51
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Zollino M, Lattante S, Orteschi D, Frangella S, Doronzio PN, Contaldo I, Mercuri E, Marangi G. Syndromic Craniosynostosis Can Define New Candidate Genes for Suture Development or Result from the Non-specifc Effects of Pleiotropic Genes: Rasopathies and Chromatinopathies as Examples. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:587. [PMID: 29093661 PMCID: PMC5651252 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Craniosynostosis is a heterogeneous condition caused by the premature fusion of cranial sutures, occurring mostly as an isolated anomaly. Pathogenesis of non-syndromic forms of craniosynostosis is largely unknown. In about 15–30% of cases craniosynostosis occurs in association with other physical anomalies and it is referred to as syndromic craniosynostosis. Syndromic forms of craniosynostosis arise from mutations in genes belonging to the Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor (FGFR) family and the interconnected molecular pathways in most cases. However it can occur in association with other gene variants and with a variety of chromosome abnormalities as well, usually in association with intellectual disability (ID) and additional physical anomalies. Evaluating the molecular properties of the genes undergoing intragenic mutations or copy number variations (CNVs) along with prevalence of craniosynostosis in different conditions and animal models if available, we made an attempt to define two distinct groups of unusual syndromic craniosynostosis, which can reflect direct effects of emerging new candidate genes with roles in suture homeostasis or a non-specific phenotypic manifestation of pleiotropic genes, respectively. RASopathies and 9p23p22.3 deletions are reviewed as examples of conditions in the first group. In particular, we found that craniosynostosis is a relatively common component manifestation of cardio-facio-cutaneous (CFC) syndrome. Chromatinopathies and neurocristopathies are presented as examples of conditions in the second group. We observed that craniosynostosis is uncommon on average in these conditions. It was randomly associated with Kabuki, Koolen-de Vries/KANSL1 haploinsufficiency and Mowat–Wilson syndromes and in KAT6B-related disorders. As an exception, trigonocephaly in Bohring-Opitz syndrome reflects specific molecular properties of the chromatin modifier ASXL1 gene. Surveillance for craniosynostosis in syndromic forms of intellectual disability, as well as ascertainment of genomic CNVs by array-CGH in apparently non-syndromic craniosynostosis is recommended, to allow for improvement of both the clinical outcome of patients and the accurate individual diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcella Zollino
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Serena Lattante
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniela Orteschi
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Frangella
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo N Doronzio
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria Contaldo
- Institute of Pediatric Neurology, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Eugenio Mercuri
- Institute of Pediatric Neurology, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Marangi
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, Catholic University, A. Gemelli Hospital, Rome, Italy
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52
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He F, Soriano P. Dysregulated PDGFRα signaling alters coronal suture morphogenesis and leads to craniosynostosis through endochondral ossification. Development 2017; 144:4026-4036. [PMID: 28947535 DOI: 10.1242/dev.151068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis is a prevalent human birth defect characterized by premature fusion of calvarial bones. In this study, we show that tight regulation of endogenous PDGFRα activity is required for normal calvarium development in the mouse and that dysregulated PDGFRα activity causes craniosynostosis. Constitutive activation of PDGFRα leads to expansion of cartilage underlying the coronal sutures, which contribute to suture closure through endochondral ossification, in a process regulated in part by PI3K/AKT signaling. Our results thus identify a novel mechanism underlying calvarial development in craniosynostosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fenglei He
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
| | - Philippe Soriano
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
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53
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Lei H, Deng CX. Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 2 Signaling in Breast Cancer. Int J Biol Sci 2017; 13:1163-1171. [PMID: 29104507 PMCID: PMC5666331 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.20792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) is a membrane-spanning tyrosine kinase that mediates signaling for FGFs. Recent studies detected various point mutations of FGFR2 in multiple types of cancers, including breast cancer, lung cancer, gastric cancer, uterine cancer and ovarian cancer, yet the casual relationship between these mutations and tumorigenesis is unclear. Here we will discuss possible interactions between FGFR2 signaling and several major pathways through which the aberrantly activated FGFR2 signaling may result in breast cancer development. We will also discuss some recent developments in the discovery and application of therapies and strategies for breast cancers by inhibiting FGFR2 activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haipeng Lei
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China
| | - Chu-Xia Deng
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China
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54
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Maruyama T, Jiang M, Abbott A, Yu HMI, Huang Q, Chrzanowska-Wodnicka M, Chen EI, Hsu W. Rap1b Is an Effector of Axin2 Regulating Crosstalk of Signaling Pathways During Skeletal Development. J Bone Miner Res 2017; 32:1816-1828. [PMID: 28520221 PMCID: PMC5555789 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.3171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent identification and isolation of suture stem cells capable of long-term self-renewal, clonal expanding, and differentiating demonstrate their essential role in calvarial bone development, homeostasis, and injury repair. These bona fide stem cells express a high level of Axin2 and are able to mediate bone regeneration and repair in a cell autonomous fashion. The importance of Axin2 is further demonstrated by its genetic inactivation in mice causing skeletal deformities resembling craniosynostosis in humans. The fate determination and subsequent differentiation of Axin2+ stem cells are highly orchestrated by a variety of evolutionary conserved signaling pathways including Wnt, FGF, and BMP. These signals are often antagonistic of each other and possess differential effects on osteogenic and chondrogenic cell types. However, the mechanisms underlying the interplay of these signaling transductions remain largely elusive. Here we identify Rap1b acting downstream of Axin2 as a signaling interrogator for FGF and BMP. Genetic analysis reveals that Rap1b is essential for development of craniofacial and body skeletons. Axin2 regulates Rap1b through modulation of canonical BMP signaling. The BMP-mediated activation of Rap1b promotes chondrogenic fate and chondrogenesis. Furthermore, by inhibiting MAPK signaling, Rap1b mediates the antagonizing effect of BMP on FGF to repress osteoblast differentiation. Disruption of Rap1b in mice not only enhances osteoblast differentiation but also impairs chondrocyte differentiation during intramembranous and endochondral ossifications, respectively, leading to severe defects in craniofacial and body skeletons. Our findings reveal a dual role of Rap1b in development of the skeletogenic cell types. Rap1b is critical for balancing the signaling effects of BMP and FGF during skeletal development and disease. © 2017 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takamitsu Maruyama
- Department of Dentistry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.,Center for Oral Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Ming Jiang
- Center for Oral Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.,Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Alycia Abbott
- Center for Oral Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - H-M Ivy Yu
- Center for Oral Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Qirong Huang
- Center for Oral Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | | | - Emily I Chen
- Proteomics Shared Resource at the Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center and Department of Pharmacology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Wei Hsu
- Center for Oral Biology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.,Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.,Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Institute, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.,Wilmot Cancer Institute, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
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55
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Rodriguez‐Zabala M, Aza‐Carmona M, Rivera‐Pedroza CI, Belinchón A, Guerrero‐Zapata I, Barraza‐García J, Vallespin E, Lu M, del Pozo A, Glucksman MJ, Santos‐Simarro F, Heath KE. FGF9 mutation causes craniosynostosis along with multiple synostoses. Hum Mutat 2017; 38:1471-1476. [DOI: 10.1002/humu.23292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rodriguez‐Zabala
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
| | - Miriam Aza‐Carmona
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) Instituto Carlos III Madrid Spain
- Multidisciplinary Skeletal dysplasia Unit (UMDE) Hospital Universitario La Paz Madrid Spain
| | - Carlos I. Rivera‐Pedroza
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Multidisciplinary Skeletal dysplasia Unit (UMDE) Hospital Universitario La Paz Madrid Spain
| | - Alberta Belinchón
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) Instituto Carlos III Madrid Spain
- Multidisciplinary Skeletal dysplasia Unit (UMDE) Hospital Universitario La Paz Madrid Spain
| | - Isabel Guerrero‐Zapata
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
| | - Jimena Barraza‐García
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) Instituto Carlos III Madrid Spain
- Multidisciplinary Skeletal dysplasia Unit (UMDE) Hospital Universitario La Paz Madrid Spain
| | - Elena Vallespin
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) Instituto Carlos III Madrid Spain
| | - Min Lu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Chicago Medical School Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science North Chicago North Chicago Illinois
| | - Angela del Pozo
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) Instituto Carlos III Madrid Spain
| | - Marc J. Glucksman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Chicago Medical School Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science North Chicago North Chicago Illinois
| | - Fernando Santos‐Simarro
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) Instituto Carlos III Madrid Spain
- Multidisciplinary Skeletal dysplasia Unit (UMDE) Hospital Universitario La Paz Madrid Spain
| | - Karen E. Heath
- Institute of Medical & Molecular Genetics (INGEMM) Hospital Universitario La Paz, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, IdiPAZ Madrid Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER) Instituto Carlos III Madrid Spain
- Multidisciplinary Skeletal dysplasia Unit (UMDE) Hospital Universitario La Paz Madrid Spain
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56
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Ueda K, Yaoita M, Niihori T, Aoki Y, Okamoto N. Craniosynostosis in patients with RASopathies: Accumulating clinical evidence for expanding the phenotype. Am J Med Genet A 2017. [PMID: 28650561 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.38337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
RASopathies are phenotypically overlapping genetic disorders caused by dysregulation of the RAS/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. RASopathies include Noonan syndrome, cardio-facio-cutaneous (CFC) syndrome, Costello syndrome, Neurofibromatosis type 1, Legius syndrome, Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines, Noonan-like syndrome, hereditary gingival fibromatosis, and capillary malformation/arteriovenous malformation syndrome. Recently, six patients with craniosynostosis and Noonan syndrome involving KRAS mutations were described in a review, and a patient with craniosynostosis and Noonan syndrome involving a SHOC2 mutation has also been reported. Here, we describe patients with craniosynostosis and Noonan syndrome due to de novo mutations in PTPN11 and patients with craniosynostosis and CFC syndrome due to de novo mutations in BRAF or KRAS. All of these patients had cranial deformities in addition to the typical phenotypes of CFC syndrome and Noonan syndrome. In RASopathy, patients with cranial deformities, further assessments may be necessary to look for craniosynostosis. Future studies should attempt to elucidate the pathogenic mechanism responsible for craniosynostosis mediated by the RAS/MAPK signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimiko Ueda
- Department of Medical Genetics, Osaka Women's and Children's Hospital, Osaka Prefectural Hospital Organization, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masako Yaoita
- Department of Medical Genetics, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Niihori
- Department of Medical Genetics, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yoko Aoki
- Department of Medical Genetics, Tohoku University School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Okamoto
- Department of Medical Genetics, Osaka Women's and Children's Hospital, Osaka Prefectural Hospital Organization, Osaka, Japan
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57
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Das S, Munshi A. Research advances in Apert syndrome. J Oral Biol Craniofac Res 2017; 8:194-199. [PMID: 30191107 DOI: 10.1016/j.jobcr.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome is one of the several genetic syndromes associated with craniosynostosis, a condition that includes premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures. There has been significant clinical variation among different sutural synostoses and also within particular suture synostosis. Enormous progress has been made in identifying various mutations associated with Apert Syndrome. Although a causal gene has been defined, the precise role of this mutation in producing craniofacial dysmorphology and other related abnormalities is in the process of discovery. Most of the understanding regarding this rare disorder has been possible due to mouse models that have helped in deciphering the elements of this rare human disease. Thus, molecular and cellular understanding of the disease has taken a leap and further with the advent of technology definitive diagnosis of the syndrome is no more of an issue. In this review, we have discussed and consolidated the possible molecular studies that have contributed in understanding of this rare syndrome. This article may help clinicians and researchers to inform about the latest progress in Apert syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satrupa Das
- Institute of Genetics and Hospital for Genetic Diseases, Osmania University, Begumpet, Hyderabad, India.,Dr. NTR University of Health Sciences, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Anjana Munshi
- Centre for Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India
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58
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Franceschi RT, Ge C. Control of the Osteoblast Lineage by Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 3:122-132. [PMID: 29057206 DOI: 10.1007/s40610-017-0059-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW This review will provide a timely assessment of MAP kinase actions in bone development and homeostasis with particular emphasis on transcriptional control of the osteoblast lineage. RECENT FINDINGS ERK and p38 MAP kinases function as transducers of signals initiated by the extracellular matrix, mechanical loading, TGF-β, BMPs and FGF2. MAPK signals may also affect and/or interact with other important pathways such as WNT and HIPPO. ERK and p38 MAP kinase pathways phosphorylate specific osteogenic transcription factors including RUNX2, Osterix, ATF4 and DLX5. For RUNX2, phosphorylation at specific serine residues initiates epigenetic changes in chromatin necessary for decondensation and increased transcription. MAPK also suppresses marrow adipogenesis by phosphorylating and inhibiting PPARγ, which may explain the well-known relationship between reduced skeletal loading and marrow fat accumulation. SUMMARY MAPKs transduce signals from the extracellular environment to the nucleus allowing bone cells to respond to changes in hormonal/growth factor signaling and mechanical loading thereby optimizing bone structure to meet physiological and mechanical needs of the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renny T Franceschi
- Departments of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry and Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1078
| | - Chunxi Ge
- Departments of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry and Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1078
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59
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Lattanzi W, Barba M, Di Pietro L, Boyadjiev SA. Genetic advances in craniosynostosis. Am J Med Genet A 2017; 173:1406-1429. [PMID: 28160402 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.38159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis, the premature ossification of one or more skull sutures, is a clinically and genetically heterogeneous congenital anomaly affecting approximately one in 2,500 live births. In most cases, it occurs as an isolated congenital anomaly, that is, nonsyndromic craniosynostosis (NCS), the genetic, and environmental causes of which remain largely unknown. Recent data suggest that, at least some of the midline NCS cases may be explained by two loci inheritance. In approximately 25-30% of patients, craniosynostosis presents as a feature of a genetic syndrome due to chromosomal defects or mutations in genes within interconnected signaling pathways. The aim of this review is to provide a detailed and comprehensive update on the genetic and environmental factors associated with NCS, integrating the scientific findings achieved during the last decade. Focus on the neurodevelopmental, imaging, and treatment aspects of NCS is also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanda Lattanzi
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy.,Latium Musculoskeletal Tıssue Bank, Rome, Italy
| | - Marta Barba
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Lorena Di Pietro
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Simeon A Boyadjiev
- Division of Genomic Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Davis Medical Center, University of California, Sacramento, California
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60
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Pettitt DA, Arshad Z, Mishra A, McArthur P. Apert syndrome: A consensus on the management of Apert hands. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 2016; 45:223-231. [PMID: 28087285 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcms.2016.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2016] [Revised: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Apert Syndrome is a congenital condition characterised by primary craniosynostosis, midfacial malformations and complex symmetrical malformations of the hands and feet. The hands demonstrate one of the most complex collections of congenital upper limb deformities, posing a significant challenge for the paediatric hand surgeon. This study examines the extant literature and current practice of the four UK specialist craniofacial units regarding the management of Apert hands in order to provide a basis for guideline development. METHODS The current literature was reviewed. Survey-type questionnaires were distributed to the four UK specialist craniofacial units and responses analysed. RESULTS Management of the Apert hand is largely dictated by the degree of malformation present. Although all units aim to achieve a five digit hand, variation in the timing of surgery, operative protocols and mobilisation policies exist. CONCLUSION The results of this study provide an interesting snapshot of the current management of Apert hands across four UK craniofacial surgery units. The four UK units remain congruent on most areas surrounding the management of Apert hands although some minor inter-unit variation exists. A multidisciplinary approach to management remains fundamental in optimising the regain of function and aesthetically acceptable hands.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Pettitt
- Mersey Regional Plastic Surgery Unit, Whiston Hospital, Warrington Rd, Prescot, Merseyside, L35 5DR, UK
| | - Zeeshaan Arshad
- Mersey Regional Plastic Surgery Unit, Whiston Hospital, Warrington Rd, Prescot, Merseyside, L35 5DR, UK.
| | - Anuj Mishra
- Mersey Regional Plastic Surgery Unit, Whiston Hospital, Warrington Rd, Prescot, Merseyside, L35 5DR, UK
| | - Paul McArthur
- Mersey Regional Plastic Surgery Unit, Whiston Hospital, Warrington Rd, Prescot, Merseyside, L35 5DR, UK
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61
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Walker CJ, Goodfellow PJ. Traditional Approaches to Molecular Genetic Analysis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 943:99-118. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-43139-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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62
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Timberlake AT, Choi J, Zaidi S, Lu Q, Nelson-Williams C, Brooks ED, Bilguvar K, Tikhonova I, Mane S, Yang JF, Sawh-Martinez R, Persing S, Zellner EG, Loring E, Chuang C, Galm A, Hashim PW, Steinbacher DM, DiLuna ML, Duncan CC, Pelphrey KA, Zhao H, Persing JA, Lifton RP. Two locus inheritance of non-syndromic midline craniosynostosis via rare SMAD6 and common BMP2 alleles. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27606499 PMCID: PMC5045293 DOI: 10.7554/elife.20125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Premature fusion of the cranial sutures (craniosynostosis), affecting 1 in 2000 newborns, is treated surgically in infancy to prevent adverse neurologic outcomes. To identify mutations contributing to common non-syndromic midline (sagittal and metopic) craniosynostosis, we performed exome sequencing of 132 parent-offspring trios and 59 additional probands. Thirteen probands (7%) had damaging de novo or rare transmitted mutations in SMAD6, an inhibitor of BMP – induced osteoblast differentiation (p<10−20). SMAD6 mutations nonetheless showed striking incomplete penetrance (<60%). Genotypes of a common variant near BMP2 that is strongly associated with midline craniosynostosis explained nearly all the phenotypic variation in these kindreds, with highly significant evidence of genetic interaction between these loci via both association and analysis of linkage. This epistatic interaction of rare and common variants defines the most frequent cause of midline craniosynostosis and has implications for the genetic basis of other diseases. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20125.001 The bones in the front, back and sides of the human skull are not fused to one another at birth in order to allow the brain to double in size during the first year of life and continue growing into adulthood. However, one in 2,000 infants is born with a condition called craniosynostosis in which some of these bones have already fused. This fusion prevents the skull from growing properly, and can lead to the brain becoming compressed. As such, surgeons routinely undo the fusion in these infants to allow the brain and skull to grow normally. Eighty-five percent of craniosynostosis cases occur in infants with no other abnormalities, (called non-syndromic cases) and most have no other affected family member. It has therefore been unclear whether these infants have craniosynostosis due to a genetic or non-genetic cause. If the cause is genetic, it is also not clear whether a mutation in a single gene, the combined effects of many genes, or something in between is responsible. Now, by focusing on a group of 191 infants with premature fusion of bones joined at the midline of the skull, Timberlake et al. asked if any of the approximately 20,000 genes in the human genome were altered more frequently in these infants than would be expected by chance. This search revealed that rare mutations that disable one copy of a gene called SMAD6 in combination with a common DNA variant near another gene called BMP2 account for about 7% of infants with midline forms of craniosynostosis. These genes are both known to regulate how bones form, which explains how the mutation of these genes could lead to craniosynostosis. In all cases, the parents of these children were unaffected. This was typically because one parent had only the SMAD6 mutation while the other had only the common BMP2 variant; the transmission of both to their offspring resulted in craniosynostosis. The finding that a rare mutation’s effect is strongly modified by a common variant from another site in the genome is unprecedented. These findings will allow doctors to counsel families about the risk of having additional children with craniosynostosis. Timberlake et al. next plan to study more patients with craniosynostosis to identify additional genes that contribute to this disease. They will also look at other diseases to see whether the combination of rare mutation and common DNA variant could be behind other unexplained disorders. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20125.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew T Timberlake
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Jungmin Choi
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Samir Zaidi
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Qiongshi Lu
- Department of Biostatistics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Carol Nelson-Williams
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Eric D Brooks
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Kaya Bilguvar
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Yale Center for Genome Analysis, New Haven, United States
| | | | - Shrikant Mane
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Yale Center for Genome Analysis, New Haven, United States
| | - Jenny F Yang
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Rajendra Sawh-Martinez
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Sarah Persing
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Elizabeth G Zellner
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Erin Loring
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Yale Center for Genome Analysis, New Haven, United States
| | - Carolyn Chuang
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Amy Galm
- Craniosynostosis and Positional Plagiocephaly Support, New York, United States
| | - Peter W Hashim
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Derek M Steinbacher
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Michael L DiLuna
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Charles C Duncan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Kevin A Pelphrey
- Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Hongyu Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - John A Persing
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States
| | - Richard P Lifton
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, United States.,Yale Center for Genome Analysis, New Haven, United States.,The Rockefeller University, New York, United States
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Gurha P, Chen X, Lombardi R, Willerson JT, Marian AJ. Knockdown of Plakophilin 2 Downregulates miR-184 Through CpG Hypermethylation and Suppression of the E2F1 Pathway and Leads to Enhanced Adipogenesis In Vitro. Circ Res 2016; 119:731-50. [PMID: 27470638 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.116.308422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE PKP2, encoding plakophilin 2 (PKP2), is the most common causal gene for arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. OBJECTIVE To characterize miRNA expression profile in PKP2-deficient cells. METHODS AND RESULTS Control and PKP2-knockdown HL-1 (HL-1(Pkp2-shRNA)) cells were screened for 750 miRNAs using low-density microfluidic panels. Fifty-nine miRNAs were differentially expressed. MiR-184 was the most downregulated miRNA. Expression of miR-184 in the heart and cardiac myocyte was developmentally downregulated and was low in mature myocytes. MicroRNA-184 was predominantly expressed in cardiac mesenchymal progenitor cells. Knockdown of Pkp2 in cardiac mesenchymal progenitor cells also reduced miR-184 levels. Expression of miR-184 was transcriptionally regulated by the E2F1 pathway, which was suppressed in PKP2-deficient cells. Activation of E2F1, on overexpression of its activator CCND1 (cyclin D1) or knockdown of its inhibitor retinoblastoma 1, partially rescued miR-184 levels. In addition, DNA methyltransferase-1 was recruited to the promoter region of miR-184, and the CpG sites at the upstream region of miR-184 were hypermethylated. Treatment with 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine, a demethylation agent, and knockdown of DNA methyltransferase-1 partially rescued miR-184 level. Pathway analysis of paired miR-184:mRNA targets identified cell proliferation, differentiation, and death as the main affected biological processes. Knockdown of miR-184 in HL-1 cells and mesenchymal progenitor cells induced and, conversely, its overexpression attenuated adipogenesis. CONCLUSIONS PKP2 deficiency leads to suppression of the E2F1 pathway and hypermethylation of the CpG sites at miR-184 promoter, resulting in downregulation of miR-184 levels. Suppression of miR-184 enhances and its activation attenuates adipogenesis in vitro. Thus, miR-184 contributes to the pathogenesis of adipogenesis in PKP2-deficient cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyatansh Gurha
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, and Texas Heart Institute
| | - Xiaofan Chen
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, and Texas Heart Institute
| | - Raffaella Lombardi
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, and Texas Heart Institute
| | - James T Willerson
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, and Texas Heart Institute
| | - Ali J Marian
- From the Center for Cardiovascular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Sciences Center at Houston, and Texas Heart Institute.
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64
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Durham EL, Howie RN, Black L, Bennfors G, Parsons TE, Elsalanty M, Yu JC, Weinberg SM, Cray JJ. Effects of thyroxine exposure on the Twist 1 +/- phenotype: A test of gene-environment interaction modeling for craniosynostosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 106:803-813. [PMID: 27435288 DOI: 10.1002/bdra.23543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Craniosynostosis, the premature fusion of one or more of the cranial sutures, is estimated to occur in 1:1800 to 2500 births. Genetic murine models of craniosynostosis exist, but often imperfectly model human patients. Case, cohort, and surveillance studies have identified excess thyroid hormone as an agent that can either cause or exacerbate human cases of craniosynostosis. METHODS Here we investigate the influence of in utero and in vitro exogenous thyroid hormone exposure on a murine model of craniosynostosis, Twist 1 +/-. RESULTS By 15 days post-natal, there was evidence of coronal suture fusion in the Twist 1 +/- model, regardless of exposure. With the exception of craniofacial width, there were no significant effects of exposure; however, the Twist 1 +/- phenotype was significantly different from the wild-type control. Twist 1 +/- cranial suture cells did not respond to thyroxine treatment as measured by proliferation, osteogenic differentiation, and gene expression of osteogenic markers. However, treatment of these cells did result in modulation of thyroid associated gene expression. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest the phenotypic effects of the genetic mutation largely outweighed the effects of thyroxine exposure in the Twist 1 +/- model. These results highlight difficultly in experimentally modeling gene-environment interactions for craniosynostotic phenotypes. Birth Defects Research (Part A) 106:803-813, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily L Durham
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - R Nicole Howie
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Laurel Black
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Grace Bennfors
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Trish E Parsons
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Mohammed Elsalanty
- Departments of Oral Biology, Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Orthopaedic Surgery and Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia.,Institute for Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia
| | - Jack C Yu
- Institute for Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia.,Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia
| | - Seth M Weinberg
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - James J Cray
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina.
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65
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Flaherty K, Singh N, Richtsmeier JT. Understanding craniosynostosis as a growth disorder. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 5:429-59. [PMID: 27002187 PMCID: PMC4911263 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis is a condition of complex etiology that always involves the premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures and includes various anomalies of the soft and hard tissues of the head. Steady progress in the field has resulted in identifying gene mutations that recurrently cause craniosynostosis. There are now scores of mutations on many genes causally related to craniosynostosis syndromes, though the genetic basis for the majority of nonsyndromic cases is unknown. Identification of these genetic mutations has allowed significant progress in understanding the intrinsic properties of cranial sutures, including mechanisms responsible for normal suture patency and for pathogenesis of premature suture closure. An understanding of morphogenesis of cranial vault sutures is critical to understanding the pathophysiology of craniosynostosis conditions, but the field is now poised to recognize the repeated changes in additional skeletal and soft tissues of the head that typically accompany premature suture closure. We review the research that has brought an understanding of premature suture closure within our reach. We then enumerate the less well-studied, but equally challenging, nonsutural phenotypes of craniosynostosis conditions that are well characterized in available mouse models. We consider craniosynostosis as a complex growth disorder of multiple tissues of the developing head, whose growth is also targeted by identified mutations in ways that are poorly understood. Knowledge gained from studies of humans and mouse models for these conditions underscores the diverse, associated developmental anomalies of the head that contribute to the complex phenotypes of craniosynostosis conditions presenting novel challenges for future research. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:429-459. doi: 10.1002/wdev.227 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Flaherty
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
| | - Nandini Singh
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
| | - Joan T. Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
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66
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Katsianou MA, Adamopoulos C, Vastardis H, Basdra EK. Signaling mechanisms implicated in cranial sutures pathophysiology: Craniosynostosis. BBA CLINICAL 2016; 6:165-176. [PMID: 27957430 PMCID: PMC5144105 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbacli.2016.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Normal extension and skull expansion is a synchronized process that prevails along the osteogenic intersections of the cranial sutures. Cranial sutures operate as bone growth sites allowing swift bone generation at the edges of the bone fronts while they remain patent. Premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures can trigger craniosynostosis, a birth defect characterized by dramatic manifestations in appearance and functional impairment. Up until today, surgical correction is the only restorative measure for craniosynostosis associated with considerable mortality. Clinical studies have identified several genes implicated in the pathogenesis of craniosynostosis syndromes with useful insights into the underlying molecular signaling events that determine suture fate. In this review, we exploit the intracellular signal transduction pathways implicated in suture pathobiology, in an attempt to identify key signaling molecules for therapeutic targeting. Cranial sutures operate as bone growth sites. Premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures can trigger craniosynostosis. Several genes are involved in the pathogenesis of craniosynostosis syndromes. An array of molecular signaling events determine suture fate. Herein, the signal transduction pathways implicated in suture pathobiology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A Katsianou
- Department of Biological Chemistry - Cellular and Molecular Biomechanics Unit, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Christos Adamopoulos
- Department of Biological Chemistry - Cellular and Molecular Biomechanics Unit, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Heleni Vastardis
- Department of Orthodontics, Dental School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527, Athens, Greece
| | - Efthimia K Basdra
- Department of Biological Chemistry - Cellular and Molecular Biomechanics Unit, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
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67
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Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) family of ligands and receptor tyrosine kinases is required throughout embryonic and postnatal development and also regulates multiple homeostatic functions in the adult. Aberrant Fgf signaling causes many congenital disorders and underlies multiple forms of cancer. Understanding the mechanisms that govern Fgf signaling is therefore important to appreciate many aspects of Fgf biology and disease. Here we review the mechanisms of Fgf signaling by focusing on genetic strategies that enable in vivo analysis. These studies support an important role for Erk1/2 as a mediator of Fgf signaling in many biological processes but have also provided strong evidence for additional signaling pathways in transmitting Fgf signaling in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Richard Brewer
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Pierre Mazot
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
| | - Philippe Soriano
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, New York 10029, USA
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68
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Pfaff MJ, Xue K, Li L, Horowitz MC, Steinbacher DM, Eswarakumar JVP. FGFR2c-mediated ERK-MAPK activity regulates coronal suture development. Dev Biol 2016; 415:242-250. [PMID: 27034231 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 03/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) signaling is critical for proper craniofacial development. A gain-of-function mutation in the 2c splice variant of the receptor's gene is associated with Crouzon syndrome, which is characterized by craniosynostosis, the premature fusion of one or more of the cranial vault sutures, leading to craniofacial maldevelopment. Insight into the molecular mechanism of craniosynostosis has identified the ERK-MAPK signaling cascade as a critical regulator of suture patency. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of FGFR2c-induced ERK-MAPK activation in the regulation of coronal suture development. Loss-of-function and gain-of-function Fgfr2c mutant mice have overlapping phenotypes, including coronal synostosis and craniofacial dysmorphia. In vivo analysis of coronal sutures in loss-of-function and gain-of-function models demonstrated fundamentally different pathogenesis underlying coronal suture synostosis. Calvarial osteoblasts from gain-of-function mice demonstrated enhanced osteoblastic function and maturation with concomitant increase in ERK-MAPK activation. In vitro inhibition with the ERK protein inhibitor U0126 mitigated ERK protein activation levels with a concomitant reduction in alkaline phosphatase activity. This study identifies FGFR2c-mediated ERK-MAPK signaling as a key mediator of craniofacial growth and coronal suture development. Furthermore, our results solve the apparent paradox between loss-of-function and gain-of-function FGFR2c mutants with respect to coronal suture synostosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miles J Pfaff
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Ke Xue
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Plastic Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Li
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Mark C Horowitz
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Derek M Steinbacher
- Department of Surgery, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Jacob V P Eswarakumar
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.
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69
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Kosty J, Vogel TW. Insights into the development of molecular therapies for craniosynostosis. Neurosurg Focus 2016; 38:E2. [PMID: 25929964 DOI: 10.3171/2015.2.focus155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
For the past 2 decades, clinical and basic science researchers have gained significant insights into the molecular and genetic pathways associated with common forms of craniosynostosis. This has led to invaluable information for families and physicians in their attempts to understand the heterogeneity of craniosynostosis. Genetic mutations have been identified in the fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) as well as in other targets, including TWIST1, BMP, and RUNX2. Greater understanding of these and other pathways has led to the development of innovative approaches for applying medical therapies to the treatment of craniosynostosis, in particular by maintaining suture patency. In this article, the authors discuss the molecular pathophysiological mechanisms underlying various forms of craniosynostosis. They also highlight recent developments in the field of molecular craniosynostosis research with the hope of identifying targets for medical therapies that might augment the results of surgical intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Kosty
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Cincinnati; and
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70
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Twigg SRF, Wilkie AOM. New insights into craniofacial malformations. Hum Mol Genet 2015; 24:R50-9. [PMID: 26085576 PMCID: PMC4571997 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Development of the human skull and face is a highly orchestrated and complex three-dimensional morphogenetic process, involving hundreds of genes controlling the coordinated patterning, proliferation and differentiation of tissues having multiple embryological origins. Craniofacial malformations that occur because of abnormal development (including cleft lip and/or palate, craniosynostosis and facial dysostoses), comprise over one-third of all congenital birth defects. High-throughput sequencing has recently led to the identification of many new causative disease genes and functional studies have clarified their mechanisms of action. We present recent findings in craniofacial genetics and discuss how this information together with developmental studies in animal models is helping to increase understanding of normal craniofacial development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R F Twigg
- Clinical Genetics Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Andrew O M Wilkie
- Clinical Genetics Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
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71
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Goodwin AF, Kim R, Bush JO, Klein OD. From Bench to Bedside and Back: Improving Diagnosis and Treatment of Craniofacial Malformations Utilizing Animal Models. Curr Top Dev Biol 2015; 115:459-92. [PMID: 26589935 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Craniofacial anomalies are among the most common birth defects and are associated with increased mortality and, in many cases, the need for lifelong treatment. Over the past few decades, dramatic advances in the surgical and medical care of these patients have led to marked improvements in patient outcomes. However, none of the treatments currently in clinical use address the underlying molecular causes of these disorders. Fortunately, the field of craniofacial developmental biology provides a strong foundation for improved diagnosis and for therapies that target the genetic causes of birth defects. In this chapter, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the embryology of craniofacial conditions, and we focus on the use of animal models to guide rational therapies anchored in genetics and biochemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice F Goodwin
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Rebecca Kim
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Jeffrey O Bush
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
| | - Ophir D Klein
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA; Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
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72
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Ajiro M, Jia R, Wang RH, Deng CX, Zheng ZM. Adapted Resistance to the Knockdown Effect of shRNA-Derived Srsf3 siRNAs in Mouse Littermates. Int J Biol Sci 2015; 11:1248-56. [PMID: 26435690 PMCID: PMC4582148 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.13011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene silencing techniques are widely used to control gene expression and have potential for RNAi-based therapeutics. In this report, transgenic mouse lines were created for conditional knockdown of Srsf3 (SRp20) expression in liver and mammary gland tissues by expressing Srsf3-specific shRNAs driven by a U6 promoter. Although a small portion of the transgenic mouse littermates were found to produce siRNAs in the targeted tissues, most of the transgenic littermates at two months of age failed to display a knockdown phenotype of Srsf3 expression in their liver and mammary gland tissues where an abundant level of Srsf3 siRNAs remained. We saw only one of four mice with liver/mammary gland expressing Srsf3 siRNA displayed a suppressed level of Srsf3 protein, but not the mRNA. Data indicate that the host resistance to a gene-specific siRNA targeting an essential gene transcript can be developed in animals, presumably as a physiological necessity to cope with the hostile perturbation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiko Ajiro
- 1. Tumor Virus RNA Biology Section, Gene Regulation and Chromosome Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
| | - Rong Jia
- 1. Tumor Virus RNA Biology Section, Gene Regulation and Chromosome Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA ; 3. Wuhan University School of Stomatology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Rui-Hong Wang
- 2. Genetics of Development and Disease Branch, 10/9N105, National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, MD 20892, USA. ; 4. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China
| | - Chu-Xia Deng
- 2. Genetics of Development and Disease Branch, 10/9N105, National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, MD 20892, USA. ; 4. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR, China
| | - Zhi-Ming Zheng
- 1. Tumor Virus RNA Biology Section, Gene Regulation and Chromosome Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702, USA
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73
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The Development of the Calvarial Bones and Sutures and the Pathophysiology of Craniosynostosis. Curr Top Dev Biol 2015; 115:131-56. [PMID: 26589924 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The skull vault is a complex, exquisitely patterned structure that plays a variety of key roles in vertebrate life, ranging from the acquisition of food to the support of the sense organs for hearing, smell, sight, and taste. During its development, it must meet the dual challenges of protecting the brain and accommodating its growth. The bones and sutures of the skull vault are derived from cranial neural crest and head mesoderm. The frontal and parietal bones develop from osteogenic rudiments in the supraorbital ridge. The coronal suture develops from a group of Shh-responsive cells in the head mesoderm that are collocated, with the osteogenic precursors, in the supraorbital ridge. The osteogenic rudiments and the prospective coronal suture expand apically by cell migration. A number of congenital disorders affect the skull vault. Prominent among these is craniosynostosis, the fusion of the bones at the sutures. Analysis of the pathophysiology underling craniosynostosis has identified a variety of cellular mechanisms, mediated by a range of signaling pathways and effector transcription factors. These cellular mechanisms include loss of boundary integrity, altered sutural cell specification in embryos, and loss of a suture stem cell population in adults. Future work making use of genome-wide transcriptomic approaches will address the deep structure of regulatory interactions and cellular processes that unify these seemingly diverse mechanisms.
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Abstract
Introduction: Genetic skeletal diseases (GSDs) are a diverse and complex group of rare genetic conditions that affect the development and homeostasis of the skeleton. Although individually rare, as a group of related diseases, GSDs have an overall prevalence of at least 1 per 4,000 children. There are currently very few specific therapeutic interventions to prevent, halt or modify skeletal disease progression and therefore the generation of new and effective treatments requires novel and innovative research that can identify tractable therapeutic targets and biomarkers of these diseases. Areas covered: Remarkable progress has been made in identifying the genetic basis of the majority of GSDs and in developing relevant model systems that have delivered new knowledge on disease mechanisms and are now starting to identify novel therapeutic targets. This review will provide an overview of disease mechanisms that are shared amongst groups of different GSDs and describe potential therapeutic approaches that are under investigation. Expert opinion: The extensive clinical variability and genetic heterogeneity of GSDs renders this broad group of rare diseases a bench to bedside challenge. However, the evolving hypothesis that clinically different diseases might share common disease mechanisms is a powerful concept that will generate critical mass for the identification and validation of novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Briggs
- Newcastle University, Institute of Genetic Medicine, International Centre for Life , Central Parkway, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Peter A Bell
- Newcastle University, Institute of Genetic Medicine, International Centre for Life , Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Michael J Wright
- Newcastle University, Institute of Genetic Medicine, International Centre for Life , Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Katarzyna A Pirog
- Newcastle University, Institute of Genetic Medicine, International Centre for Life , Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 3BZ, UK
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75
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Twigg SRF, Wilkie AOM. A Genetic-Pathophysiological Framework for Craniosynostosis. Am J Hum Genet 2015; 97:359-77. [PMID: 26340332 PMCID: PMC4564941 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2015.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Craniosynostosis, the premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures of the skull, provides a paradigm for investigating the interplay of genetic and environmental factors leading to malformation. Over the past 20 years molecular genetic techniques have provided a new approach to dissect the underlying causes; success has mostly come from investigation of clinical samples, and recent advances in high-throughput DNA sequencing have dramatically enhanced the study of the human as the preferred "model organism." In parallel, however, we need a pathogenetic classification to describe the pathways and processes that lead to cranial suture fusion. Given the prenatal onset of most craniosynostosis, investigation of mechanisms requires more conventional model organisms; principally the mouse, because of similarities in cranial suture development. We present a framework for classifying genetic causes of craniosynostosis based on current understanding of cranial suture biology and molecular and developmental pathogenesis. Of note, few pathologies result from complete loss of gene function. Instead, biochemical mechanisms involving haploinsufficiency, dominant gain-of-function and recessive hypomorphic mutations, and an unusual X-linked cellular interference process have all been implicated. Although few of the genes involved could have been predicted based on expression patterns alone (because the genes play much wider roles in embryonic development or cellular homeostasis), we argue that they fit into a limited number of functional modules active at different stages of cranial suture development. This provides a useful approach both when defining the potential role of new candidate genes in craniosynostosis and, potentially, for devising pharmacological approaches to therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R F Twigg
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Andrew O M Wilkie
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK; Craniofacial Unit, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK.
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Addissie YA, Kotecha U, Hart RA, Martinez AF, Kruszka P, Muenke M. Craniosynostosis and Noonan syndrome with KRAS mutations: Expanding the phenotype with a case report and review of the literature. Am J Med Genet A 2015; 167A:2657-63. [PMID: 26249544 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.37259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Noonan syndrome (NS) is a multiple congenital anomaly syndrome caused by germline mutations in genes coding for components of the Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase (RAS-MAPK) pathway. Features include short stature, characteristic facies, congenital heart anomalies, and developmental delay. While there is considerable clinical heterogeneity in NS, craniosynostosis is not a common feature of the condition. Here, we report on a 2 month-old girl with Noonan syndrome associated with a de novo mutation in KRAS (p.P34Q) and premature closure of the sagittal suture. We provide a review of the literature of germline KRAS mutations and find that approximately 10% of published cases have craniosynostosis. Our findings expand on the NS phenotype and suggest that germline mutations in the KRAS gene are causally involved in craniosynostosis, supporting the role of the RAS-MAPK pathway as a mediator of aberrant bone growth in cranial sutures. The inclusion of craniosynostosis as a possible phenotype in KRAS-associated Noonan Syndrome has implications in the differential diagnosis and surgical management of individuals with craniosynostosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonit A Addissie
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Udhaya Kotecha
- Center of Medical Genetics, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Rachel A Hart
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Ariel F Martinez
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Paul Kruszka
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Maximilian Muenke
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling pathways are essential regulators of vertebrate skeletal development. FGF signaling regulates development of the limb bud and formation of the mesenchymal condensation and has key roles in regulating chondrogenesis, osteogenesis, and bone and mineral homeostasis. This review updates our review on FGFs in skeletal development published in Genes & Development in 2002, examines progress made on understanding the functions of the FGF signaling pathway during critical stages of skeletogenesis, and explores the mechanisms by which mutations in FGF signaling molecules cause skeletal malformations in humans. Links between FGF signaling pathways and other interacting pathways that are critical for skeletal development and could be exploited to treat genetic diseases and repair bone are also explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Pierre J Marie
- UMR-1132, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Hopital Lariboisiere, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France
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78
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Abstract
Skeletal dysplasias result from disruptions in normal skeletal growth and development and are a major contributor to severe short stature. They occur in approximately 1/5,000 births, and some are lethal. Since the most recent publication of the Nosology and Classification of Genetic Skeletal Disorders, genetic causes of 56 skeletal disorders have been uncovered. This remarkable rate of discovery is largely due to the expanded use of high-throughput genomic technologies. In this review, we discuss these recent discoveries and our understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind these skeletal dysplasia phenotypes. We also cover potential therapies, unusual genetic mechanisms, and novel skeletal syndromes both with and without known genetic causes. The acceleration of skeletal dysplasia genetics is truly spectacular, and these advances hold great promise for diagnostics, risk prediction, and therapeutic design.
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79
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Marie PJ. Osteoblast dysfunctions in bone diseases: from cellular and molecular mechanisms to therapeutic strategies. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:1347-61. [PMID: 25487608 PMCID: PMC11113967 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-014-1801-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Several metabolic, genetic and oncogenic bone diseases are characterized by defective or excessive bone formation. These abnormalities are caused by dysfunctions in the commitment, differentiation or survival of cells of the osteoblast lineage. During the recent years, significant advances have been made in our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the osteoblast dysfunctions in osteoporosis, skeletal dysplasias and primary bone tumors. This led to suggest novel therapeutic approaches to correct these abnormalities such as the modulation of WNT signaling, the pharmacological modulation of proteasome-mediated protein degradation, the induction of osteoprogenitor cell differentiation, the repression of cancer cell proliferation and the manipulation of epigenetic mechanisms. This article reviews our current understanding of the major cellular and molecular mechanisms inducing osteoblastic cell abnormalities in age-related bone loss, genetic skeletal dysplasias and primary bone tumors, and discusses emerging therapeutic strategies to counteract the osteoblast abnormalities in these disorders of bone formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre J Marie
- INSERM UMR-1132, Hôpital Lariboisière, 2 rue Ambroise Paré, 75475, Paris Cedex 10, France,
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80
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Zhang L, Chen P, Chen L, Weng T, Zhang S, Zhou X, Zhang B, Liu L. Inhibited Wnt signaling causes age-dependent abnormalities in the bone matrix mineralization in the Apert syndrome FGFR2(S252W/+) mice. PLoS One 2015; 10:e112716. [PMID: 25693202 PMCID: PMC4333342 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome (AS) is a type of autosomal dominant disease characterized by premature fusion of the cranial sutures, severe syndactyly, and other abnormalities in internal organs. Approximately 70% of AS cases are caused by a single mutation, S252W, in fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2). Two groups have generated FGFR2 knock-in mice Fgfr2S252W/+ that exhibit features of AS. During the present study of AS using the Fgfr2S252W/+ mouse model, an age-related phenotype of bone homeostasis was discovered. The long bone mass was lower in 2 month old mutant mice than in age-matched controls but higher in 5 month old mutant mice. This unusual phenotype suggested that bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), which are vital to maintain bone homeostasis, might be involved. BMSCs were isolated from Fgfr2S252W/+ mice and found that S252W mutation could impair osteogenic differentiation BMSCs but enhance mineralization of more mature osteoblasts. A microarray analysis revealed that Wnt pathway inhibitors SRFP1/2/4 were up-regulated in mutant BMSCs. This work provides evidence to show that the Wnt/β-catenin pathway is inhibited in both mutant BMSCs and osteoblasts, and differentiation defects of these cells can be ameliorated by Wnt3a treatment. The present study suggested that the bone abnormalities caused by deregulation of Wnt pathway may underlie the symptoms of AS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhang
- Department of Stomatology, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
- Department 4, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Peng Chen
- Department 4, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Chongqing 400042, China
- Neurosurgery Department, PLA 324 Hospital, Chongqing, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Stomatology, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Tujun Weng
- Department 4, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Shichang Zhang
- Department 4, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Xia Zhou
- Department of Stomatology, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department 4, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Luchuan Liu
- Department of Stomatology, Daping Hospital & Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
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81
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Sanchez-Ortiz E, Cho W, Nazarenko I, Mo W, Chen J, Parada LF. NF1 regulation of RAS/ERK signaling is required for appropriate granule neuron progenitor expansion and migration in cerebellar development. Genes Dev 2014; 28:2407-20. [PMID: 25367036 PMCID: PMC4215185 DOI: 10.1101/gad.246603.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Cerebellar development is regulated by a coordinated spatiotemporal interplay between granule neuron progenitors (GNPs), Purkinje neurons, and glia. Abnormal development can trigger motor deficits, and more recent data indicate important roles in aspects of memory, behavior, and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Germline mutation in the NF1 tumor suppressor gene underlies Neurofibromatosis type 1, a complex disease that enhances susceptibility to certain cancers and neurological disorders, including intellectual deficits and ASD. The NF1 gene encodes for neurofibromin, a RAS GTPase-activating protein, and thus negatively regulates the RAS signaling pathway. Here, using mouse models to direct conditional NF1 ablation in either embryonic cerebellar progenitors or neonatal GNPs, we show that neurofibromin is required for appropriate development of cerebellar folia layering and structure. Remarkably, neonatal administration of inhibitors of the ERK pathway reversed the morphological defects. Thus, our findings establish a critical cell-autonomous role for the NF1-RAS-ERK pathway in the appropriate regulation of cerebellar development and provide a basis for using neonatal ERK inhibitor-based therapies to treat NF1-induced cerebellar disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efrain Sanchez-Ortiz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Kent Waldrep Foundation Center for Research on Nerve Growth and Regeneration, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas 75390, USA
| | - Woosung Cho
- Department of Developmental Biology, Kent Waldrep Foundation Center for Research on Nerve Growth and Regeneration, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas 75390, USA
| | - Inga Nazarenko
- Department of Developmental Biology, Kent Waldrep Foundation Center for Research on Nerve Growth and Regeneration, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas 75390, USA
| | - Wei Mo
- Department of Developmental Biology, Kent Waldrep Foundation Center for Research on Nerve Growth and Regeneration, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas 75390, USA
| | - Jian Chen
- Department of Developmental Biology, Kent Waldrep Foundation Center for Research on Nerve Growth and Regeneration, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas 75390, USA
| | - Luis F Parada
- Department of Developmental Biology, Kent Waldrep Foundation Center for Research on Nerve Growth and Regeneration, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas 75390, USA
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82
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Takenouchi T, Sakamoto Y, Miwa T, Torii C, Kosaki R, Kishi K, Takahashi T, Kosaki K. Severe craniosynostosis with Noonan syndrome phenotype associated with SHOC2 mutation: clinical evidence of crosslink between FGFR and RAS signaling pathways. Am J Med Genet A 2014; 164A:2869-72. [PMID: 25123707 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.36705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Dysregulation in the RAS signaling cascade results in a family of malformation syndromes called RASopathies. Meanwhile, alterations in FGFR signaling cascade are responsible for various syndromic forms of craniosynostosis. In general, the phenotypic spectra of RASopathies and craniosynostosis syndromes do not overlap. Recently, however, mutations in ERF, a downstream molecule of the RAS signaling cascade, have been identified as a cause of complex craniosynostosis, suggesting that the RAS and FGFR signaling pathways can interact in the pathogenesis of malformation syndromes. Here, we document a boy with short stature, developmental delay, and severe craniosynostosis involving right coronal, bilateral lambdoid, and sagittal sutures with a de novo mutation in exon1 of SHOC2 (c.4A>G p.Ser2Gly). This observation further supports the existence of a crosslink between the RAS signaling cascade and craniosynostosis. In retrospect, the propositus had physical features suggestive of a dysregulated RAS signaling cascade, such as fetal pleural effusion, fetal hydrops, and atrial tachycardia. In addition to an abnormal cranial shape, which has been reported for this specific mutation, craniosynostosis might be a novel associated phenotype. In conclusion, the phenotypic combination of severe craniosynostosis and RASopathy features observed in the propositus suggests an interaction between the RAS and FGFR signaling cascades. Patients with craniosynostosis in combination with any RASopathy feature may require mutation screening for molecules in the FGFR-RAS signaling cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiki Takenouchi
- Department of Pediatrics, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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83
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Xie Y, Zhou S, Chen H, Du X, Chen L. Recent research on the growth plate: Advances in fibroblast growth factor signaling in growth plate development and disorders. J Mol Endocrinol 2014; 53:T11-34. [PMID: 25114206 DOI: 10.1530/jme-14-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Skeletons are formed through two distinct developmental actions, intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. During embryonic development, most bone is formed by endochondral ossification. The growth plate is the developmental center for endochondral ossification. Multiple signaling pathways participate in the regulation of endochondral ossification. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)/FGF receptor (FGFR) signaling has been found to play a vital role in the development and maintenance of growth plates. Missense mutations in FGFs and FGFRs can cause multiple genetic skeletal diseases with disordered endochondral ossification. Clarifying the molecular mechanisms of FGFs/FGFRs signaling in skeletal development and genetic skeletal diseases will have implications for the development of therapies for FGF-signaling-related skeletal dysplasias and growth plate injuries. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in elucidating the role of FGFs/FGFRs signaling in growth plate development, genetic skeletal disorders, and the promising therapies for those genetic skeletal diseases resulting from FGFs/FGFRs dysfunction. Finally, we also examine the potential important research in this field in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangli Xie
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineCenter of Bone Metabolism and Repair, Trauma Center, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Siru Zhou
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineCenter of Bone Metabolism and Repair, Trauma Center, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Hangang Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineCenter of Bone Metabolism and Repair, Trauma Center, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Xiaolan Du
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineCenter of Bone Metabolism and Repair, Trauma Center, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation MedicineCenter of Bone Metabolism and Repair, Trauma Center, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China
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84
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Yokota M, Kobayashi Y, Morita J, Suzuki H, Hashimoto Y, Sasaki Y, Akiyoshi K, Moriyama K. Therapeutic effect of nanogel-based delivery of soluble FGFR2 with S252W mutation on craniosynostosis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e101693. [PMID: 25003957 PMCID: PMC4086955 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome is an autosomal dominantly inherited disorder caused by missense mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2). Surgical procedures are frequently required to reduce morphological and functional defects in patients with Apert syndrome; therefore, the development of noninvasive procedures to treat Apert syndrome is critical. Here we aimed to clarify the etiological mechanisms of craniosynostosis in mouse models of Apert syndrome and verify the effects of purified soluble FGFR2 harboring the S252W mutation (sFGFR2IIIcS252W) on calvarial sutures in Apert syndrome mice in vitro. We observed increased expression of Fgf10, Esrp1, and Fgfr2IIIb, which are indispensable for epidermal development, in coronal sutures in Apert syndrome mice. Purified sFGFR2IIIcS252W exhibited binding affinity for fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) 2 but also formed heterodimers with FGFR2IIIc, FGFR2IIIcS252W, and FGFR2IIIbS252W. Administration of sFGFR2IIIcS252W also inhibited Fgf2-dependent proliferation, phosphorylation of intracellular signaling molecules, and mineralization of FGFR2S252W-overexpressing MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. sFGFR2IIIcS252W complexed with nanogels maintained the patency of coronal sutures, whereas synostosis was observed where the nanogel without sFGFR2S252W was applied. Thus, based on our current data, we suggest that increased Fgf10 and Fgfr2IIIb expression may induce the onset of craniosynostosis in patients with Apert syndrome and that the appropriate delivery of purified sFGFR2IIIcS252W could be effective for treating this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masako Yokota
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukiho Kobayashi
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Jumpei Morita
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Suzuki
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Yoshihiro Sasaki
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kazunari Akiyoshi
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- ERATO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keiji Moriyama
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Division of Maxillofacial/Neck Reconstruction, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Hard Tissue Genome Research Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
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85
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Closing the Gap: Genetic and Genomic Continuum from Syndromic to Nonsyndromic Craniosynostoses. CURRENT GENETIC MEDICINE REPORTS 2014; 2:135-145. [PMID: 26146596 DOI: 10.1007/s40142-014-0042-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis, a condition that includes the premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures, is a relatively common birth defect in humans and the second most common craniofacial anomaly after orofacial clefts. There is a significant clinical variation among different sutural synostoses as well as significant variation within any given single-suture synostosis. Craniosynostosis can be isolated (i.e., nonsyndromic) or occurs as part of a genetic syndrome (e.g., Crouzon, Pfeiffer, Apert, Muenke, and Saethre-Chotzen syndromes). Approximately 85 % of all cases of craniosynostosis are nonsyndromic. Several recent genomic discoveries are elucidating the genetic basis for nonsyndromic cases and implicate the newly identified genes in signaling pathways previously found in syndromic craniosynostosis. Published epidemiologic and phenotypic studies clearly demonstrate that nonsyndromic craniosynostosis is a complex and heterogeneous condition supporting a strong genetic component accompanied by environmental factors that contribute to the pathogenetic network of this birth defect. Large population, rather than single-clinic or hospital-based studies is required with phenotypically homogeneous subsets of patients to further understand the complex genetic, maternal, environmental, and stochastic factors contributing to nonsyndromic craniosynostosis. Learning about these variables is a key in formulating the basis of multidisciplinary and lifelong care for patients with these conditions.
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86
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Su N, Jin M, Chen L. Role of FGF/FGFR signaling in skeletal development and homeostasis: learning from mouse models. Bone Res 2014; 2:14003. [PMID: 26273516 PMCID: PMC4472122 DOI: 10.1038/boneres.2014.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2013] [Revised: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF)/fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) signaling plays essential roles in bone development and diseases. Missense mutations in FGFs and FGFRs in humans can cause various congenital bone diseases, including chondrodysplasia syndromes, craniosynostosis syndromes and syndromes with dysregulated phosphate metabolism. FGF/FGFR signaling is also an important pathway involved in the maintenance of adult bone homeostasis. Multiple kinds of mouse models, mimicking human skeleton diseases caused by missense mutations in FGFs and FGFRs, have been established by knock-in/out and transgenic technologies. These genetically modified mice provide good models for studying the role of FGF/FGFR signaling in skeleton development and homeostasis. In this review, we summarize the mouse models of FGF signaling-related skeleton diseases and recent progresses regarding the molecular mechanisms, underlying the role of FGFs/FGFRs in the regulation of bone development and homeostasis. This review also provides a perspective view on future works to explore the roles of FGF signaling in skeletal development and homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Su
- Center of Bone Metabolism and Repair, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Trauma Center, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University , Chongqing, 400042, China
| | - Min Jin
- Center of Bone Metabolism and Repair, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Trauma Center, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University , Chongqing, 400042, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Center of Bone Metabolism and Repair, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Trauma Center, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University , Chongqing, 400042, China
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87
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Yoon WJ, Cho YD, Kim WJ, Bae HS, Islam R, Woo KM, Baek JH, Bae SC, Ryoo HM. Prolyl isomerase Pin1-mediated conformational change and subnuclear focal accumulation of Runx2 are crucial for fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2)-induced osteoblast differentiation. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:8828-38. [PMID: 24509851 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.516237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) signaling plays a pivotal role in bone growth/differentiation through the activation of osteogenic master transcription factor Runx2, which is mediated by the ERK/MAPK-dependent phosphorylation and the p300-dependent acetylation of Runx2. In this study, we found that Pin1-dependent isomerization of Runx2 is the critical step for FGF2-induced Runx2 transactivation function. We identified four serine or threonine residues in the C-terminal domain of Runx2 that are responsible for Pin1 binding and structural modification. Confocal imaging studies indicated that FGF2 treatment strongly stimulated the focal accumulation of Pin1 in the subnuclear area, which recruited Runx2. In addition, active forms of RNA polymerase-II also colocalized in the same subnuclear compartment. Dipentamethylene thiuram monosulfide, a Pin1 inhibitor, strongly attenuated their focal accumulation as well as Runx2 transactivation activity. The Pin1-mediated structural modification of Runx2 is an indispensable step connecting phosphorylation and acetylation and, consequently, transcriptional activation of Runx2 by FGF signaling. Thus, the modulation of Pin1 activity may be a target for the regulation of bone formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Joon Yoon
- From the Department of Molecular Genetics, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 110-749 and
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88
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Neural crest cell signaling pathways critical to cranial bone development and pathology. Exp Cell Res 2014; 325:138-47. [PMID: 24509233 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2014.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Neural crest cells appear early during embryogenesis and give rise to many structures in the mature adult. In particular, a specific population of neural crest cells migrates to and populates developing cranial tissues. The ensuing differentiation of these cells via individual complex and often intersecting signaling pathways is indispensible to growth and development of the craniofacial complex. Much research has been devoted to this area of development with particular emphasis on cell signaling events required for physiologic development. Understanding such mechanisms will allow researchers to investigate ways in which they can be exploited in order to treat a multitude of diseases affecting the craniofacial complex. Knowing how these multipotent cells are driven towards distinct fates could, in due course, allow patients to receive regenerative therapies for tissues lost to a variety of pathologies. In order to realize this goal, nucleotide sequencing advances allowing snapshots of entire genomes and exomes are being utilized to identify molecular entities associated with disease states. Once identified, these entities can be validated for biological significance with other methods. A crucial next step is the integration of knowledge gleaned from observations in disease states with normal physiology to generate an explanatory model for craniofacial development. This review seeks to provide a current view of the landscape on cell signaling and fate determination of the neural crest and to provide possible avenues of approach for future research.
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89
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Chen P, Zhang L, Weng T, Zhang S, Sun S, Chang M, Li Y, Zhang B, Zhang L. A Ser252Trp mutation in fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) mimicking human Apert syndrome reveals an essential role for FGF signaling in the regulation of endochondral bone formation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e87311. [PMID: 24489893 PMCID: PMC3904987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A S252W mutation of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2), which is responsible for nearly two-thirds of Apert syndrome (AS) cases, causes retarded development of the skeleton and skull malformation resulting from premature fusion of the craniofacial sutures. We utilized a Fgfr2+/S252W mouse (a knock-in mouse model mimicking human AS) to demonstrate decreased bone mass due to reduced trabecular bone volume, reduced bone mineral density, and shortened growth plates in the long bones. In vitro bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) culture studies revealed that the mutant mice showed reduced BMSC proliferation, a reduction in chondrogenic differentiation, and reduced mineralization. Our results suggest that these phenomena are caused by up-regulation of p38 and Erk1/2 phosphorylation. Treatment of cultured mutant bone rudiments with SB203580 or PD98059 resulted in partial rescue of the bone growth retardation. The p38 signaling pathway especially was found to be responsible for the retarded long bone development. Our data indicate that the S252W mutation in FGFR2 directly affects endochondral ossification, resulting in growth retardation of the long bone. We also show that the p38 and Erk1/2 signaling pathways partially mediate the effects of the S252W mutation of FGFR2 on long bone development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Neurosurgery Department, PLA 324 Hospital, Chongqing, China
| | - Li Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tujun Weng
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shichang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shijin Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mingtao Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
- * E-mail: (BZ); (Lianyang Zhang)
| | - Lianyang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burns and Combined Injury, Institute of Surgery Research, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
- * E-mail: (BZ); (Lianyang Zhang)
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90
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Morita J, Nakamura M, Kobayashi Y, Deng CX, Funato N, Moriyama K. Soluble form of FGFR2 with S252W partially prevents craniosynostosis of the apert mouse model. Dev Dyn 2013; 243:560-7. [PMID: 24259495 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 11/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apert syndrome (AS) is characterized by craniosynostosis, midfacial hypoplasia, and bony syndactyly. It is an autosomal dominantly inherited disease caused by point mutations (S252W or P253R) in fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) 2. These mutations cause activation of FGFR2 depending on ligand binding. Recently, an AS mouse model, Fgfr2(+/) (S252W) , showed phenotypes similar to those of AS patients. We previously reported that the soluble form of FGFR2(S252W) (sFGFR2IIIc(S252W) ) efficiently inhibits enhanced osteoblastic differentiation caused by FGFR2 activation in AS in vitro, presumably because FGFs binding to FGFRs is interrupted. In this study, we developed Fgfr2(+/) (S252W) (Ap) mice expressing the sFGFR2IIIc(S252W) protein, and we investigated the effects of sFGFR2IIIc(S252W) on AS-like phenotypes. RESULTS In Ap mice, the coronal suture (CS) was fused prematurely at P1. In addition, the mice exhibited a widened interfrontal suture (IFS) with ectopic bone and thickened cartilage formation. In Fgfr2(+/) (S252W) sFGFR2IIIc(S252W) (Ap/Sol) mice, the CS was similar to that of wild-type mice. Ap/Sol mice did not show any ectopic bone or cartilage formation in the IFS, but showed a wider IFS than that of the wild-type mice. CONCLUSIONS sFGFR2IIIc(S252W) may partially prevent craniosynostosis in the Apert mouse model by affecting the CS and IFS in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jumpei Morita
- Maxillofacial Orthognathics, Department of Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Function, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan; Human Gene Sciences Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
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91
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Storer M, Mas A, Robert-Moreno A, Pecoraro M, Ortells MC, Di Giacomo V, Yosef R, Pilpel N, Krizhanovsky V, Sharpe J, Keyes WM. Senescence is a developmental mechanism that contributes to embryonic growth and patterning. Cell 2013; 155:1119-30. [PMID: 24238961 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2013.10.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 799] [Impact Index Per Article: 72.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 07/20/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Senescence is a form of cell-cycle arrest linked to tumor suppression and aging. However, it remains controversial and has not been documented in nonpathologic states. Here we describe senescence as a normal developmental mechanism found throughout the embryo, including the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) and the neural roof plate, two signaling centers in embryonic patterning. Embryonic senescent cells are nonproliferative and share features with oncogene-induced senescence (OIS), including expression of p21, p15, and mediators of the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Interestingly, mice deficient in p21 have defects in embryonic senescence, AER maintenance, and patterning. Surprisingly, the underlying mesenchyme was identified as a source for senescence instruction in the AER, whereas the ultimate fate of these senescent cells is apoptosis and macrophage-mediated clearance. We propose that senescence is a normal programmed mechanism that plays instructive roles in development, and that OIS is an evolutionarily adapted reactivation of a developmental process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mekayla Storer
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG) and UPF, Barcelona 08003, Spain
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92
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Rachwalski M, Wollnik B, Kress W. Klinik und Genetik syndromaler und nichtsyndromaler Kraniosynostosen. MED GENET-BERLIN 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11825-013-0412-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Zusammenfassung
Kraniosynostosen gehören mit einer Inzidenz von 1:2000 bis 1:3000 Geburten zu den häufigsten kraniofazialen Anomalien. Die durch die vorzeitige Verknöcherung einer oder mehrerer Schädelnähte verursachte Wachstumshemmung kann zu schweren Deformitäten des Schädel- und Gesichtsskeletts führen. Dies sorgt nicht nur für eine große ästhetische Beeinträchtigung, sondern hat auch funktionelle Auswirkungen für die Patienten. Hierzu können u. a. gehören: intrakranielle Drucksteigerung, Atrophie des N. opticus, Atem-, Hör- und Entwicklungsstörungen. Trotz großer Anstrengungen konnten bisher nur für einen Teil der autosomal-dominanten syndromalen Kraniosynostosen die ursächlichen Gene, z. B „fibroblast growth factor receptor 1-3“ (FGFR1-3), „twist basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor 1“ (TWIST1) etc., gefunden werden. Die Ätiologie der nichtsyndromalen Kraniosynostosen bleibt weiterhin ungeklärt. Aufgrund der verbreiteten Anwendung neuer Sequenziertechnologien zur Identifizierung neuer kausaler Gene bei Patienten mit Kraniosynostose kann in den nächsten Jahren mit der Entschlüsselung vieler weiterer krankheitsverursachender Gene gerechnet werden. Insbesondere die syndromalen Formen der Kraniosynostose bedürfen aufgrund ihrer klinischen Komplexität einer interdisziplinären Betreuung. Die einzige Therapieoption besteht derzeit in der kraniofazialen Chirurgie, welche aber die genetisch determinierten pathologischen Wachstumsmuster der komplexen syndromalen Kraniosynostosen langfristig oft nicht beheben kann.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Rachwalski
- Aff1 grid.411097.a 000000008852305X Institut für Humangenetik Uniklinik Köln Kerpener Str. 34 50931 Köln Deutschland
| | - B. Wollnik
- Aff1 grid.411097.a 000000008852305X Institut für Humangenetik Uniklinik Köln Kerpener Str. 34 50931 Köln Deutschland
| | - W. Kress
- Aff2 grid.8379.5 0000000119588658 Institut für Humangenetik Universität Würzburg Würzburg Deutschland
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93
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Liu C, Cui Y, Luan J, Zhou X, Han J. The molecular and cellular basis of Apert syndrome. Intractable Rare Dis Res 2013; 2:115-22. [PMID: 25343114 PMCID: PMC4204555 DOI: 10.5582/irdr.2013.v2.4.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 11/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome (AS) is a rare genetic and congenital disease characterized by craniosynostosis and syndactly of hands and feet. AS patients generally require lifelong management, however there are still no effective treatment methods except surgery. In recent years, research has made great progress in the pathogenesis of AS. FGFR2 mediates extracellular signals into cells and the mutations in the FGFR2 gene cause AS occurrence. Activated FGFs/FGFR2 signaling disrupt the balance of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis via its downstream signal pathways. However, how the pathways transform the balance is not well understood and contradictions have occurred in different studies. In this review, we'll focus on these problems to get a better understanding of AS pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
- School of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Jinan-Shandong Academy of Medical Science, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Yazhou Cui
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Jing Luan
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhou
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Jinxiang Han
- Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
- Address correspondence to: Dr. Jinxiang Han, Key Laboratory for Rare Disease Research of Shandong Province, Key Laboratory for Biotech Drugs of the Ministry of Health, Shandong Medical Biotechnological Center, Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, 250062, Shandong, China. E-mail:
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94
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Abstract
The RASopathies are a clinically defined group of medical genetic syndromes caused by germline mutations in genes that encode components or regulators of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. These disorders include neurofibromatosis type 1, Noonan syndrome, Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines, capillary malformation-arteriovenous malformation syndrome, Costello syndrome, cardio-facio-cutaneous syndrome, and Legius syndrome. Because of the common underlying Ras/MAPK pathway dysregulation, the RASopathies exhibit numerous overlapping phenotypic features. The Ras/MAPK pathway plays an essential role in regulating the cell cycle and cellular growth, differentiation, and senescence, all of which are critical to normal development. Therefore, it is not surprising that Ras/MAPK pathway dysregulation has profound deleterious effects on both embryonic and later stages of development. The Ras/MAPK pathway has been well studied in cancer and is an attractive target for small-molecule inhibition to treat various malignancies. The use of these molecules to ameliorate developmental defects in the RASopathies is under consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Rauen
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics, and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, California 94115;
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95
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Komatsu Y, Yu PB, Kamiya N, Pan H, Fukuda T, Scott GJ, Ray MK, Yamamura KI, Mishina Y. Augmentation of Smad-dependent BMP signaling in neural crest cells causes craniosynostosis in mice. J Bone Miner Res 2013; 28:1422-33. [PMID: 23281127 PMCID: PMC3638058 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.1857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis describes conditions in which one or more sutures of the infant skull are prematurely fused, resulting in facial deformity and delayed brain development. Approximately 20% of human craniosynostoses are thought to result from gene mutations altering growth factor signaling; however, the molecular mechanisms by which these mutations cause craniosynostosis are incompletely characterized, and the causative genes for diverse types of syndromic craniosynostosis have yet to be identified. Here, we show that enhanced bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling through the BMP type IA receptor (BMPR1A) in cranial neural crest cells, but not in osteoblasts, causes premature suture fusion in mice. In support of a requirement for precisely regulated BMP signaling, this defect was rescued on a Bmpr1a haploinsufficient background, with corresponding normalization of Smad phosphorylation. Moreover, in vivo treatment with LDN-193189, a selective chemical inhibitor of BMP type I receptor kinases, resulted in partial rescue of craniosynostosis. Enhanced signaling of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) pathway, which has been implicated in craniosynostosis, was observed in both mutant and rescued mice, suggesting that augmentation of FGF signaling is not the sole cause of premature fusion found in this model. The finding that relatively modest augmentation of Smad-dependent BMP signaling leads to premature cranial suture fusion suggests an important contribution of dysregulated BMP signaling to syndromic craniosynostoses and potential strategies for early intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro Komatsu
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Laboratory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Paul B. Yu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Thier 505, 50 Blossom Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Nobuhiro Kamiya
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Laboratory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
- Center for Excellence in Hip Disorders, Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, TX 75219, USA
| | - Haichun Pan
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Tomokazu Fukuda
- Laboratory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 981-8555, Japan
| | - Gregory J. Scott
- Knock Out Core, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Manas K. Ray
- Knock Out Core, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Ken-ichi Yamamura
- Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Yuji Mishina
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Laboratory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
- Knock Out Core, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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96
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Craniosynostosis-associated Fgfr2(C342Y) mutant bone marrow stromal cells exhibit cell autonomous abnormalities in osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:292506. [PMID: 23762837 PMCID: PMC3665166 DOI: 10.1155/2013/292506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We recently reported that cranial bones of Fgfr2C342Y/+ craniosynostotic mice are diminished in density when compared to those of wild type mice, and that cranial bone cells isolated from the mutant mice exhibit inhibited late stage osteoblast differentiation. To provide further support for the idea that craniosynostosis-associated Fgfr mutations lead to cell autonomous defects in osteoblast differentiation and mineralized tissue formation, here we tested bone marrow stromal cells isolated from Fgfr2C342Y/+ mice for their ability to differentiate into osteoblasts. Additionally, to determine if the low bone mass phenotype of Crouzon syndrome includes the appendicular skeleton, long bones were assessed by micro CT. Fgfr2C342Y/+ cells showed increased osteoblastic gene expression during early osteoblastic differentiation but decreased expression of alkaline phosphatase mRNA and enzyme activity, and decreased mineralization during later stages of differentiation, when cultured under 2D in vitro conditions. Cells isolated from Fgfr2C342Y/+ mice also formed less bone when allowed to differentiate in a 3D matrix in vivo. Cortical bone parameters were diminished in long bones of Fgfr2C342Y/+ mice. These results demonstrate that marrow stromal cells of Fgfr2C342Y/+ mice have an autonomous defect in osteoblast differentiation and bone mineralization, and that the Fgfr2C342Y mutation influences both the axial and appendicular skeletons.
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97
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Kim SD, Yagnik G, Cunningham ML, Kim J, Boyadjiev SA. MAPK/ERK Signaling Pathway Analysis in Primary Osteoblasts From Patients With Nonsyndromic Sagittal Craniosynostosis. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 2013; 51:115-9. [PMID: 23566293 DOI: 10.1597/12-136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The MAPK/ERK signaling pathway has been implicated in several craniosynostosis syndromes and represents a plausible target for therapeutic management of craniosynostosis. The causes of sagittal nonsyndromic craniosynostosis (sNSC) have not been well understood and the role that MAPK/ERK signaling cascade plays in this condition warrants an investigation. We hypothesized that MAPK-signaling is misregulated in calvarial osteoblasts derived from patients with sNSC. METHODS In order to analyze if the MAPK/ERK pathway is perturbed in sNSC, we established primary calvarial osteoblast cell lines from patients undergoing surgery for correction of this congenital anomaly. Appropriate negative and positive control cell lines were used for comparison, and we examined the levels of phosphorylated ERK by immunoblotting. RESULTS Primary osteoblasts from patients with sNSC showed no difference in ERK1/2 phosphorylation with or without FGF2 stimulation as compared with control osteoblasts. CONCLUSION Under the described test conditions, we did not observe convincing evidence that MAPK/ERK signaling contributes to the development of sNSC.
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98
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Martínez-Abadías N, Holmes G, Pankratz T, Wang Y, Zhou X, Jabs EW, Richtsmeier JT. From shape to cells: mouse models reveal mechanisms altering palate development in Apert syndrome. Dis Model Mech 2013; 6:768-79. [PMID: 23519026 PMCID: PMC3634659 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.010397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Apert syndrome is a congenital disorder characterized by severe skull malformations and caused by one of two missense mutations, S252W and P253R, on fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2). The molecular bases underlying differential Apert syndrome phenotypes are still poorly understood and it is unclear why cleft palate is more frequent in patients carrying the S252W mutation. Taking advantage of Apert syndrome mouse models, we performed a novel combination of morphometric, histological and immunohistochemical analyses to precisely quantify distinct palatal phenotypes in Fgfr2+/S252W and Fgfr2+/P253R mice. We localized regions of differentially altered FGF signaling and assessed local cell patterns to establish a baseline for understanding the differential effects of these two Fgfr2 mutations. Palatal suture scoring and comparative 3D shape analysis from high resolution μCT images of 120 newborn mouse skulls showed that Fgfr2+/S252W mice display relatively more severe palate dysmorphologies, with contracted and more separated palatal shelves, a greater tendency to fuse the maxillary-palatine sutures and aberrant development of the inter-premaxillary suture. These palatal defects are associated with suture-specific patterns of abnormal cellular proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. The posterior region of the developing palate emerges as a potential target for therapeutic strategies in clinical management of cleft palate in Apert syndrome patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neus Martínez-Abadías
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, 409 Carpenter Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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99
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Reduced dosage of ERF causes complex craniosynostosis in humans and mice and links ERK1/2 signaling to regulation of osteogenesis. Nat Genet 2013; 45:308-13. [PMID: 23354439 DOI: 10.1038/ng.2539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular signal-related kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) are key proteins mediating mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling downstream of RAS: phosphorylation of ERK1/2 leads to nuclear uptake and modulation of multiple targets. Here, we show that reduced dosage of ERF, which encodes an inhibitory ETS transcription factor directly bound by ERK1/2 (refs. 2,3,4,5,6,7), causes complex craniosynostosis (premature fusion of the cranial sutures) in humans and mice. Features of this newly recognized clinical disorder include multiple-suture synostosis, craniofacial dysmorphism, Chiari malformation and language delay. Mice with functional Erf levels reduced to ∼30% of normal exhibit postnatal multiple-suture synostosis; by contrast, embryonic calvarial development appears mildly delayed. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation in mouse embryonic fibroblasts and high-throughput sequencing, we find that ERF binds preferentially to elements away from promoters that contain RUNX or AP-1 motifs. This work identifies ERF as a novel regulator of osteogenic stimulation by RAS-ERK signaling, potentially by competing with activating ETS factors in multifactor transcriptional complexes.
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100
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Yeh E, Atique R, Ishiy FAA, Fanganiello RD, Alonso N, Matushita H, da Rocha KM, Passos-Bueno MR. FGFR2 mutation confers a less drastic gain of function in mesenchymal stem cells than in fibroblasts. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2012; 8:685-95. [PMID: 22048896 PMCID: PMC3412083 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-011-9327-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Gain-of-function mutations in FGFR2 cause Apert syndrome (AS), a disease characterized by craniosynostosis and limb bone defects both due to abnormalities in bone differentiation and remodeling. Although the periosteum is an important cell source for bone remodeling, its role in craniosynostosis remains poorly characterized. We hypothesized that periosteal mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and fibroblasts from AS patients have abnormal cell phenotypes that contribute to the recurrent fusion of the coronal sutures. MSCs and fibroblasts were obtained from the periostea of 3 AS patients (S252W) and 3 control individuals (WT). We evaluated the proliferation, migration, and osteogenic differentiation of these cells. Interestingly, S252W mutation had opposite effects on different cell types: S252W MSCs proliferated less than WT MSCs, while S252W fibroblasts proliferated more than WT fibroblasts. Under restrictive media conditions, only S252W fibroblasts showed enhanced migration. The presence of S252W mutation increased in vitro and in vivo osteogenic differentiation in both studied cell types, though the difference compared to WT cells was more pronounced in S252W fibroblasts. This osteogenic differentiation was reversed through inhibition of JNK. We demonstrated that S252W fibroblasts can induce osteogenic differentiation in periosteal MSCs but not in MSCs from another tissue. MSCs and fibroblasts responded differently to the pathogenic effects of the FGFR2S252W mutation. We propose that cells from the periosteum have a more important role in the premature fusion of cranial sutures than previously thought and that molecules in JNK pathway are strong candidates for the treatment of AS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Yeh
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Atique
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Felipe A. A. Ishiy
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Roberto Dalto Fanganiello
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Nivaldo Alonso
- Department of Plastic Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Hamilton Matushita
- Department of Plastic Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Katia Maria da Rocha
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Maria Rita Passos-Bueno
- Human Genome Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutive Biology, Institute of Bioscience, University of Sao Paulo, Rua do Matão, 277, São Paulo, SP CEP 05508-900 Brazil
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