51
|
Azzam SI, Kildishev AV, Ma RM, Ning CZ, Oulton R, Shalaev VM, Stockman MI, Xu JL, Zhang X. Ten years of spasers and plasmonic nanolasers. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2020; 9:90. [PMID: 32509297 PMCID: PMC7248101 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-020-0319-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Ten years ago, three teams experimentally demonstrated the first spasers, or plasmonic nanolasers, after the spaser concept was first proposed theoretically in 2003. An overview of the significant progress achieved over the last 10 years is presented here, together with the original context of and motivations for this research. After a general introduction, we first summarize the fundamental properties of spasers and discuss the major motivations that led to the first demonstrations of spasers and nanolasers. This is followed by an overview of crucial technological progress, including lasing threshold reduction, dynamic modulation, room-temperature operation, electrical injection, the control and improvement of spasers, the array operation of spasers, and selected applications of single-particle spasers. Research prospects are presented in relation to several directions of development, including further miniaturization, the relationship with Bose-Einstein condensation, novel spaser-based interconnects, and other features of spasers and plasmonic lasers that have yet to be realized or challenges that are still to be overcome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shaimaa I. Azzam
- School of Electrical & Computer Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
- Purdue Quantum Science and Engineering Institute, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| | - Alexander V. Kildishev
- School of Electrical & Computer Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
- Purdue Quantum Science and Engineering Institute, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| | - Ren-Min Ma
- State Key Lab for Mesoscopic Physics and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics & Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, China
| | - Cun-Zheng Ning
- Department of Electronic Engineering and International Center for Nano-Optoelectronics, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
- School of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287 USA
| | - Rupert Oulton
- The Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ UK
| | - Vladimir M. Shalaev
- School of Electrical & Computer Engineering and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
- Purdue Quantum Science and Engineering Institute, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907 USA
| | - Mark I. Stockman
- Center for Nano-Optics (CeNO) and Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303 USA
| | - Jia-Lu Xu
- Department of Electronic Engineering and International Center for Nano-Optoelectronics, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
- Faculties of Sciences and Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Chen X, Zhao X, Guo Z, Fu L, Lu Q, Xie S, Wu X. Optofluidic microbubble Fabry-Pérot cavity. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:15161-15172. [PMID: 32403548 DOI: 10.1364/oe.392728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
An optofluidic microbubble Fabry-Pérot (OMBFP) cavity was investigated. In contrast to plane-plane FP (PPFP) cavities, the optical mode confinement and stability in an OMBFP were significantly enhanced. The optical properties of the OMBFP cavity, including the quality (Q) factor, effective mode area, mode distribution as a function of the core refractive index, microbubble position, and mirror tilt angle, were investigated systematically using the finite element method. In optofluidic lasing experiments, a low lasing threshold of 1.25 µJ/mm2, which was one order magnitude lower than that of the PPFP, was achieved owing to improved modal lateral confinement. Since the microbubble acts as a micro-lens and microfluidic channel in the parallel FP cavity, mode selection and cell-dye laser were easily realized in the OMBFP cavity.
Collapse
|
53
|
Shi X, Bian Y, Tong J, Liu D, Zhou J, Wang Z. Chromaticity-tunable white random lasing based on a microfluidic channel. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:13576-13585. [PMID: 32403829 DOI: 10.1364/oe.384246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The color and/or chromaticity controllability of random lasing is a key factor to promote practical applications of random lasers as high luminance sources for speckle-free imaging. Here, white coherent random lasing with tunable chromaticity is obtained by using broadband enhancement Au-Ag nanowires as scatterers and the resonance energy transfer process between different dyes in the capillary microfluidic channel. Red, green and blue random lasers are separately fabricated with low thresholds, benefiting from the plasmonic resonance of the nanogaps and/or nanotips with random distribution and sizes within Au-Ag nanowires and positive optical feedback provided by the capillary wall. A white random laser system is then designed through reorganizing the three random lasers. And, the chromaticity of the white random laser is flexibly tunable by adjusting pump power density. In addition, the white random laser has anisotropic spectra due to the coupling role between the lasers. This characteristic is then utilized to obtain different random lasing with different chromaticity over a broad visible range. The results may provide a basis for applying random laser in the field of high brightness illumination, biomedical imaging, and sensors.
Collapse
|
54
|
Yang X, Luo Y, Liu Y, Gong C, Wang Y, Rao YJ, Peng GD, Gong Y. Mass production of thin-walled hollow optical fibers enables disposable optofluidic laser immunosensors. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:923-930. [PMID: 32022063 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc01216h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Disposable biosensors are of great importance in disease diagnosis due to their inherent merits of no cross-contamination and ease of use. Optofluidic laser (OFL) sensors are a new category of sensitive biosensors; however, it is challenging to cost-effectively mass-produce them to achieve disposability. Here, we report a disposable optofluidic laser immunosensor based on thin-walled hollow optical fibers (HOFs). Using a fiber draw tower, the fabrication parameters, including drawing speed and gas flow rate, are explored, and the HOF geometry is precisely controlled, which allows identical laser microring resonators to be distributed along the fibers. The disposable OFL immunosensor detects the protein concentration in the HOF through a wash-free immunoassay. Enabled by the disposable sensors, the statistical characteristics of 80 tests for each concentration greatly reduces the bioassay uncertainty. A low coefficient of variation (CV) of 3.3% confirms the high reproducibility of the disposable HOF-OFL sensors, and the mean of the normal distribution of the logarithmic OFL intensity serves as the sensing output. A limit of detection of 11 nM within a short assay time of 15 min is achieved. These disposable immunosensors possess the advantages of low cost, high reproducibility, fast assay, and low-volume consumption of sample and reagents. We believe that this work will inspire disposable optofluidics through the mass production of multifunctional microstructured optical fibers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731, China.
| | - Yanhua Luo
- School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Yiling Liu
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731, China.
| | - Chaoyang Gong
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731, China. and School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Ave, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Yanqiong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731, China.
| | - Yun-Jiang Rao
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731, China.
| | - Gang-Ding Peng
- School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
| | - Yuan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731, China.
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Chen Q, Tong X, Zhu Y, Tsoi CC, Jia Y, Li Z, Zhang X. Aberration-free aspherical in-plane tunable liquid lenses by regulating local curvatures. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:995-1001. [PMID: 32025666 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc01217f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Aberration is a long-standing problem of fixed focal lenses and a complicated lens set is usually required to compensate for aberration. It becomes more challenging for tunable lenses. This paper reports an original design of an in-plane optofluidic lens that enables compensation for spherical aberration during the tuning of focal length. The key idea is to use two arrays of electrode strips to symmetrically control the two air/liquid interfaces by the dielectrophoretic effect. The strips work together to define the global shape of the lens interface and thus the focal length, whereas each strip regulates the local curvature of the interface to focus the paraxial and peripheral arrays on the same point. Experiments using a silicone oil droplet demonstrate the tuning of focal length over 500-1400 μm and obtain a longitudinal spherical aberration (LSA) of ∼3.5 μm, which is only 1/24 of the LSA (85 μm) of the spherical lens. Fine adjustment of the applied voltages of strips allows even elimination of the LSA and enabling of the aberration-free tunable lenses. It is the first time that local curvature regulation is used to compensate for the aberration within one in-plane liquid lens. This simple and effective method will find potential applications in lab-on-a-chip systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingming Chen
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Xiliang Tong
- Beijing Institute of Space Mechanics & Electricity, Beijing 100094, China
| | - Yujiao Zhu
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Chi Chung Tsoi
- Beijing Institute of Space Mechanics & Electricity, Beijing 100094, China
| | - Yanwei Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed Signal VLSI, Institute of Microelectronics, University of Macau, Macau, China and Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, China and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Zhaohui Li
- School of Electronics and Information Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China and Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China
| | - Xuming Zhang
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China. and State Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed Signal VLSI, Institute of Microelectronics, University of Macau, Macau, China and Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Jiang X, Yang L. Optothermal dynamics in whispering-gallery microresonators. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2020; 9:24. [PMID: 32133127 PMCID: PMC7039911 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-019-0239-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Optical whispering-gallery-mode microresonators with ultrahigh quality factors and small mode volumes have played an important role in modern physics. They have been demonstrated as a diverse platform for a wide range of applications in photonics, such as nonlinear optics, optomechanics, quantum optics, and information processing. Thermal behaviors induced by power build-up in the resonators or environmental perturbations are ubiquitous in high-quality-factor whispering-gallery-mode resonators and have played an important role in their operation for various applications. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of laser-field-induced thermal nonlinear effects, including thermal bistability and thermal oscillation. With the help of the thermal bistability effect, optothermal spectroscopy and optical nonreciprocity have been demonstrated. By tuning the temperature of the environment, the resonant mode frequency will shift, which can also be used for thermal sensing/tuning applications. The thermal locking technique and thermal imaging mechanisms are discussed briefly. Finally, we review some techniques employed to achieve thermal stability in a high-quality-factor resonator system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuefeng Jiang
- Department of Electrical and System Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130 USA
| | - Lan Yang
- Department of Electrical and System Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130 USA
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Micro-/Nanofiber Optics: Merging Photonics and Material Science on Nanoscale for Advanced Sensing Technology. iScience 2019; 23:100810. [PMID: 31931430 PMCID: PMC6957875 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.100810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 11/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Micro-/nanofibers (MNFs) are optical fibers with diameters close to or below the wavelength of the guided light. These tiny fibers can offer engineerable waveguiding properties including optical confinement, fractional evanescent fields, and surface intensity, which is very attractive to optical sensing on the micro-/nano scale. In this review, we first introduce the basics of MNF optics and MNF optical sensors from physical and chemical to biological applications and review the progress and current status of this field. Then, we review and discuss hybrid MNF structures for advanced optical sensing by merging MNFs with functional structures including chemical indicators, quantum dots, dye molecules, plasmonic nanoparticles, 2-D materials, and optofluidic chips. Thirdly, we introduce the emerging trends in developing MNF-based advanced sensing technology for ultrasensitive, active, and wearable sensors and discuss the future prospects and challenges in this exciting research field. Finally, we end the review with a brief conclusion.
Collapse
|
58
|
Boni M, Andrei IR, Pascu ML, Staicu A. Fluorescence and Time-Delayed Lasing during Single Laser Pulse Excitation of a Pendant mm-Sized Dye Droplet. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24244464. [PMID: 31817499 PMCID: PMC6943645 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24244464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluorescence and lasing emission that are produced separately in time during excitation laser pulse for an mm-sized Rhodamine 6G dye-water droplet are reported. The droplet acts as a quasi-spherical closed optical resonator and due to multiple internal reflections, the resonant amplified emission is delayed with respect to fluorescence emission. Measurements of the temporal evolution of the droplet’s emission were performed by varying the signal acquisition gate width and gate delay with respect to the pumping pulse. The droplet emission spectra are structured in two bands which appear one after the other in time: first, the fluorescence emission band which follows pumping laser pulse time shape and then a second band, the lasing band, placed at shorter wavelengths and formed in time after the peak of the pumping laser pulse intensity, on the pulse tail. The lasing threshold pumping intensity is much lower than those for typical dye lasers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mihai Boni
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania; (M.B.); (I.R.A.); (M.L.P.)
| | - Ionut Relu Andrei
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania; (M.B.); (I.R.A.); (M.L.P.)
| | - Mihail Lucian Pascu
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania; (M.B.); (I.R.A.); (M.L.P.)
- Faculty of Physics, University of Bucharest, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Angela Staicu
- National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics, 077125 Magurele, Ilfov, Romania; (M.B.); (I.R.A.); (M.L.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +40-214575739
| |
Collapse
|
59
|
Nguyen TV, Pham NV, Mai HH, Duong DC, Le HH, Sapienza R, Ta VD. Protein-based microsphere biolasers fabricated by dehydration. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:9721-9726. [PMID: 31742302 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm01610d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Biolasers made of biological materials have attracted considerable research attention due to their biocompatibility and biodegradability, and have the potential for biosensing and biointegration. However, the current fabrication methods of biolasers suffer from several limitations, such as complicated processing, time-consuming and environmentally unfriendly nature. In this study, a novel approach with green processes for fabricating solid-state microsphere biolasers has been demonstrated. By dehydration via a modified Microglassification™ technology, dye-doped bovine serum albumin (BSA) droplets could be quickly (less than 10 minutes) and easily changed into solid microspheres with diameters ranging from 10 μm to 150 μm. The size of the microspheres could be effectively controlled by changing either the concentration of the BSA solution or the diameter of the initial droplets. The fabricated microspheres could act as efficient microlasers under an optical pulse excitation. A lasing threshold of 7.8 μJ mm-2 and a quality (Q) factor of about 1700 to 3100 were obtained. The size dependence of lasing characteristics was investigated, and the results showed a good agreement with whispering gallery mode (WGM) theory. Our findings contribute an effective technique for the fabrication of high-Q factor microlasers that may be potential for applications in biological and chemical sensors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Toan Van Nguyen
- Department of Physics, Le Quy Don Technical University, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
60
|
Umar M, Min K, Kim S, Kim S. Random lasing and amplified spontaneous emission from silk inverse opals: Optical gain enhancement via protein scatterers. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16266. [PMID: 31700045 PMCID: PMC6838073 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52706-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Gain amplification and coherent lasing lines through random lasing (RL) can be produced by a random distribution of scatterers in a gain medium. If these amplified light sources can be seamlessly integrated into biological systems, they can have useful bio-optical applications, such as highly accurate sensing and high-resolution imaging. In this paper, a fully biocompatible light source showing RL and amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) with a reduced threshold is reported. Random cavities were induced in a biocompatible silk protein film by incorporating an inverse opal with an inherent disorder and a biocompatible dye for optical gain into the film. By choosing the appropriate air-sphere diameters, clear RL spikes in the emission spectra that were clearly distinguished from those of the ASE were observed in the silk inverse opal (SIO) with optical gain. Additionally, the RL output exhibited spatial coherence; however, the ASE did not. The high surface-to-volume ratio and amplification of the SIO led to highly efficient chemosensing in the detection of hydrogen chloride vapor. Moreover, SIO could be miniaturized to be made suitable for injection into biological tissues and obtain RL signals. Our results, which open the way for the development of a new generation of miniaturized bio-lasers, may be considered as the first example of engineered RL with biocompatible materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Umar
- Department of Energy Systems Research, Ajou University, Suwon, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyungtaek Min
- Department of Energy Systems Research, Ajou University, Suwon, 16499, Republic of Korea.,Department of Nano-Optical Engineering, Korea Polytechnic University, Siheung, 15073, Republic of Korea
| | - Sookyoung Kim
- Department of Energy Systems Research, Ajou University, Suwon, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunghwan Kim
- Department of Energy Systems Research, Ajou University, Suwon, 16499, Republic of Korea. .,Department of Physics, Ajou University, Suwon, 16499, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
Gao D, Yang X, Teng P, Liu Z, Yang J, Kong D, Zhang J, Luo M, Li Z, Tian F, Yuan L. Optofluidic in-fiber integrated surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy detection based on a hollow optical fiber with a suspended core. OPTICS LETTERS 2019; 44:5173-5176. [PMID: 31674959 DOI: 10.1364/ol.44.005173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this Letter, we propose, to the best of our knowledge, the first in-fiber optofluidic Raman surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) sensor based on a microstructured hollow fiber (MHF) with a suspended core. Taking advantage of the unique internal structure, we immobilize silver nanoparticles with an SERS effect in the MHF by chemical bonding. The Raman signal of the microfluidic sample is excited by the excitation light in the suspended core through an evanescent field. Then the online SERS signal can be coupled back into the core and detected. To demonstrate the feasibility of the device, rhodamine 6G is chosen as the analyte, and high-quality SERS spectra are detected with the limit of detection of 1×10-14 M. Furthermore, an online optofluidic test is conducted on ceftriaxone (C18H18N8O7S3) to examine its capabilities in antibiotic sensing. The results show that the LOD of the samples is 10-6 M. Significantly, this Letter provides an integrated optofluidic in-fiber SERS sensor with a microchannel that can be integrated with chip devices without spatial optical coupling, which has a broad application in medicine and food safety, as well as various aspects of biological in-fiber sensing.
Collapse
|
62
|
Huang A, Paloni JM, Wang A, Obermeyer AC, Sureka HV, Yao H, Olsen BD. Predicting Protein-Polymer Block Copolymer Self-Assembly from Protein Properties. Biomacromolecules 2019; 20:3713-3723. [PMID: 31502834 PMCID: PMC6794641 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b00768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Protein–polymer
bioconjugate self-assembly has attracted
a great deal of attention as a method to fabricate protein nanomaterials
in solution and the solid state. To identify protein properties that
affect phase behavior in protein–polymer block copolymers,
a library of 15 unique protein-b-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) copolymers comprising 11 different
proteins was compiled and analyzed. Many attributes of phase behavior
are found to be similar among all studied bioconjugates regardless
of protein properties, such as formation of micellar phases at high
temperature and low concentration, lamellar ordering with increasing
temperature, and disordering at high concentration, but several key
protein-dependent trends are also observed. In particular, hexagonal
phases are only observed for proteins within the molar mass range
20–36 kDa, where ordering quality is also significantly enhanced.
While ordering is generally found to improve with increasing molecular
weight outside of this range, most large bioconjugates exhibited weaker
than predicted assembly, which is attributed to chain entanglement
with increasing polymer molecular weight. Additionally, order–disorder
transition boundaries are found to be largely uncorrelated to protein
size and quality of ordering. However, the primary finding is that
bioconjugate ordering can be accurately predicted using only protein
molecular weight and percentage of residues contained within β
sheets. This model provides a basis for designing protein–PNIPAM
bioconjugates that exhibit well-defined self-assembly and a modeling
framework that can generalize to other bioconjugate chemistries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Huang
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Justin M Paloni
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Amy Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Allie C Obermeyer
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Hursh V Sureka
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Helen Yao
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Bradley D Olsen
- Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , 77 Massachusetts Avenue , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| |
Collapse
|
63
|
Hanczyc P, Procyk M, Radzewicz C, Fita P. Two-photon excited lasing of Coumarin 307 for lysozyme amyloid fibrils detection. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2019; 12:e201900052. [PMID: 31059594 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201900052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Amyloid fibrils are a well-recognized hallmark of neurodegeneration. A common approach to detect amyloid fibrils is staining with organic molecules and monitoring optical properties using fluorescence spectroscopy. However, the structural diversity of amyloids necessitates new sensitive methods and probes that can be reliably used to characterize them. Here, Coumarin 307 is applied for lysozyme fibrils detection by observation of laser action in the process of two-photon excited stimulated emission. It is shown that the lasing threshold and spectrum significantly depend on the adopted structure (α-helix or β-sheet) of the lysozyme protein, whereas fluorescence spectrum is insensitive to the protein structure. The applications of coherent stimulated emission light that can be emitted deep inside a scattering medium can be particularly promising for imaging and therapeutic purposes in the neurodegeneration field. Two-photon excitation with the near-infrared light, which allows the deepest penetration of tissues, is an important advantage of the method.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Hanczyc
- Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Procyk
- Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Czeslaw Radzewicz
- Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Fita
- Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
64
|
Wang J, Karnaushenko D, Medina-Sánchez M, Yin Y, Ma L, Schmidt OG. Three-Dimensional Microtubular Devices for Lab-on-a-Chip Sensing Applications. ACS Sens 2019; 4:1476-1496. [PMID: 31132252 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The rapid advance of micro-/nanofabrication technologies opens up new opportunities for miniaturized sensing devices based on novel three-dimensional (3D) architectures. Notably, microtubular geometry exhibits natural advantages for sensing applications due to its unique properties including the hollow sensing channel, high surface-volume ratio, well-controlled shape parameters and compatibility to on-chip integration. Here the state-of-the-art sensing techniques based on microtubular devices are reviewed. The developed microtubular sensors cover microcapillaries, rolled-up nanomembranes, chemically synthesized tubular arrays, and photoresist-based tubular structures via 3D printing. Various types of microtubular sensors working in optical, electrical, and magnetic principles exhibit an extremely broad scope of sensing targets including liquids, biomolecules, micrometer-sized/nanosized objects, and gases. Moreover, they have also been applied for the detection of mechanical, acoustic, and magnetic fields as well as fluorescence signals in labeling-based analyses. At last, a comprehensive outlook of future research on microtubular sensors is discussed on pushing the detection limit, extending the functionality, and taking a step forward to a compact and integrable core module in a lab-on-a-chip analytical system for understanding fundamental biological events or performing accurate point-of-care diagnostics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Wang
- Institute for Integrative Nanosciences, IFW Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
- Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany
- Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Technische Universität Chemnitz, Rosenbergstrasse 6, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
| | | | | | - Yin Yin
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Libo Ma
- Institute for Integrative Nanosciences, IFW Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Oliver G. Schmidt
- Institute for Integrative Nanosciences, IFW Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
- Material Systems for Nanoelectronics, Technische Universität Chemnitz, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany
- Research Center for Materials, Architectures and Integration of Nanomembranes (MAIN), Technische Universität Chemnitz, Rosenbergstrasse 6, 09126 Chemnitz, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
65
|
He J, Hu S, Ren J, Cheng X, Hu Z, Wang N, Zhang H, Lam RHW, Tam HY. Biofluidic Random Laser Cytometer for Biophysical Phenotyping of Cell Suspensions. ACS Sens 2019; 4:832-840. [PMID: 30854844 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.8b01188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic profiling of single floating cells in liquid biopsies is the key to the era of precision medicine. A random laser in biofluids is a promising tool for the label-free characterization of the biophysical properties as a result of the high brightness and sharp peaks of the lasing spectra, yet previous reports were limited to the random laser in solid tissues with dense scattering. In this report, a random laser cytometer is demonstrated in an optofluidic device filled with gain medium and human breast normal/cancerous cells. The multiple lightscattering event induced by the microscale human cells promotes random lasing and influences the lasing properties in term of laser modes, spectral wavelengths, and lasing thresholds. A sensing strategy based on analyzing the lasing properties is developed to determine both the whole cell and the subcellular biophysical properties, and the malignant alterations of the cell suspensions are successfully detected. Our results provide a new approach to designing a label-free biophysical cytometer based on optofluidic random laser devices, which is advantageous for further research in the field of random laser bioapplication.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jijun He
- Department of Electrical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shuhuan Hu
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong High-Throughput Sequencing Research Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Jifeng Ren
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xin Cheng
- Department of Electrical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zhijia Hu
- School of Instrument Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
- Aston Institute of Photonic Technologies, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, U.K
| | - Ning Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Fiber Optic Sensing Technology, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Huangui Zhang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong High-Throughput Sequencing Research Center, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Raymond H. W. Lam
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hwa-Yaw Tam
- Department of Electrical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| |
Collapse
|
66
|
Yang X, Shu W, Wang Y, Gong Y, Gong C, Chen Q, Tan X, Peng GD, Fan X, Rao YJ. Turbidimetric inhibition immunoassay revisited to enhance its sensitivity via an optofluidic laser. Biosens Bioelectron 2019; 131:60-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2019.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
67
|
Optical Properties of Buffers and Cell Culture Media for Optofluidic and Sensing Applications. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/app9061145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between light and various cells in cultures, such as bacteria or mammalian cells, are widely applied for optical sensors and optofluidic systems. These microorganisms need to be kept in proper aqueous media, referred to as buffers or cell culture media, that are required, respectively, for stable storage or delivering biochemical nutrients for their growth. When experiments or numerical analyses on optical devices are performed, the properties of these media are usually considered to be similar to those of pure water, with negligible influence of biochemical compounds on the medium’s optical properties. In this work, we investigated the transmission, material dispersion, and scattering properties of selected and widely used buffers and cell culture media. We show that the optical properties of these media may significantly vary from those of water. Well-defined properties of buffers and cell culture media are essential for proper design of various optical sensing or future optofluidic systems dealing with biological structures.
Collapse
|
68
|
Chen YC, Chen Q, Tan X, Chen G, Bergin I, Aslam MN, Fan X. Chromatin laser imaging reveals abnormal nuclear changes for early cancer detection. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:838-854. [PMID: 30800518 PMCID: PMC6377874 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.000838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We developed and applied rapid scanning laser-emission microscopy (LEM) to detect abnormal changes in cell nuclei for early diagnosis of cancer and cancer precursors. Regulation of chromatins is essential for genetic development and normal cell functions, while abnormal nuclear changes may lead to many diseases, in particular, cancer. The capability to detect abnormal changes in "apparently normal" tissues at a stage earlier than tumor development is critical for cancer prevention. Here we report using LEM to analyze colonic tissues from mice at-risk for colon cancer (induced by a high-fat diet) by detecting pre-polyp nuclear abnormality. By imaging the lasing emissions from chromatins, we discovered that, despite the absence of observable lesions, polyps, or tumors under stereoscope, high-fat mice exhibited significantly lower lasing thresholds than low-fat mice. The low lasing threshold is, in fact, very similar to that of adenomas and is caused by abnormal cell proliferation and chromatin deregulation that can potentially lead to cancer. Our findings suggest that conventional detection methods, such as colonoscopy followed by histopathology, by itself, may be insufficient to reveal hidden or early tumors under development. We envision that this innovative work will provide new insights into LEM and support existing tools for early tumor detection in clinical diagnosis, and fundamental biological and biomedical research of chromatin changes at the biomolecular level of cancer development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Cheng Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Ave, 639798, Singapore
| | - Qiushu Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Xiaotain Tan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Grace Chen
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Ingrid Bergin
- Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Muhammad Nadeem Aslam
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, 1301 Catherine Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Xudong Fan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| |
Collapse
|
69
|
Cao Z, Yao B, Qin C, Yang R, Guo Y, Zhang Y, Wu Y, Bi L, Chen Y, Xie Z, Peng G, Huang SW, Wong CW, Rao Y. Biochemical sensing in graphene-enhanced microfiber resonators with individual molecule sensitivity and selectivity. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2019; 8:107. [PMID: 31798846 PMCID: PMC6874577 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-019-0213-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Photonic sensors that are able to detect and track biochemical molecules offer powerful tools for information acquisition in applications ranging from environmental analysis to medical diagnosis. The ultimate aim of biochemical sensing is to achieve both quantitative sensitivity and selectivity. As atomically thick films with remarkable optoelectronic tunability, graphene and its derived materials have shown unique potential as a chemically tunable platform for sensing, thus enabling significant performance enhancement, versatile functionalization and flexible device integration. Here, we demonstrate a partially reduced graphene oxide (prGO) inner-coated and fiber-calibrated Fabry-Perot dye resonator for biochemical detection. Versatile functionalization in the prGO film enables the intracavity fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) to be chemically selective in the visible band. Moreover, by measuring the intermode interference via noise canceled beat notes and locked-in heterodyne detection with Hz-level precision, we achieved individual molecule sensitivity for dopamine, nicotine and single-strand DNA detection. This work combines atomic-layer nanoscience and high-resolution optoelectronics, providing a way toward high-performance biochemical sensors and systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhongxu Cao
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Education Ministry of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Baicheng Yao
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Education Ministry of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Chenye Qin
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Education Ministry of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Run Yang
- State Key Lab of Electronic Thin Film and Integrated Devices, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Yanhong Guo
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Education Ministry of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Yufeng Zhang
- State Key Lab of Electronic Thin Film and Integrated Devices, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Yu Wu
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Education Ministry of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Lei Bi
- State Key Lab of Electronic Thin Film and Integrated Devices, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Yuanfu Chen
- State Key Lab of Electronic Thin Film and Integrated Devices, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
| | - Zhenda Xie
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures and School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093 China
| | - Gangding Peng
- School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Shu-Wei Huang
- Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309 USA
| | - Chee Wei Wong
- Fang Lu Mesoscopic Optics and Quantum Electronics Laboratory, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095 USA
| | - Yunjiang Rao
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Education Ministry of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731 China
- Ubiquitous Sensing Center, Zhejiang Laboratory, Hangzhou, 310000 China
| |
Collapse
|
70
|
Ma RM, Oulton RF. Applications of nanolasers. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 14:12-22. [PMID: 30559486 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0320-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Nanolasers generate coherent light at the nanoscale. In the past decade, they have attracted intense interest, because they are more compact, faster and more power-efficient than conventional lasers. Thanks to these capabilities, nanolasers are now an emergent tool for a variety of practical applications. In this Review, we explain the intrinsic merits of nanolasers and assess recent progress on their applications, particularly for optical interconnects, near-field spectroscopy and sensing, optical probing for biological systems and far-field beam synthesis through near-field eigenmode engineering. We highlight the scientific and engineering challenges that remain for forging nanolasers into powerful tools for nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ren-Min Ma
- State Key Lab for Mesoscopic Physics and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, China.
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, China.
| | - Rupert F Oulton
- The Blackett Laboratory, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
71
|
Chen Q, Li T, Li Z, Lu C, Zhang X. Dielectrophoresis-actuated liquid lenses with dual air/liquid interfaces tuned from biconcave to biconvex. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:3849-3854. [PMID: 30420975 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00999f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports an electrically reconfigurable optofluidic lens with two air-liquid (silicone oil) interfaces actuated by dielectrophoretic (DEP) force. Initially, a symmetric biconcave air-liquid lens is formed by the surface tension in a microfluidic chip. Then, the DEP force deforms the air-liquid interfaces from biconcave to biconvex, tuning the focal length from -0.5 mm to infinite to +0.5 mm. The wide tunability of the focal length results from the large refractive index difference (∼0.4 at the air-liquid interface), which is only 0.1 in previous liquid-liquid lenses. In the experiment, the lens achieves an ƒ number of 0.91 while consuming only 6.7 nJ per circle. Some asymmetric working states, such as concave-convex and plano-convex lenses, have also been demonstrated. Compared with continuous liquid flow-sustained lenses, this stationary liquid lens holds promise of better compatibility and higher scalability. Its wide tunability, low power consumption and easy operation make it suitable for light manipulation in microfluidic networks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingming Chen
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
72
|
Tang SJ, Liu Z, Qian YJ, Shi K, Sun Y, Wu C, Gong Q, Xiao YF. A Tunable Optofluidic Microlaser in a Photostable Conjugated Polymer. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1804556. [PMID: 30311273 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201804556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 09/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The optofluidic laser has become an important platform for biological sensing and medical diagnosis. To date, fluorescent dyes and proteins have been widely utilized as gain materials for biological analysis due to their good biocompatibility, but the limited photostability restricts their reliability and sensitivity. Here, an optofluidic microlaser with an ultralow threshold down to 7.8 µJ cm-2 in the ultrahigh-Q whispering-gallery microcavity, which is filled with a biocompatible conjugated polymer, is demonstrated. This conjugated polymer exhibits a significant enhancement in the lasing stability compared with a typical laser dye (Nile red). In the experiment, after 20 min of illumination with the excitation intensity of 23.2 MW cm-2 , the lasing intensity of the conjugated polymer experiences a decrease of less than 10%, while the lasing feature of Nile red completely disappears. Additionally, by mechanically stretching the resonator, the lasing frequency can be fine-tuned with the range of about 2 nm, exceeding the free spectral range of the resonator.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shui-Jing Tang
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Shanxi, Taiyuan, 030006, P. R. China
| | - Zhihe Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, P. R. China
| | - Yan-Jun Qian
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
| | - Kebin Shi
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
| | - Yujie Sun
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
| | - Changfeng Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, P. R. China
| | - Qihuang Gong
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Shanxi, Taiyuan, 030006, P. R. China
| | - Yun-Feng Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, 100871, P. R. China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Shanxi, Taiyuan, 030006, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
73
|
Liu X, Hu Y, Jia P, Zhang P, Wu H, Hao Z, Bo F, Chen Z, Xu J. Free-space coupling enhancement of micro-resonators via self-accelerating beams. OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 26:32055-32062. [PMID: 30650784 DOI: 10.1364/oe.26.032055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We study free-space coupling of optical fields to the whispering-gallery-mode resonators by employing self-accelerating beams orbiting a semicircle. The best coupling condition is obtained through theoretical analysis, in accord with the numerical results. Comparing with the conventional Gaussian-like beams, much enhanced coupling efficiency is achieved with such self-accelerating beams, particularly when a large numerical aperture of an optical system is used or a higher-order azimuthal mode is considered. Conditions with slight deviation from the ideal radius of self-accelerating beams are further discussed, aiming to realize an optimized high coupling efficiency.
Collapse
|
74
|
Zheng L, Zhi M, Chan Y, Khan SA. Multi-color lasing in chemically open droplet cavities. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14088. [PMID: 30237486 PMCID: PMC6147796 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32596-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we demonstrate FRET-based multicolor lasing within chemically open droplet cavities that allow online modulation of the gain medium composition. To do this, we generated monodisperse microfluidic droplets loaded with coumarin 102 (donor), where the spherical droplets acted as whispering gallery mode (WGM) optical cavities in which coumarin 102 lasing (~ 470 nm) was observed. The lasing color was switched from blue to orange by the introduction of a second dye (acceptor, rhodamine 6 G) into the flowing droplet cavities; subsequent lasing from rhodamine 6 G (~ 590 nm) was observed together with the complete absence of coumarin 102 emission. The ability to control color switching online within the same droplet cavity enables sequential detection of multiple target molecules within or around the cavity. As a demonstration of this concept, we show how the presence of FITC-Dextran and methylene blue (MB) in the medium surrounding the lasing droplets can be sequentially detected by the blue and orange laser respectively. The method is simple and can be extended to a range of water-soluble dyes, thus enabling a wide spectral range for the lasing with the use of a single pump laser source.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zheng
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, 3 Engineering Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117582, Singapore
| | - Min Zhi
- Department of Chemistry, 3 Science Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Yinthai Chan
- Department of Chemistry, 3 Science Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore.
| | - Saif A Khan
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, 3 Engineering Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117582, Singapore.
| |
Collapse
|
75
|
Gong C, Gong Y, Zhao X, Luo Y, Chen Q, Tan X, Wu Y, Fan X, Peng GD, Rao YJ. Distributed fibre optofluidic laser for chip-scale arrayed biochemical sensing. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:2741-2748. [PMID: 30094434 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00638e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Optofluidic lasers (OFLs) are an emerging technological platform for biochemical sensing, and their good performance especially high sensitivity has been demonstrated. However, high-throughput detection with an OFL remains a major challenge due to the lack of reproducible optical microcavities. Here, we introduce the concept of a distributed fibre optofluidic laser (DFOFL) and demonstrate its potential for high-throughput sensing applications. Due to the precise fibre geometry control via fibre drawing, a series of identical optical microcavities uniformly distributed along a hollow optical fibre (HOF) can be achieved to obtain a one-dimensional (1D) DFOFL. An enzymatic reaction catalysed by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) can be monitored over time, and the HRP concentration is detected by DFOFL-based arrayed colorimetric detection. Experimentally, five-channel detection in parallel with imaging has been demonstrated. Theoretically, spatial multiplexing of hundreds of channels is achievable with DFOFL-based detection. The DFOFL wavelength is tuned over hundreds of nanometers by optimizing the dye concentration or reconfiguring the liquid gain materials. Extending this concept to a two-dimensional (2D) chip through wavelength multiplexing can further enhance its multi-functionality, including multi-sample detection and spectral analysis. This work opens the door to high-throughput biochemical sensing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chaoyang Gong
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731 China.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
76
|
Affiliation(s)
- Gungun Lin
- Institute for Biomedical Materials & Devices (IBMD), Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Dayong Jin
- Institute for Biomedical Materials & Devices (IBMD), Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, New South Wales, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
77
|
Fernández-Luna V, Coto PB, Costa RD. When Fluorescent Proteins Meet White Light-Emitting Diodes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:8826-8836. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201711433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Pedro B. Coto
- Institut für Theoretische Physik; Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU); Staudtstr. 7/ B2 91058 Erlangen Germany
- Current address: Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry; Universidad de Oviedo; Avda. Julián Clavería 8 33006 Oviedo Spain) Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry
| | - Rubén D. Costa
- IMDEA Materials Institute; C/ Eric Kandel, 2, Tecnogetafe 28906, Getafe Madrid Spain
| |
Collapse
|
78
|
Fernández-Luna V, Coto PB, Costa RD. Wenn fluoreszierende Proteine und Weißlicht emittierende Dioden aufeinandertreffen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201711433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Pedro B. Coto
- Institut für Theoretische Physik; Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU); Staudtstraße 7/ B2 91058 Erlangen Deutschland
- Aktuelle Adresse: Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry; Universidad de Oviedo; Avda. Julián Clavería 8 33006 Oviedo Spanien
| | - Rubén D. Costa
- IMDEA Materials Institute; C/ Eric Kandel, 2, Tecnogetafe 28906, Getafe Madrid Spanien
| |
Collapse
|
79
|
Kim S, Kuroda A, Fujitsuka M, Majima T. Amplifying fluorescence signal contrast of aptamer-modified microspheres inspired by whispering-gallery mode lasing. RSC Adv 2018; 8:20822-20828. [PMID: 35542363 PMCID: PMC9080894 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra03192d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose a new sensor design that maximizes fluorescence contrast, inspired by whispering-gallery mode lasing (WGM). Aptamer-modified glass microspheres (cf. 1-38 μm) and thrombin are used as a model sensory cavity and target protein, respectively. Two types of microsphere are prepared to compare fluorescence contrast: turn-on and turn-off types by using fluorophore-labeled target protein and fluorophore-labeled DNA duplex with thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA), respectively. For the turn-on type, a fluorescence increase was detected in the presence of 100 nM thrombin, but signal amplification upon excitation power did not occur. As for the turn-off type, in the absence of thrombin, fluorophores are densely populated around the microsphere, leading to fluorescence confinement and intensity amplification upon increasing the pump intensity. By adding thrombin, a complementary strand of TBA is dissociated from the microsphere, and the G-quadruplex structure of the thrombin aptamer recognizes and binds to thrombin. As the fluorophore density around the microsphere decreases, fluorescence amplification based on WGM resonance is halted, resulting in 29-fold enhanced contrast under increased excitation power.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sooyeon Kim
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1 Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Ayaka Kuroda
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1 Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Mamoru Fujitsuka
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1 Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Tetsuro Majima
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1 Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
80
|
Wu X, Chen Q, Xu P, Chen YC, Wu B, Coleman RM, Tong L, Fan X. Nanowire lasers as intracellular probes. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:9729-9735. [PMID: 29762623 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr00515j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
We investigate a cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanowire (NW) laser that is spontaneously internalized into a single cell to serve as a stand-alone intracellular probe. By pumping with nano-joule light pulses, green laser emission (500-520 nm) can be observed inside cells with a peak linewidth as narrow as 0.5 nm. Due to the sub-micron diameter (∼200 nm), the NW has an appreciable fraction of the evanescent field outside, facilitating a sensitive detection of cellular environmental changes. By monitoring the lasing peak wavelength shift in response to the intracellular refractive index change, our NW laser probe shows a sensitivity of 55 nm per RIU (refractive index units) and a figure of merit of approximately 98.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
81
|
Chen YC, Chen Q, Wu X, Tan X, Wang J, Fan X. A robust tissue laser platform for analysis of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded biopsies. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:1057-1065. [PMID: 29511754 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00084k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Laser emission-based detection and imaging technology has attracted significant interest in biomedical research due to its high sensitivity, narrow linewidth, and superior spectral and spatial resolution. Recent advances have further revealed the potential to use laser emission to investigate chromatin dynamics, as well as to diagnose cancer tissues based on nuclear biomarkers. To move the laser emission based detection technology a step further towards practical use, in this work, we developed a highly robust tissue laser platform by microfabricating an SU8 spacer with a fixed height on the top mirror of the Fabry-Pérot (FP) cavity, which allows generation of reproducible and stable lasing results regardless of tissue thickness. Then we applied this platform to achieve lasing emission from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) lung tissues, which account for an overwhelming fraction of tissues collected for research and clinical use worldwide. We further showed that the cancer and normal FFPE lung tissues can be distinguished by their respective lasing thresholds. Two different tissue thicknesses (10 μm and 5 μm) commonly used in pathological labs were explored. Finally, we tested three additional types of tissues (colon, stomach, and breast) that were prepared independently by lab technicians in a pathology lab in China and shipped to the US in order to validate the general applicability and practicality of the laser emission-based technology as well as the corresponding sample preparation protocol and the tissue laser platform. Our work will not only vastly broaden the applications of laser emission-based detection/imaging technology but also help translate it from the laboratory to an automated system for clinical practice that may eventually benefit biomedicine and biological research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Cheng Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
82
|
Feng Z, Bai L. Advances of Optofluidic Microcavities for Microlasers and Biosensors. MICROMACHINES 2018; 9:mi9030122. [PMID: 30424056 PMCID: PMC6187242 DOI: 10.3390/mi9030122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Optofluidic microcavities with high Q factor have made rapid progress in recent years by using various micro-structures. On one hand, they are applied to microfluidic lasers with low excitation thresholds. On the other hand, they inspire the innovation of new biosensing devices with excellent performance. In this article, the recent advances in the microlaser research and the biochemical sensing field will be reviewed. The former will be categorized based on the structures of optical resonant cavities such as the Fabry⁻Pérot cavity and whispering gallery mode, and the latter will be classified based on the working principles into active sensors and passive sensors. Moreover, the difficulty of single-chip integration and recent endeavors will be briefly discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqing Feng
- College of Physics and Materials Engineering, Dalian Nationalities University, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Lan Bai
- College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Dalian Nationalities University, Dalian 116600, China.
| |
Collapse
|
83
|
Chen Q, Li T, Li Z, Long J, Zhang X. Optofluidic Tunable Lenses for In-Plane Light Manipulation. MICROMACHINES 2018; 9:E97. [PMID: 30424031 PMCID: PMC6187471 DOI: 10.3390/mi9030097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Optofluidics incorporates optics and microfluidics together to construct novel devices for microsystems, providing flexible reconfigurability and high compatibility. Among many novel devices, a prominent one is the in-plane optofluidic lens. It manipulates the light in the plane of the substrate, upon which the liquid sample is held. Benefiting from the compatibility, the in-plane optofluidic lenses can be incorporated into a single chip without complicated manual alignment and promises high integration density. In term of the tunability, the in-plane liquid lenses can be either tuned by adjusting the fluidic interface using numerous microfluidic techniques, or by modulating the refractive index of the liquid using temperature, electric field and concentration. In this paper, the in-plane liquid lenses will be reviewed in the aspects of operation mechanisms and recent development. In addition, their applications in lab-on-a-chip systems are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingming Chen
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China.
| | - Tenghao Li
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China.
| | - Zhaohui Li
- School of Electronics and Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China.
| | - Jinlin Long
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China.
| | - Xuming Zhang
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China.
- Shenzhen Research Institute of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Shenzhen 518057, China.
| |
Collapse
|
84
|
Zheng L, Zhi M, Chan Y, Khan SA. Embedding liquid lasers within or around aqueous microfluidic droplets. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 18:197-205. [PMID: 29184929 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc00701a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we demonstrate the incorporation of dye-based liquid lasers within or around flowing aqueous microfluidic droplets. In particular, we use dye solutions in benzyl alcohol, and either disperse an ensemble of small (∼20 μm) lasing droplets within large (∼500 μm) aqueous droplets flowing in a simple glass capillary-based microfluidic device, or 'wrap' a thin (∼10 μm) lasing benzyl alcohol shell around larger (∼560 μm) microfluidic aqueous droplets. We experimentally and theoretically characterize the lasing behavior in both cases, which is supported by whispering-gallery mode (WGM) optical resonances at the droplet interfaces. We showcase a simple application of our method, which highlights the advantages of having embedded, spatially segregated laser sources within a droplet containing a model analyte solution. With this method, each microfluidic droplet now functions not only as an isolated experiment flask, but is also capable of on drop sensing that exploits WGM-based lasing, thus expanding the possibilities for online monitoring of biophysical/biochemical processes and sensitive detection of biomolecules in droplet-based microfluidics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zheng
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, 3 Engineering Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117582, Singapore.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
85
|
Shi S, Kumar P, Lee KF. Generation of photonic entanglement in green fluorescent proteins. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1934. [PMID: 29203839 PMCID: PMC5715022 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02027-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent development of spectroscopic techniques based on quantum states of light can precipitate many breakthroughs in observing and controlling light-matter interactions in biological materials on a fundamental quantum level. For this reason, the generation of entangled light in biologically produced fluorescent proteins would be promising because of their biocompatibility. Here we demonstrate the generation of polarization-entangled two-photon state through spontaneous four-wave mixing in enhanced green fluorescent proteins. The reconstructed density matrix indicates that the entangled state is subject to decoherence originating from two-photon absorption. However, the prepared state is less sensitive to environmental decoherence because of the protective β-barrel structure that encapsulates the fluorophore in the protein. We further explore the quantumness, including classical and quantum correlations, of the state in the decoherence environment. Our method for photonic entanglement generation may have potential for developing quantum spectroscopic techniques and quantum-enhanced measurements in biological materials. Quantum-enhanced applications such as quantum spectroscopy of biological samples could take advantage from in situ generation of quantum states of light. Here, the authors characterize polarization-entangled photon states generated through spontaneous four-wave mixing in enhanced green fluorescent proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siyuan Shi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Center for Photonic Communication and Computing, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208-3112, USA.
| | - Prem Kumar
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Center for Photonic Communication and Computing, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208-3112, USA. .,Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Center for Photonic Communication and Computing, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208-3118, USA.
| | - Kim Fook Lee
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Center for Photonic Communication and Computing, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL, 60208-3118, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
86
|
Yong D, Ding D. Lasing with cell-endogenous fluorophores: parameters and conditions. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13569. [PMID: 29051508 PMCID: PMC5648766 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-12711-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The notion of lasing with biologics has recently been realized and has rapidly developed with the collective objective of creating lasers in vivo. One major limitation of achieving this is the requirement of exogenous dyes and fluorescent materials. We thus investigate for the first time the possibility of lasing unlabelled cells, using just cell-endogenous fluorophores - the source of cell autofluorescence. In this work, we theoretically studied the lasing potential and efficiency of flavins and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) (NAD(P)H) using a dye lasing model based on coupled rate equations. Analytical solutions for one- and two-photon pumped system were used in multi-parameter studies. We found that at physiological conditions, the more abundant NAD(P)H can be lased with a cavity quality factor of 105. We then recommended the tuning of intersystem crossing to make the lasing of flavins feasible even at their low physiological concentrations. Under conditions of reduced intersystem crossing, we concluded that it is more practical to lase unlabelled cells using flavins, because lasing thresholds and cavity quality factors were both at least an order lower. We also note the higher threshold requirements and lower efficiencies of two-photon pumping, but recognize its potential for realizing lasing in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Derrick Yong
- Precision Measurements Group, Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-04, 138634, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Ding Ding
- Precision Measurements Group, Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis #08-04, 138634, Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
87
|
Gong C, Gong Y, Chen Q, Rao YJ, Peng GD, Fan X. Reproducible fiber optofluidic laser for disposable and array applications. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 17:3431-3436. [PMID: 28875219 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc00708f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Disposable sensors are widely used in biomedical detection due to their inherent safety, ease of use and low cost. An optofluidic laser is a sensitive bioassay platform; however, demonstrating its fabrication cheaply and reproducibly enough for disposable use has been challenging. Here, we report a low-cost, reproducible fiber optofluidic laser (FOFL) using a microstructured optical fiber (MOF). The MOF not only supports the whispering gallery modes for lasing but also serves as a microfluidic channel for sampling the liquid gain medium via capillary force. Because of the precise control of its geometry (δ < 0.4%) during the fiber-drawing process, good reproducibility in laser intensity (δ = 6.5%) was demonstrated by changing 10 sections of the MOF. The strong coupling between the in-fiber resonator and gain medium enables a low threshold of 3.2 μJ mm-2. The angular dependence of the laser emission was observed experimentally and analyzed with numerical simulations. An array of the FOFLs was also demonstrated. This technology has great potential for low-cost bioassay applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chaoyang Gong
- Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications (Ministry of Education of China), University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave., Chengdu, 611731 China.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
88
|
Gu F, Xie F, Lin X, Linghu S, Fang W, Zeng H, Tong L, Zhuang S. Single whispering-gallery mode lasing in polymer bottle microresonators via spatial pump engineering. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2017; 6:e17061. [PMID: 30167203 PMCID: PMC6061906 DOI: 10.1038/lsa.2017.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Revised: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Single-mode lasing in whispering-gallery mode (WGM) microresonators is challenging to achieve. In bottle microresonators, the highly non-degenerated WGMs are spatially well-separated along the long-axis direction and provide mode-selection capability. In this work, by engineering the pump intensity to modify the spatial gain profiles of bottle microresonators, we demonstrate a simple and general approach to realizing single-mode WGM lasing in polymer bottle microresonators. The pump intensity is engineered into an interference distribution on the bottle microresonator surface. By tuning the spacing between axial positions of the interference pump patterns, the mode intensity profiles of single-bottle WGMs can be spatially overlapped with the interference stripes, intrinsically enabling single-mode lasing and selection. Attractive advantages of the system, including high side-mode suppression factors >20 dB, large spectral tunability >8 nm, low-lasing threshold and reversible control, are presented. Our demonstrated approach may have a variety of promising applications, ranging from tunable single-mode lasing and sensing to nonlinear optics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fuxing Gu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Systems, Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System (Ministry of Education), University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Fuming Xie
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Systems, Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System (Ministry of Education), University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Xing Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Shuangyi Linghu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Systems, Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System (Ministry of Education), University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Wei Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Heping Zeng
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Systems, Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System (Ministry of Education), University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Spectroscopy, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Limin Tong
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation, College of Optical Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Songlin Zhuang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Systems, Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System (Ministry of Education), University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| |
Collapse
|
89
|
Gong C, Gong Y, Khaing Oo MK, Wu Y, Rao Y, Tan X, Fan X. Sensitive sulfide ion detection by optofluidic catalytic laser using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) enzyme. Biosens Bioelectron 2017; 96:351-357. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2017.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 05/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
90
|
Humar M, Dobravec A, Zhao X, Yun SH. Biomaterial microlasers implantable in the cornea, skin, and blood. OPTICA 2017; 4:1080-1085. [PMID: 30333986 PMCID: PMC6188636 DOI: 10.1364/optica.4.001080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Stand-alone laser particles that are implantable into biological tissues have potential to enable novel optical imaging, diagnosis and therapy. Here we demonstrate several types of biocompatible microlasers and their lasing action within biological systems. Dye-doped polystyrene beads were embedded in the cornea and optically pumped to generate narrowband emission. We fabricated microbeads with poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) and poly(lactic acid)-substances approved for medical use-and demonstrate lasing from within tissues and whole blood. Furthermore, we demonstrate biocompatible cholesterol-derivative microdroplet lasers via self-assembly to an onion-like radially-resonant photonic crystal structure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matjaž Humar
- Condensed Matter Department, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana, Jadranska 19, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St. UP-5, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Anja Dobravec
- Condensed Matter Department, J. Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Xiangwei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Seok Hyun Yun
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, 65 Landsdowne St. UP-5, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
- Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, 77 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| |
Collapse
|
91
|
Chen YC, Tan X, Sun Q, Chen Q, Wang W, Fan X. Laser-emission imaging of nuclear biomarkers for high-contrast cancer screening and immunodiagnosis. Nat Biomed Eng 2017; 1:724-735. [PMID: 29204310 PMCID: PMC5711465 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-017-0128-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Detection of nuclear biomarkers such as nucleic acids and nuclear proteins is critical for early-stage cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Conventional methods relying on morphological assessment of cell nuclei in histopathology slides may be subjective, whereas colorimetric immunohistochemical and fluorescence-based imaging are limited by strong light absorption, broad-emission bands and low contrast. Here, we describe the development and use of a scanning laser-emission-based microscope that maps lasing emissions from nuclear biomarkers in human tissues. 41 tissue samples from 35 patients labelled with site-specific and biomarker-specific antibody-conjugated dyes were sandwiched in a Fabry-Pérot microcavity while an excitation laser beam built a laser-emission image. We observed multiple sub-cellular lasing emissions from cancer cell nuclei, with a threshold of tens of μJ/mm2, sub-micron resolution (<700 nm), and a lasing band in the few-nanometre range. Different lasing thresholds of nuclei in cancer and normal tissues enabled the identification and multiplexed detection of nuclear proteomic biomarkers, with a high sensitivity for early-stage cancer diagnosis. Laser-emission-based cancer screening and immunodiagnosis might find use in precision medicine and facilitate research in cell biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Cheng Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Xiaotian Tan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Qihan Sun
- Department of Computer Science, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Qiushu Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Wenjie Wang
- Key Lab of Advanced Transducers and Intelligent Control System of Ministry of Education, Taiyuan University of Technology, 79 Yingze Street, Taiyuan, 030024, P. R. China
| | - Xudong Fan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
92
|
Lasing cancer biomarkers. Nat Biomed Eng 2017; 1:682-683. [PMID: 31015672 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-017-0134-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
93
|
Chen Q, Chen YC, Zhang Z, Wu B, Coleman R, Fan X. An integrated microwell array platform for cell lasing analysis. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 17:2814-2820. [PMID: 28714506 DOI: 10.1039/c7lc00539c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Biological cell lasers are emerging as a novel technology in biological studies and biomedical engineering. The heterogeneity of cells, however, can result in various lasing behaviors from cell to cell. Thus, the capability to track individual cells during laser investigation is highly desired. In this work, a microwell array was integrated with high-quality Fabry-Pérot cavities for addressable and automated cell laser studies. Cells were captured in the microwells and the corresponding cell lasing was achieved and analyzed using SYTO9-stained Sf9 cells as a model system. It is found that the presence of the microwells does not affect the lasing performance, but the cell lasers exhibit strong heterogeneity due to different cell sizes, cycle stages and polyploidy. Time series laser measurements were also performed automatically with the integrated microarray, which not only enables the tracking and multiplexed detection of individual cells, but also helps identify "abnormal" cells that deviate from a large normal cell population in their lasing performance. The microarrayed cell laser platform developed here could provide a powerful tool in single cell analysis using lasing emission that complements conventional fluorescence-based cell analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiushu Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, 1101 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
94
|
Heylman KD, Knapper KA, Horak EH, Rea MT, Vanga SK, Goldsmith RH. Optical Microresonators for Sensing and Transduction: A Materials Perspective. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1700037. [PMID: 28627118 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201700037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Optical microresonators confine light to a particular microscale trajectory, are exquisitely sensitive to their microenvironment, and offer convenient readout of their optical properties. Taken together, this is an immensely attractive combination that makes optical microresonators highly effective as sensors and transducers. Meanwhile, advances in material science, fabrication techniques, and photonic sensing strategies endow optical microresonators with new functionalities, unique transduction mechanisms, and in some cases, unparalleled sensitivities. In this progress report, the operating principles of these sensors are reviewed, and different methods of signal transduction are evaluated. Examples are shown of how choice of materials must be suited to the analyte, and how innovations in fabrication and sensing are coupled together in a mutually reinforcing cycle. A tremendously broad range of capabilities of microresonator sensors is described, from electric and magnetic field sensing to mechanical sensing, from single-molecule detection to imaging and spectroscopy, from operation at high vacuum to in live cells. Emerging sensing capabilities are highlighted and put into context in the field. Future directions are imagined, where the diverse capabilities laid out are combined and advances in scalability and integration are implemented, leading to the creation of a sensor unparalleled in sensitivity and information content.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Heylman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Kassandra A Knapper
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Erik H Horak
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Morgan T Rea
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Sudheer K Vanga
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Randall H Goldsmith
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| |
Collapse
|
95
|
Yuan T, Yang X, Liu Z, Yang J, Li S, Kong D, Qi X, Yu W, Long Q, Yuan L. Optofluidic in-fiber interferometer based on hollow optical fiber with two cores. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:18205-18215. [PMID: 28789310 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.018205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a novel integrated optical fiber interferometer for in-fiber optofluidic detection. It is composed of a specially designed hollow optical fiber with a micro-channel and two cores. One core on the inner surface of the micro-channel is served as sensing arm and the other core in the annular cladding is served as reference arm. Fusion-and-tapering method is employed to couple light from a single mode fiber to the hollow optical fiber in this device. Sampling is realized by side opening a microhole on the surface of the hollow optical fiber. Under differential pressure between the end of the hollow fiber and the microhole, the liquids can form steady microflows in the micro-channel. Simultaneously, the interference spectrum of the interferometer device shifts with the variation of the concentration of the microfluid in the channel. The optofluidic in-fiber interferometer has a sensitivity of refractive index around 2508 nm/RIU for NaCl. For medicine concentration detection, its sensitivity is 0.076 nm/mmolL-1 for ascorbic acid. Significantly, this work presents a compact microfluidic in-fiber interferometer with a micro-channel which can be integrated with chip devices without spatial optical coupling and without complex manufacturing procedure of the waveguide on the chips.
Collapse
|
96
|
Ozcelik D, Cai H, Leake KD, Hawkins AR, Schmidt H. Optofluidic bioanalysis: fundamentals and applications. NANOPHOTONICS 2017; 6:647-661. [PMID: 29201591 PMCID: PMC5708574 DOI: 10.1515/nanoph-2016-0156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade, optofluidics has established itself as a new and dynamic research field for exciting developments at the interface of photonics, microfluidics, and the life sciences. The strong desire for developing miniaturized bioanalytic devices and instruments, in particular, has led to novel and powerful approaches to integrating optical elements and biological fluids on the same chip-scale system. Here, we review the state-of-the-art in optofluidic research with emphasis on applications in bioanalysis and a focus on waveguide-based approaches that represent the most advanced level of integration between optics and fluidics. We discuss recent work in photonically reconfigurable devices and various application areas. We show how optofluidic approaches have been pushing the performance limits in bioanalysis, e.g. in terms of sensitivity and portability, satisfying many of the key requirements for point-of-care devices. This illustrates how the requirements for bianalysis instruments are increasingly being met by the symbiotic integration of novel photonic capabilities in a miniaturized system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Damla Ozcelik
- School of Engineering, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Hong Cai
- School of Engineering, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Kaelyn D. Leake
- School of Engineering, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Aaron R. Hawkins
- ECEn Department, 459 Clyde Building, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Holger Schmidt
- Corresponding author: Holger Schmidt, School of Engineering, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA,
| |
Collapse
|
97
|
Lee W, Kim DB, Song MH, Yoon DK. Optofluidic ring resonator laser with an edible liquid laser gain medium. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:14043-14048. [PMID: 28788989 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.014043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a biocompatible optofluidic laser with an edible liquid laser gain medium, made of riboflavin dissolved in water. The proposed laser platform is based on a pulled-glass-capillary optofluidic ring resonator (OFRR) with a high Q-factor, resulting in a lasing threshold comparable to that of conventional organic dye lasers that are mostly harmful, despite the relatively low quantum yield of the riboflavin. The proposed biocompatible laser can be realized by not only a capillary OFRR, but also by an optical-fiber-based OFRR that offers improved mechanical stability, and is promising technology for application to in vivo bio-sensing.
Collapse
|
98
|
Bates KE, Lu H. Optics-Integrated Microfluidic Platforms for Biomolecular Analyses. Biophys J 2017; 110:1684-1697. [PMID: 27119629 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Compared with conventional optical methods, optics implemented on microfluidic chips provide small, and often much cheaper ways to interrogate biological systems from the level of single molecules up to small model organisms. The optical probing of single molecules has been used to investigate the mechanical properties of individual biological molecules; however, multiplexing of these measurements through microfluidics and nanofluidics confers many analytical advantages. Optics-integrated microfluidic systems can significantly simplify sample processing and allow a more user-friendly experience; alignments of on-chip optical components are predetermined during fabrication and many purely optical techniques are passively controlled. Furthermore, sample loss from complicated preparation and fluid transfer steps can be virtually eliminated, a particularly important attribute for biological molecules at very low concentrations. Excellent fluid handling and high surface area/volume ratios also contribute to faster detection times for low abundance molecules in small sample volumes. Although integration of optical systems with classical microfluidic analysis techniques has been limited, microfluidics offers a ready platform for interrogation of biophysical properties. By exploiting the ease with which fluids and particles can be precisely and dynamically controlled in microfluidic devices, optical sensors capable of unique imaging modes, single molecule manipulation, and detection of minute changes in concentration of an analyte are possible.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen E Bates
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioengineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia; School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Hang Lu
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioengineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia; School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia.
| |
Collapse
|
99
|
Abstract
Understanding cell biology greatly benefits from the development of advanced diagnostic probes. Here we introduce a 22-nm spaser (plasmonic nanolaser) with the ability to serve as a super-bright, water-soluble, biocompatible probe capable of generating stimulated emission directly inside living cells and animal tissues. We have demonstrated a lasing regime associated with the formation of a dynamic vapour nanobubble around the spaser that leads to giant spasing with emission intensity and spectral width >100 times brighter and 30-fold narrower, respectively, than for quantum dots. The absorption losses in the spaser enhance its multifunctionality, allowing for nanobubble-amplified photothermal and photoacoustic imaging and therapy. Furthermore, the silica spaser surface has been covalently functionalized with folic acid for molecular targeting of cancer cells. All these properties make a nanobubble spaser a promising multimodal, super-contrast, ultrafast cellular probe with a single-pulse nanosecond excitation for a variety of in vitro and in vivo biomedical applications. Advanced diagnostic probes are required for monitoring disease progression. Here Galanzha et al. demonstrate a 22 nm plasmonic nanolaser to serve as a super-bright, biocompatible probe capable of generating stimulated emission directly inside living cells and animal tissue, while targeting cancer cells.
Collapse
|
100
|
Mobini E, Abaie B, Peysokhan M, Mafi A. Spectral selectivity in optical fiber capillary dye lasers. OPTICS LETTERS 2017; 42:1784-1787. [PMID: 28454160 DOI: 10.1364/ol.42.001784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We explore the spectral properties of a capillary dye laser in the highly multimode regime. Our experiments indicate that the spectral behavior of the laser does not conform to a simple Fabry-Perot (FP) analysis; rather, it is strongly dictated by a Vernier resonant mechanism involving multiple modes, which propagate with different group velocities. The laser operates over a very broad spectral range and the Vernier effect gives rise to a free spectral range, which is orders of magnitude larger than that expected from a simple FP mechanism. The theoretical calculations presented confirm the experimental results. Propagating modes of the capillary fiber are calculated using the finite-element method and it is shown that the optical path lengths resulting from simultaneous beatings of these modes are in close agreement with the optical path lengths directly extracted from the Fourier transform of the experimentally measured laser emission spectra.
Collapse
|