Research Center, Institute for Medical Sciences, and Department of Neurology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
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Koyanagi M, Kerns JA, Chung L, Zhang Y, Brown S, Moldoveanu T, Malik HS, Bix M. Diversifying selection and functional analysis of interleukin-4 suggests antagonism-driven evolution at receptor-binding interfaces. BMC Evol Biol 2010; 10:223. [PMID: 20649995 PMCID: PMC3017759 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-10-223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Accepted: 07/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Interleukin-4 (IL4) is a secreted immunoregulatory cytokine critically involved in host protection from parasitic helminths [1]. Reasoning that helminths may have evolved mechanisms to antagonize IL4 to maximize their dispersal, we explored mammalian IL4 evolution. Results This analysis revealed evidence of diversifying selection at 15 residues, clustered in epitopes responsible for IL4 binding to its Type I and Type II receptors. Such a striking signature of selective pressure suggested either recurrent episodes of pathogen antagonism or ligand/receptor co-evolution. To test the latter possibility, we performed detailed functional analysis of IL4 allotypes expressed by Mus musculus musculus and Mus musculus castaneus, which happen to differ at 5 residues (including three at positively selected sites) in and adjacent to the site 1 epitope that binds the IL4Rα subunit shared by the Type I and Type II IL4 receptors. We show that this intra-species variation affects the ability of IL4 neither to bind IL4 receptor alpha (IL4Rα) nor to signal biological responses through its Type I receptor. Conclusions Our results -- reminiscent of clustered positively selected sites revealing functionally important residues at host-virus interaction interfaces -- are consistent with IL4 having evolved to avoid recurrent pathogen antagonism, while maintaining the capacity to bind and signal through its cognate receptor. This work exposes what may be a general feature of evolutionary conflicts fought by pathogen antagonists at host protein-protein interaction interfaces involved in immune signaling: the emergence of receptor-binding ligand epitopes capable of buffering amino acid variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madoka Koyanagi
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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Tomkinson A, Tepper J, Morton M, Bowden A, Stevens L, Harris P, Lindell D, Fitch N, Gundel R, Getz EB. Inhaled vs subcutaneous effects of a dual IL-4/IL-13 antagonist in a monkey model of asthma. Allergy 2010; 65:69-77. [PMID: 19796211 DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02156.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pitrakinra is a recombinant protein derived from human interleukin-4 (IL-4) that binds to IL-4Ralpha and acts as a competitive antagonist of IL-4 and IL-13. The studies reported here compare the dose-ranging effects of pitrakinra on allergen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and airway eosinophilia when administered subcutaneously (s.c.) or by inhalation to the Ascaris suum-sensitive cynomolgus monkey for the purpose of elucidating the primary site of pitrakinra's anti-asthmatic action. METHODS Airway responsiveness to inhaled methacholine and bronchoalveolar lavage cell composition was determined before and after three allergen exposures with a 1-week course of twice-daily (b.i.d.) s.c. or inhaled pitrakinra or placebo treatment. RESULTS Treatment with s.c. pitrakinra significantly reduced allergen-induced AHR, with a maximum effect of a 2.8- to 3.8-fold increase in methacholine PC(100) relative to control (P < 0.05) observed at b.i.d. s.c. doses of 0.05-0.5 mg/kg. Inhaled pitrakinra also significantly reduced AHR with a similar maximum effect of a 2.8- to 3.2-fold increase in methacholine PC(100) relative to control (P < 0.05) at nominal b.i.d. doses of 3-100 mg. The maximal effect on AHR following inhalation was observed at a plasma concentration which exhibited no efficacy via the subcutaneous route. The effect of pitrakinra on lung eosinophilia was not statistically significant following either route of administration, although lung eosinophil count was reduced in all studies relative to control. CONCLUSION Local administration of pitrakinra to the lung is sufficient to inhibit AHR, one of the cardinal features of asthma, indicating the therapeutic potential of inhaled pitrakinra in the treatment of atopic asthma.
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Sebald W, Nickel J, Zhang JL, Mueller TD. Molecular basis of cytokine signalling - theme and variations. FEBS J 2009; 277:106-18. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07480.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Interleukin (IL)-4 induces leukocyte infiltration in vivo by an indirect mechanism. Mediators Inflamm 2009; 2009:193970. [PMID: 19753321 PMCID: PMC2742652 DOI: 10.1155/2009/193970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin (IL)-4 is a cytokine known mainly for its anti-inflammatory activity. Using the in vivo murine air pouch model, we found that IL-4 significantly increased the number of leukocytes after 9 hours of treatment, consisting mainly of neutrophil (60%) and monocytic (40%) cell populations. Using an antibody array, we found that the expression of several analytes (predominantly CCL2) was increased by IL-4 before the arrival of leukocytes. The IL-4-induced expression of CCL-2 was confirmed by ELISA. Air pouch resident lining cells were harvested and were found to express IL-4Rα. CCL2 mRNA expression was monitored in lining cells, cells isolated from the air pouch skin, in RAW264.7 macrophage and in epithelial Mode-K cells and its expression was increased in response to IL-4 in all conditions. We conclude that IL-4 can attract leukocytes in vivo by an indirect mechanism involving the production of several analytes by, at least, resident cells.
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