A protein kinase A-dependent molecular switch in synapsins regulates neurite outgrowth

The synapsins: multitask modulators of neuronal development

Neurons are examples of specialized cells that evolved the extraordinary ability to transmit electrochemical information in complex networks of interconnected cells. During their development, neurons undergo precisely regulated processes that define their lineage, positioning, morphogenesis and pattern of activity. The events leading to the establishment of functional neuronal networks follow a number of key steps, including asymmetric cell division from neuronal precursors, migration, establishment of polarity, neurite outgrowth and synaptogenesis. Synapsins are a family of abundant neuronal phosphoproteins that have been extensively studied for their role in the regulation of neurotransmission in presynaptic terminals. Beside their implication in the homeostasis of adult cells, synapsins influence the development of young neurons, interacting with cytoskeletal and vesicular components and regulating their dynamics. Although the exact molecular mechanisms determining synapsin function in neuronal development are still largely unknown, in this review we summarize the most important literature on the subject, providing a conceptual framework for the progress of present and future research.

Membrane trafficking events underlying axon repair, growth, and regeneration

Two central challenges for the field of neurobiology are to understand how axons grow and make proper synaptic connections under normal conditions and how they repair their membranes and mount regenerative responses after injury. At the most reductionist level, the first step toward addressing these challenges is to delineate the cellular and molecular processes by which an axon extends from its cell body. Underlying axon extension are questions of appropriate timing and mechanisms that establish or maintain the axon's polarity, initiate growth cone formation, and promote axon outgrowth and synapse formation. After injury, the problem is even more complicated because the neuron must also repair its damaged membrane, redistribute or manufacture what it needs in order to survive, and grow and form new synapses within a more mature, complex environment. While other reviews have focused extensively on the signaling events and cytoskeletal rearrangements that support axon outgrowth and regeneration, we focus this review instead on the underlying membrane trafficking events underlying these processes. Though the mechanisms are still under active investigation, the key roles played by membrane trafficking events during axon repair, growth, and regeneration have been elucidated through elegant comparative studies in both invertebrate and vertebrate organisms. Taken together, a model emerges indicating that the critical requirements for ensuring proper membrane sealing and axon extension include iterative bouts of SNARE mediated exocytosis, endocytosis, and functional links between vesicles and the actin cytoskeleton, similar to the mechanisms utilized during synaptic transmission. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Neuronal Function'.

Phosphorylation of STEF/Tiam2 by protein kinase A is critical for Rac1 activation and neurite outgrowth in dibutyryl cAMP-treated PC12D cells

Although cAMP-induced neuritogenesis was described in 1975, the signaling pathways from cAMP to cytoskeletal regulation remain elusive. Here we report that the protein kinase A (PKA)-Sif-and Tiam1-like exchange factor (STEF)-Rac1 pathway plays a central role in cytoskeletal regulation during neurite outgrowth in PC12D cells. This result could be extrapolated to axon guidance depending on cAMP signals.

The second messenger cAMP plays a pivotal role in neurite/axon growth and guidance, but its downstream pathways leading to the regulation of Rho GTPases, centrally implicated in neuronal morphogenesis, remain elusive. We examined spatiotemporal changes in Rac1 and Cdc42 activity and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP₃) concentration in dibutyryl cAMP (dbcAMP)-treated PC12D cells using Förster resonance energy transfer–based biosensors. During a 30-min incubation with dbcAMP, Rac1 activity gradually increased throughout the cells and remained at its maximal level. There was no change in PIP₃ concentration. After a 5-h incubation with dbcAMP, Rac1 and Cdc42 were activated at the protruding tips of neurites without PIP₃ accumulation. dbcAMP-induced Rac1 activation was principally mediated by protein kinase A (PKA) and Sif- and Tiam1-like exchange factor (STEF)/Tiam2. STEF depletion drastically reduced dbcAMP-induced neurite outgrowth. PKA phosphorylates STEF at three residues (Thr-749, Ser-782, Ser-1562); Thr-749 phosphorylation was critical for dbcAMP-induced Rac1 activation and neurite extension. During dbcAMP-induced neurite outgrowth, PKA activation at the plasma membrane became localized to neurite tips; this localization may contribute to local Rac1 activation at the same neurite tips. Considering the critical role of Rac1 in neuronal morphogenesis, the PKA—STEF–Rac1 pathway may play a crucial role in cytoskeletal regulation during neurite/axon outgrowth and guidance, which depend on cAMP signals.

Spatial phosphoprotein profiling reveals a compartmentalized extracellular signal-regulated kinase switch governing neurite growth and retraction

Brain development and spinal cord regeneration require neurite sprouting and growth cone navigation in response to extension and collapsing factors present in the extracellular environment. These external guidance cues control neurite growth cone extension and retraction processes through intracellular protein phosphorylation of numerous cytoskeletal, adhesion, and polarity complex signaling proteins. However, the complex kinase/substrate signaling networks that mediate neuritogenesis have not been investigated. Here, we compare the neurite phosphoproteome under growth and retraction conditions using neurite purification methodology combined with mass spectrometry. More than 4000 non-redundant phosphorylation sites from 1883 proteins have been annotated and mapped to signaling pathways that control kinase/phosphatase networks, cytoskeleton remodeling, and axon/dendrite specification. Comprehensive informatics and functional studies revealed a compartmentalized ERK activation/deactivation cytoskeletal switch that governs neurite growth and retraction, respectively. Our findings provide the first system-wide analysis of the phosphoprotein signaling networks that enable neurite growth and retraction and reveal an important molecular switch that governs neuritogenesis.

Second messengers and membrane trafficking direct and organize growth cone steering

Graded distributions of extracellular cues guide developing axons toward their targets. A network of second messengers - Ca(2+) and cyclic nucleotides - shapes cue-derived information into either attractive or repulsive signals that steer growth cones bidirectionally. Emerging evidence suggests that such guidance signals create a localized imbalance between exocytosis and endocytosis, which in turn redirects membrane, adhesion and cytoskeletal components asymmetrically across the growth cone to bias the direction of axon extension. These recent advances allow us to propose a unifying model of how the growth cone translates shallow gradients of environmental information into polarized activity of the steering machinery for axon guidance.

Sustained delivery of dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate to the transected spinal cord via oligo [(polyethylene glycol) fumarate] hydrogels

This study describes the use of oligo [(polyethylene glycol) fumarate] (OPF) hydrogel scaffolds as vehicles for sustained delivery of dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate (dbcAMP) to the transected spinal cord. dbcAMP was encapsulated in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres, which were embedded within the scaffolds architecture. Functionality of the released dbcAMP was assessed using neurite outgrowth assays in PC12 cells and by delivery to the transected spinal cord within OPF seven channel scaffolds, which had been loaded with Schwann cells or mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Our results showed that encapsulation of dbcAMP in microspheres lead to prolonged release and continued functionality in vitro. These microspheres were then successfully incorporated into OPF scaffolds and implanted in the transected thoracic spinal cord. Sustained delivery of dbcAMP inhibited axonal regeneration in the presence of Schwann cells but rescued MSC-induced inhibition of axonal regeneration. dbcAMP was also shown to reduce capillary formation in the presence of MSCs, which was coupled with significant functional improvements. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of incorporating PLGA microsphere technology for spinal cord transection studies. It represents a novel sustained delivery mechanism within the transected spinal cord and provides a platform for potential delivery of other therapeutic agents.

A tissue-specific atlas of mouse protein phosphorylation and expression

Although most tissues in an organism are genetically identical, the biochemistry of each is optimized to fulfill its unique physiological roles, with important consequences for human health and disease. Each tissue's unique physiology requires tightly regulated gene and protein expression coordinated by specialized, phosphorylation-dependent intracellular signaling. To better understand the role of phosphorylation in maintenance of physiological differences among tissues, we performed proteomic and phosphoproteomic characterizations of nine mouse tissues. We identified 12,039 proteins, including 6296 phosphoproteins harboring nearly 36,000 phosphorylation sites. Comparing protein abundances and phosphorylation levels revealed specialized, interconnected phosphorylation networks within each tissue while suggesting that many proteins are regulated by phosphorylation independently of their expression. Our data suggest that the "typical" phosphoprotein is widely expressed yet displays variable, often tissue-specific phosphorylation that tunes protein activity to the specific needs of each tissue. We offer this dataset as an online resource for the biological research community.

Kinase/phosphatase overexpression reveals pathways regulating hippocampal neuron morphology

Kinases and phosphatases that regulate neurite number versus branching versus extension are weakly correlated.

The kinase family that most strongly enhances neurite growth is a family of non-protein kinases; sugar kinases related to NADK.

Pathway analysis revealed that genes in several cancer pathways were highly active in enhancing neurite growth.

In neural development, neuronal precursors differentiate, migrate, extend long axons and dendrites, and finally establish connections with their targets. Clinical conditions such as spinal cord injury, traumatic brain injury, stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Alzheimer's disease are often associated with a loss of axon and/or dendrite connectivity and treatment strategies would be enhanced by new therapies targeting cell intrinsic mechanisms of axon elongation and regeneration.

Phosphorylation controls most cellular processes, including the cell cycle, proliferation, metabolism, and apoptosis. Neuronal differentiation, including axon formation and elongation, is also regulated by a wide range of kinases and phosphatases. For example, the non-receptor tyrosine kinase Src is required for cell adhesion molecule-dependent neurite outgrowth. In addition to individual kinases and phosphatases, signaling pathways like the MAPK, growth factor signaling, PIP3, cytoskeletal, and calcium-dependent pathways have been shown to impinge on or control neuronal process development. Recent results have implicated GSK3 and PTEN as therapeutically relevant targets in axonal regeneration after injury. However, these and other experiments have studied only a small fraction of the total kinases and phosphatases in the genome. Because of recent advances in genomic knowledge, large-scale cDNA production, and high-throughput phenotypic analysis, it is now possible to take a more comprehensive approach to understanding the functions of kinases and phosphatases in neurons.

We performed a large, unbiased set of experiments to answer the question ‘what effect does the overexpression of genes encoding kinases, phosphatases, and related proteins have on neuronal morphology?' We used ‘high-content analysis' to obtain detailed results about the specific phenotypes of neurons. We studied embryonic rat hippocampal neurons because of their stereotypical development in vitro (Dotti et al, 1988) and their widespread use in studies of neuronal differentiation and signaling. We transfected over 700 clones encoding kinases and phosphatases into hippocampal neurons and analyzed the resulting changes in neuronal morphology.

Many known genes, including PP1a, ERK1, ErbB2, atypical PKC, Calcineurin, CaMK2, IGF1R, FGFR, GSK3, and PIK3 were observed to have significant effects on neurite outgrowth in our system, consistent with earlier findings in the literature.

We obtained quantitative data for many cellular and neuronal morphological parameters from each neuron imaged. These included nuclear morphology (nuclear area and Hoechst dye intensity), soma morphology (tubulin intensity, area, and shape), and numerous parameters of neurite morphology (e.g. tubulin intensity along the neurites, number of primary neurites, neurite length, number of branches, distance from the cell body to the branches, number of crossing points, width and area of the neurites, and longest neurite; Supplementary Figure 1). Other parameters were reported on a ‘per well' basis, including the percentage of transfected neurons in a condition, as well as the percentage of neurons initiating neurite growth. Data for each treatment were normalized to a control (pSport CAT) within the same experiment, then aggregated across replicate experiments.

Correlations among the 19 normalized parameters were analyzed for neurons transfected with all kinase and phosphatase clones (Figure 2). On the basis of this analysis, the primary variables that define the neurite morphology are primary neurite count, neurite average length, and average branches. Interestingly, primary neurite count was not well correlated with neurite length or branching. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r²) between the number of primary neurites and the average length of the neurites was 0.3, and between the number of primary neurites and average branching was 0.2. In contrast, the correlation coefficient of average branching with neurite average length was 0.7. The most likely explanation is that signaling mechanisms underlying the neurite number determination are different than those controlling length/branching of the neurites.

Related proteins are often involved in similar neuronal functions. For example, families of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases are involved in motor axon extension and guidance in both Drosophila and in vertebrates, and a large family of Eph receptor tyrosine kinases regulates guidance of retinotectal projections, motor axons, and axons in the corpus callosum. We therefore asked whether families of related genes produced similar phenotypes when overexpressed in hippocampal neurons. Our set of genes covered 40% of the known protein kinases, and many of the non-protein kinases and phosphatases.

Gene families commonly exhibit redundant function. Redundant gene function has often been identified when two or more knockouts are required to produce a phenotype. Our technique allowed us to measure whether different members of gene families had similar (potentially redundant) or distinct effects on neuronal phenotype.

To determine whether groups of related genes affect neuronal morphology in similar ways, we used sequence alignment information to construct gene clusters (Figure 6). Genes were clustered at nine different thresholds of similarity (called ‘tiers'). The functional effect for a particular parameter was then averaged within each cluster of a given tier, and statistics were performed to determine the significance of the effect. We analyzed the results for three key neurite parameters (average neurite length, primary neurite count, and average branching). Genes that perturbed each of these phenotypes are grouped in Figure 6. Eight families, most with only a few genes, produced significant changes for one or two parameters. A diverse family of non-protein kinases had a positive effect on neurite outgrowth in three of the four parameters analyzed. This family of kinases consisted of a variety of enzymes, mostly sugar and lipid kinases. A similar analysis was performed using pathway cluster analysis with pathways from the KEGG database, rather than sequence homology. Interestingly, pathways involved in cancer cell proliferation potentiated neurite extension and branching.

Our studies have identified a large number of kinases and phosphatases, as well as structurally and functionally defined families of these proteins, that affect neuronal process formation in specific ways. We have provided an analytical methodology and new tools to analyze functional data, and have implicated genes with novel functions in neuronal development. Our studies are an important step towards the goal of a molecular description of the intrinsic control of axodendritic growth.

Development and regeneration of the nervous system requires the precise formation of axons and dendrites. Kinases and phosphatases are pervasive regulators of cellular function and have been implicated in controlling axodendritic development and regeneration. We undertook a gain-of-function analysis to determine the functions of kinases and phosphatases in the regulation of neuron morphology. Over 300 kinases and 124 esterases and phosphatases were studied by high-content analysis of rat hippocampal neurons. Proteins previously implicated in neurite growth, such as ERK1, GSK3, EphA8, FGFR, PI3K, PKC, p38, and PP1a, were confirmed to have effects in our functional assays. We also identified novel positive and negative neurite growth regulators. These include neuronal-developmentally regulated kinases such as the activin receptor, interferon regulatory factor 6 (IRF6) and neural leucine-rich repeat 1 (LRRN1). The protein kinase N2 (PKN2) and choline kinase α (CHKA) kinases, and the phosphatases PPEF2 and SMPD1, have little or no established functions in neuronal function, but were sufficient to promote neurite growth. In addition, pathway analysis revealed that members of signaling pathways involved in cancer progression and axis formation enhanced neurite outgrowth, whereas cytokine-related pathways significantly inhibited neurite formation.

Pre-differentiated embryonic stem cells promote neuronal regeneration by cross-coupling of BDNF and IL-6 signaling pathways in the host tissue

The mechanism of embryonic stem (ES) cell therapeutic action remains far from being elucidated. Our recent report has shown that transplantation of ES cells, predifferentiated into neuronal progenitors, prevented appearance of chronic pain behaviors in mice after experimentally induced spinal cord injury. In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that this beneficial effect is mediated by antiapoptotic and regenerative signaling pathways activated in the host tissue by transplanted ES cells. Spinal cord injury was induced by unilateral microinjections of quisqualic acid at spinal levels T12-L2. At 1 week after injury, the pre-differentiated towards neuronal phenotype ES cells were transplanted into the site of injury. Here we show that transplantation of pre-differentiated ES cells activate both brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) signaling pathways in the host tissue, leading to activation of cAMP/PKA, phosporylation of cofilin and synapsin I, and promoting regenerative growth and neuronal survival.

Binding of protein kinase inhibitors to synapsin I inferred from pair-wise binding site similarity measurements

Predicting off-targets by computational methods is getting increasing importance in early drug discovery stages. We herewith present a computational method based on binding site three-dimensional comparisons, which prompted us to investigate the cross-reaction of protein kinase inhibitors with synapsin I, an ATP-binding protein regulating neurotransmitter release in the synapse. Systematic pair-wise comparison of the staurosporine-binding site of the proto-oncogene Pim-1 kinase with 6,412 druggable protein-ligand binding sites suggested that the ATP-binding site of synapsin I may recognize the pan-kinase inhibitor staurosporine. Biochemical validation of this hypothesis was realized by competition experiments of staurosporine with ATP-gamma(35)S for binding to synapsin I. Staurosporine, as well as three other inhibitors of protein kinases (cdk2, Pim-1 and casein kinase type 2), effectively bound to synapsin I with nanomolar affinities and promoted synapsin-induced F-actin bundling. The selective Pim-1 kinase inhibitor quercetagetin was shown to be the most potent synapsin I binder (IC50 = 0.15 microM), in agreement with the predicted binding site similarities between synapsin I and various protein kinases. Other protein kinase inhibitors (protein kinase A and chk1 inhibitor), kinase inhibitors (diacylglycerolkinase inhibitor) and various other ATP-competitors (DNA topoisomerase II and HSP-90alpha inhibitors) did not bind to synapsin I, as predicted from a lower similarity of their respective ATP-binding sites to that of synapsin I. The present data suggest that the observed downregulation of neurotransmitter release by some but not all protein kinase inhibitors may also be contributed by a direct binding to synapsin I and phosphorylation-independent perturbation of synapsin I function. More generally, the data also demonstrate that cross-reactivity with various targets may be detected by systematic pair-wise similarity measurement of ligand-annotated binding sites.

Significance of PSD95 and synapsin-I expression in the gastric antrum of rats with diabetic gastroparesis

AIM: To investigate the expression of postsynaptic density-95 (PSD95) and synapsin I in the gastric antrum of rats with diabetic gastroparesis and to explore the plasticity of the enteric nervous system (ENS).

METHODS: Forty-seven Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into two groups: diabetic group (n = 32) and control group (n = 15). Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. The mRNA and protein expression of PSD95, synapsin-I and P-Synapsin-I in the gastric antrum of rats at weeks 2, 4, 8 and 12 wk after diabetes induction was detected by real-time PCR and Western blot, respectively.

RESULTS: In the diabetic group, the mRNA and protein expression levels of PSD95 and synapsin-I at all time points after week 4 were significantly lower than those in the control group (mRNA: t = 2.92, 3.15, 4.21; t = 3.01, 3.74, 4.53; Protein: t = 2.87, 2.95, 3.37; t = 2.97, 3.11, 3.23, all P < 0.01). As the disease progressed, the mRNA and protein expression levels of PSD95 and synapsin-I decreased gradually (both P < 0.05). No significant differences were detected in the mRNA and protein expression levels of PSD95 and synapsin-I among different time points in the control group (all P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION: The expression of PSD95 and synapsin-I decreases with the progression of diabetes, which may contribute to the development of diabetic gastroparesis.

The role of synapsins in neuronal development

The synapsins, the first identified synaptic vesicle-specific proteins, are phosphorylated on multiple sites by a number of protein kinases and are involved in neurite outgrowth and synapse formation as well as in synaptic transmission. In mammals, the synapsin family consists of at least 10 isoforms encoded by 3 distinct genes and composed by a mosaic of conserved and variable domains. The synapsins are highly conserved evolutionarily, and orthologues have been found in invertebrates and lower vertebrates. Within nerve terminals, synapsins are implicated in multiple interactions with presynaptic proteins and the actin cytoskeleton. Via these interactions, synapsins control several mechanisms important for neuronal homeostasis. In this review, we describe the main functional features of the synapsins, in relation to the complex role played by these phosphoproteins in neuronal development.

Roles of db-cAMP, IBMX and RA in aspects of neural differentiation of cord blood derived mesenchymal-like stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have multilineage differentiation potential which includes cell lineages of the central nervous system; hence MSCs might be useful in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease. Although mesenchymal stem cells have been shown to differentiate into the neural lineage, there is still little knowledge about the underlying mechanisms of differentiation particularly towards specialized neurons such as dopaminergic neurons. Here, we show that MSCs derived from human umbilical cord blood (MSC^hUCBs) are capable of expressing tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and Nurr1, markers typically associated with DA neurons. We also found differential phosphorylation of TH isoforms indicating the presence of post-translational mechanisms possibly activating and modifying TH in MSC^hUCB. Furthermore, functional dissection of components in the differentiation medium revealed that dibutyryl-cAMP (db-cAMP), 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) and retinoic acid (RA) are involved in the regulation of Nurr1 and Neurofilament-L expression as well as in the differential phosphorylation of TH. We also demonstrate a possible inhibitory role of the protein kinase A signaling pathway in the phosphorylation of specific TH isoforms.

Decreased parotid salivary cyclic nucleotides related to smell loss severity in patients with taste and smell dysfunction

Parotid salivary levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) have been previously demonstrated to be lower than normal in patients with taste and smell dysfunction. To define these results more fully, we analyzed parotid salivary levels of cAMP and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) with respect to severity of smell loss in these patients. Smell loss severity was defined by psychophysical measurements of olfactory function and classified into 4 types from most severe to least severe loss. This resulted in patients exhibiting, in order of loss severity (from greatest to least), anosmia > type I hyposmia > type II hyposmia > type III hyposmia. Parotid saliva cAMP and cGMP were measured independently using a sensitive spectrophotometric 96-plate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique; mean levels were categorized by clinical classification of loss severity. As smell loss severity decreased, salivary cAMP and cGMP levels increased consistently with each stepwise change of clinical loss severity. This is the first demonstration of biochemical changes in saliva associated with a quantitative classification of smell loss. These results reflect a biochemical method to identify and classify patients with smell loss in some respects similar to initial typing of serum lipid levels to assist in risk classification of patients with cardiovascular disease.

Autocrine activation of neuronal NMDA receptors by aspartate mediates dopamine- and cAMP-induced CREB-dependent gene transcription

cAMP can stimulate the transcription of many activity-dependent genes via activation of the transcription factor, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). However, in mouse cortical neuron cultures, prior to synaptogenesis, neither cAMP nor dopamine, which acts via cAMP, stimulated CREB-dependent gene transcription when NR2B-containing NMDA receptors (NMDARs) were blocked. Stimulation of transcription by cAMP was potentiated by inhibitors of excitatory amino acid uptake, suggesting a role for extracellular glutamate or aspartate in cAMP-induced transcription. Aspartate was identified as the extracellular messenger: enzymatic scavenging of l-aspartate, but not glutamate, blocked stimulation of CREB-dependent gene transcription by cAMP; moreover, cAMP induced aspartate but not glutamate release. Together, these results suggest that cAMP acts via an autocrine or paracrine pathway to release aspartate, which activates NR2B-containing NMDARs, leading to Ca(2+) entry and activation of transcription. This cAMP/aspartate/NMDAR signaling pathway may mediate the effects of transmitters such as dopamine on axon growth and synaptogenesis in developing neurons or on synaptic plasticity in mature neural networks.

Synapsin IIa controls the reserve pool of glutamatergic synaptic vesicles

Synapsins regulate synaptic transmission by controlling the reserve pool of synaptic vesicles. Each of the three mammalian synapsin genes is subject to alternative splicing, yielding several isoforms whose roles are unknown. To investigate the function of these isoforms, we examined the synaptic effects of introducing each isoform into glutamatergic cultured hippocampal neurons from synapsin triple knock-out mice. Remarkably, we found that synapsin IIa was the only isoform that could rescue the synaptic depression phenotype of the triple knock-out mice; other isoforms examined, including the well-studied synapsin Ia isoform, had no significant effect on the kinetics of synaptic depression. The slowing of synaptic depression by synapsin IIa was quantitatively paralleled by an increase in the density of reserve pool synaptic vesicles, as measured either by fluorescent tagging of the vesicle protein synaptobrevin-2 or by staining with the styryl dye FM4-64 [N-(3-triethylammoniumpropyl)-4-(6-(4-diethylamino)phenyl)-hexatrienyl)pyridinium dibromide]. Our results provide further support for the hypothesis that synapsins define the kinetics of synaptic depression at glutamatergic synapses by controlling the size of the vesicular reserve pool and identify synapsin IIa as the isoform primarily responsible for this task.

A subset of signal transduction pathways is required for hippocampal growth cone collapse induced by ephrin-A5

The Eph family tyrosine kinase receptors and their ligands, ephrins, play key roles in a wide variety of physiological and pathological processes including tissue patterning, angiogenesis, bone development, carcinogenesis, axon guidance, and neural plasticity. However, the signaling mechanisms underlying these diverse functions of Eph receptors have not been well understood. In this study, effects of Eph receptor activation on several important signal transduction pathways are examined. In addition, the roles of these pathways in ephrin-A5-induced growth cone collapse were assessed with a combination of biochemical analyses, pharmacological inhibition, and overexpression of dominant-negative and constitutively active mutants. These analyses showed that ephrin-A5 inhibits Erk activity but activates c-Jun N-terminal kinase. However, regulation of these two pathways is not required for ephrin-A5-induced growth cone collapse in hippocampal neurons. Artificial Erk activation by expression of constitutively active Mek1 and B-Raf failed to block ephrin-A5 effects on growth cones, and inhibitors of the Erk pathway also failed to inhibit collapse by ephrin-A5. Inhibition of JNK had no effects on ephrin-A5-induced growth cone collapse either. In addition, inhibitors to PKA and PI3-K showed no effects on ephrin-A5-induced growth cone collapse. However, pharmacological blockade of phosphotyrosine phosphatase activity, the Src family kinases, cGMP-dependent protein kinase, and myosin light chain kinase significantly inhibited ephrin-A5-induced growth cone collapse. These observations indicate that only a subset of signal transduction pathways is required for ephrin-A5-induced growth cone collapse.

The ubiquitin-proteasome system is necessary for long-term synaptic depression in Aplysia

The neuropeptide Phe-Met-Arg-Phe-NH(2) (FMRFa) can induce transcription-dependent long-term synaptic depression (LTD) in Aplysia sensorimotor synapses. We investigated the role of the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the regulation of one of its components, ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase (ap-uch), in LTD. LTD was sensitive to presynaptic inhibition of the proteasome and was associated with upregulation of ap-uch mRNA and protein. This upregulation appeared to be mediated by CREB2, which is generally regarded as a transcription repressor. Binding of CREB2 to the promoter region of ap-uch was accompanied by histone hyperacetylation, suggesting that CREB2 cannot only inhibit but also promote gene expression. CREB2 was phosphorylated after FMRFa, and blocking phospho-CREB2 blocked LTD. In addition to changes in the expression of ap-uch, the synaptic vesicle-associated protein synapsin was downregulated in LTD in a proteasome-dependent manner. These results suggest that proteasome-mediated protein degradation is engaged in LTD and that CREB2 may act as a transcription activator under certain conditions.

Depolarization recruits DCC to the plasma membrane of embryonic cortical neurons and enhances axon extension in response to netrin-1

The netrin-1 receptor Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) is required for the formation of major axonal projections by embryonic cortical neurons, including the corpus callosum, hippocampal commissure, and cortico-thalamic tracts. The presentation of DCC by axonal growth cones is tightly regulated, but the mechanisms regulating DCC trafficking within neurons are not well understood. Here, we investigated the mechanisms regulating DCC recruitment to the plasma membrane of embryonic cortical neurons. In embryonic spinal commissural neurons, protein kinase A (PKA) activation recruits DCC to the plasma membrane and enhances axon chemoattraction to netrin-1. We demonstrate that PKA activation similarly recruits DCC and increases embryonic cortical neuron axon extension, which, like spinal commissural neurons, respond to netrin-1 as a chemoattractant. We then determined if depolarization might recruit DCC to the plasma membrane. Neither netrin-1 induced axon extension, nor levels of plasma membrane DCC, were altered by depolarizing embryonic spinal commissural neurons with elevated levels of KCl. In contrast, depolarizing embryonic cortical neurons increased the amount of plasma membrane DCC, including at the growth cone, and increased axon outgrowth evoked by netrin-1. Inhibition of PKA, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, protein kinase C, or exocytosis blocked the depolarization-induced recruitment of DCC and suppressed axon outgrowth. Inhibiting protein synthesis did not affect DCC recruitment, nor were the distributions of trkB or neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) influenced by depolarization, consistent with selective mobilization of DCC. These findings identify a role for membrane depolarization modulating the response of axons to netrin-1 by regulating DCC recruitment to the plasma membrane.

Genetic deletion of synapsin II reduces neuropathic pain due to reduced glutamate but increased GABA in the spinal cord dorsal horn

The synaptic vesicle protein synapsin II is specifically expressed in synaptic terminals of primary afferent nociceptive neurons and regulates transmitter release in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Here, we assessed its role in nerve injury-evoked molecular and behavioral adaptations in models of peripheral neuropathic pain using mice genetically lacking synapsin II. Deficiency of synapsin II resulted in reduced mechanical and cold allodynia in two models of peripheral neuropathic pain. This was associated with decreased glutamate release in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord upon sciatic nerve injury or capsaicin application onto the sciatic nerve and reduced calcium signals in spinal cord slices upon persistent activation of primary afferents. In addition, the expression of the vesicular glutamate transporters, VGLUT1 and VGLUT2, was strongly reduced in synapsin II knockout mice in the spinal cord. Conversely, synapsin II knockout mice showed a stronger and longer-lasting increase of GABA in lamina II of the dorsal horn after nerve injury than wild type mice. These results suggest that synapsin II is involved in the regulation of glutamate and GABA release in the spinal cord after nerve injury, and that a imbalance between glutamatergic and GABAergic synaptic transmission contributes to the manifestation of neuropathic pain.

Synapsin II and calcium regulate vesicle docking and the cross-talk between vesicle pools at the mouse motor terminals

The synapsins, an abundant and highly conserved family of proteins that associate with synaptic vesicles, have been implicated in regulating the synaptic vesicle cycle. However, it has not been determined whether synapsin directly regulates the number of docked vesicles. Here we document that reducing Ca(2+) concentration [Ca(2+)](o) in the extracellular medium from 2 to 0.5 mm led to an approximately 40% decrease in both docked and undocked synaptic vesicles in wild-type nerve terminals of the mouse diaphragm. The same treatment reduced the number of undocked vesicles in nerve terminals derived from synapsin II gene deleted animals, but surprisingly it did not decrease vesicle docking, indicating that synapsin II inhibits docking of synaptic vesicles at reduced [Ca(2+)](o). In accordance with the morphological findings, at reduced [Ca(2+)](o) synapsin II (-) terminals had a higher rate of quantal neurotransmitter release. Microinjection of a recombinant synapsin II protein into synapsin II (-) terminals reduced vesicular docking and inhibited quantal release, indicating a direct and selective synapsin II effect for regulating vesicle docking and, in turn, quantal release. To understand why [Ca(2+)](o) has a prominent effect on synapsin function, we investigated the effect of [Ca(2+)](o) on the distribution of synaptic vesicles and on the concentration of intraterminal Ca(2+). We found that reduced [Ca(2+)](o) conditions produce a decrease in intracellular Ca(2+) and overall vesicle depletion. To explore why at these conditions the role of synapsin II in vesicle docking becomes more prominent, we developed a quantitative model of the vesicle cycle, with a two step synapsin action in stabilizing the vesicle store and regulating vesicle docking. The results of the modelling were in a good agreement with the observed dependence of vesicle distribution on synapsin II and calcium deficiency.

cAMP and cGMP in human parotid saliva: relationships to taste and smell dysfunction, gender, and age

Among the chemical moieties present in human parotid saliva, some, such as gustin or carbonic anhydrase VI, have been useful to distinguish patients with taste and smell dysfunction from normal subjects. To continue these studies we compared levels of salivary cAMP and cGMP in patients with taste and smell dysfunction with those in normal subjects. We were also interested in exploring physiological characteristics of salivary cAMP and cGMP including changes with gender and age because previous studies had not clearly defined these issues. To perform these studies parotid saliva was collected from 61 normal volunteers and 253 patients with taste and smell dysfunction. cAMP and cGMP were measured by a spectrophotometric 96 plate ELISA technique; parotid salivary protein and flow rate were also measured. Both cAMP and cGMP were found in saliva of normal subjects and patients in the detection range of the assay used. In patients mean concentrations of both cAMP and cGMP were lower than in normal subjects; for cAMP levels were lower among both men and women patients. cAMP was 7 to 10 times higher than cGMP in both normal subjects and patients. Concentrations of cAMP were consistently higher in normal women than in normal men. cAMP levels were generally lower and cGMP levels were generally higher than in previously reported studies. There was a complex pattern of change for both cAMP and cGMP with age with concentrations increasing to about age 50, then decreasing, then increasing again at age >70 years.

Permissive and repulsive cues and signalling pathways of axonal outgrowth and regeneration

Successful axonal outgrowth in the adult central nervous system (CNS) is central to the process of nerve regeneration and brain repair. To date, much of the knowledge on axonal guidance and outgrowth comes from studies on neuritogenesis and patterning during development where distal growth cones constantly sample the local environment and respond to specific physical and trophic influences. Opposing permissive (e.g., growth factors) and hostile signals (e.g., repulsive cues) are processed, leading to growth cone remodelling, and a concomitant restructuring of the cytoskeleton, thereby permitting pioneering extension and a potential for establishing synaptic connections. Repulsive cues, such as semaphorins, ephrins and myelin-secreted inhibitory glycoproteins, act through their respective receptors to affect the collapsing or turning of growth cones via several pathways, such as the Rho GTPases signalling which precipitates the cytoskeletal changes. One of the direct modulators of microtubules is the family of brain-specific proteins, collapsin response mediator protein (CRMP). Exciting evidence emerged recently that cleavage of CRMPs in response to injury-activated proteases, such as calpain, signals axonal retraction and neuronal death in adult post-mitotic neurons, while blocking this signal transduction prevents axonal retraction and death following excitotoxic insult and cerebral ischemia. Regeneration is minimal in injured postnatal CNS, albeit the occurrence of some limited remodelling in areas where synaptic plasticity is prevalent. Frequently in the absence of axonal regeneration, there is not only an inevitable loss of functional connections, but also a loss of neurons, such as through the actions of dependence receptors. Deciphering the cues and signalling pathways of axonal guidance and outgrowth may hold the key to fully understanding nerve regeneration and brain repair, thereby opening the way for developing potential therapeutics.

Phosphorylation of synapsin domain A is required for post-tetanic potentiation

Post-tetanic potentiation (PTP) is a form of homosynaptic plasticity important for information processing and short-term memory in the nervous system. The synapsins, a family of synaptic vesicle (SV)-associated phosphoproteins, have been implicated in PTP. Although several synapsin functions are known to be regulated by phosphorylation by multiple protein kinases, the role of individual phosphorylation sites in synaptic plasticity is poorly understood. All the synapsins share a phosphorylation site in the N-terminal domain A (site 1) that regulates neurite elongation and SV mobilization. Here, we have examined the role of phosphorylation of synapsin domain A in PTP and other forms of short-term synaptic enhancement (STE) at synapses between cultured Helix pomatia neurons. To this aim, we cloned H. pomatia synapsin (helSyn) and overexpressed GFP-tagged wild-type helSyn or site-1-mutant helSyn mutated in the presynaptic compartment of C1-B2 synapses. We found that PTP at these synapses depends both on Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent and cAMP-dependent protein kinases, and that overexpression of the non-phosphorylatable helSyn mutant, but not wild-type helSyn, specifically impairs PTP, while not altering facilitation and augmentation. Our findings show that phosphorylation of site 1 has a prominent role in the expression of PTP, thus defining a novel role for phosphorylation of synapsin domain A in short-term homosynaptic plasticity.

Analysis of the action of euxanthone, a plant-derived compound that stimulates neurite outgrowth

We have investigated the neurite growth-stimulating properties of euxanthone, a xanthone derivative isolated from the Chinese medicinal plant Polygala caudata. Euxanthone was shown to exert a marked stimulatory action on neurite outgrowth from chick embryo dorsal root ganglia explanted in collagen gels, in the absence of added neurotrophins. It was also shown to promote cell survival in explanted chick embryo ganglia, and to stimulate neurite outgrowth from isolated adult rat primary sensory neurons in vitro. The further finding that euxanthone stimulates neurite outgrowth from explants of chick embryo retina and ventral spinal cord suggests an action on signaling pathways downstream of neuronal receptors for specific neurotrophic factors. Consistent with this, euxanthone did not promote neurite outgrowth from non-transfected PC12 cells, or from PC12 cells transfected with TrkB or TrkC, under conditions in which these cells extended neurites in response to, respectively, the neurotrophins nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin 3. Western blot analysis of euxanthone-stimulated dorsal root ganglion explants showed that expression of phospho-mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase was up-regulated after 1 h of euxanthone-treatment. Inhibition of the MAP kinase pathway using PD98059, a specific inhibitor of MAP kinase kinase, blocked all euxanthone-stimulated neurite outgrowth. However, analysis of phospho-Akt expression indicated that the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase-Akt pathway, another major signaling pathway engaged by neurotrophins, is not significantly activated by euxanthone. These results suggest that euxanthone promotes neurite outgrowth by selectively activating the MAP kinase pathway.

Irreversible cytoskeletal disarrangement is independent of caspase activation during in vitro azaspiracid toxicity in human neuroblastoma cells

Azaspiracid-1 (AZA-1) is a marine toxin discovered in 1995. Besides damage to several tissues in vivo, AZA-1 has been shown to cause cytotoxicity in a number of cell lines and alterations in actin cytoskeleton and cell morphology. We studied the reversibility of AZA-1-induced morphological changes in human neuroblastoma cells and their dependence on caspases and signaling pathways involved in cytoskeleton regulation. Morphological/cytoskeletal changes were clearly observed by confocal microscopy 24h after the addition of toxin, without recovery upon toxin removal. Interestingly, 2min of incubation with AZA-1 was enough for the cytoskeleton to be altered 24-48h later. The activation of caspases by AZA-1 was studied next using a fluorescent caspase inhibitor. A cell population with activated caspases was observed after 48h of exposure to the toxin, but not at 24h. Two fragments and a stereoisomer of AZA-1 were tested to analyze structure-activity relationship. Only ABCD-epi-AZA-1 was active with a similar effect to AZA-1. Additionally, regarding the involvement of apoptosis/cytoskeleton signaling in AZA-1-induced morphological effects, inhibition of caspases with Z-VAD-FMK did not affect AZA-1-induced cytoskeletal changes, suggesting, together with the activation kinetics, that caspases are not responsible for AZA-1-elicited morphological changes. Modulation of PKA, PKC, PI3K, Erk, p38MAPK, glutathione and microtubules with inhibitors/activators did not inhibit AZA-1-induced actin cytoskeleton rearrangement. The JNK inhibitor SP600125 seemed to slightly diminish AZA-1 effects, however due to the effects of the drug by itself the involvement of JNK in AZA-1 toxicity needs further investigation. The results suggest that AZA-1 binds irreversibly to its cellular target, needing moieties located in the ABCDE and FGHI rings of the molecule. Cytotoxicity of AZA-1 has been previously described without reference to the type of cell death, we report that AZA-1 induces the activation of caspases, commonly used as an early marker of apoptosis, and that these proteases are not responsible for AZA-1-induced cytoskeleton disarragement in human neuroblastoma cells.

LKB1 and SAD kinases define a pathway required for the polarization of cortical neurons

The polarization of axon and dendrites underlies the ability of neurons to integrate and transmit information in the brain. We show here that the serine/threonine kinase LKB1, previously implicated in the establishment of epithelial polarity and control of cell growth, is required for axon specification during neuronal polarization in the mammalian cerebral cortex. LKB1 polarizing activity requires its association with the pseudokinase Stradalpha and phosphorylation by kinases such as PKA and p90RSK, which transduce neurite outgrowth-promoting cues. Once activated, LKB1 phosphorylates and thereby activates SAD-A and SAD-B kinases, which are also required for neuronal polarization in the cerebral cortex. SAD kinases, in turn, phosphorylate effectors such as microtubule-associated proteins that implement polarization. Thus, we provide evidence in vivo and in vitro for a multikinase pathway that links extracellular signals to the intracellular machinery required for axon specification.

Broad spectrum neuroprotection profile of phosphodiesterase inhibitors as related to modulation of cell-cycle elements and caspase-3 activation

Cellular injury can involve the aberrant stimulation of cell cycle proteins in part through activation of phosphodiesterases (PDEs) and downstream expression of cell-cycle components such as cyclin D1. In mature non-proliferating cells activation of the cell cycle can lead to the induction of programmed cell death. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro neuroprotective efficacy and mechanism of action of vinpocetine (PDE1 inhibitor), trequinsin (PDE3 inhibitor), and rolipram (PDE4 inhibitor) in four mechanistically-distinct models of injury to primary rat cortical neurons as related to cell cycle regulation and apoptosis. Cellular injury was induced by hypoxia/hypoglycemia, veratridine (10 microM), staurosporine (1 microM), or glutamate (100 microM), resulting in average neuronal cell death rates of 43-48% as determined by MTT assay. Treatment with each PDE inhibitor (PDEI) resulted in a similar concentration-dependent neuroprotection profile with maximal effective concentrations of 5-10 microM (55-77% neuroprotection) in all four neurotoxicity models. Direct cytotoxicity due to PDE inhibition alone was not observed at concentrations below 100 microM. Further studies indicated that PDEIs can suppress the excitotoxic upregulation of cyclin D1 similar to the effects of flavopiridol, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, including suppression of pro-apoptotic caspase-3 activity. Overall, these data indicate that PDEIs are broad-spectrum neuroprotective agents acting through modulation of cell cycle elements and may offer a novel mode of therapy against acute injury to the brain.

Expression of a synapsin IIb site 1 phosphorylation mutant in 3T3-L1 adipocytes inhibits basal intracellular retention of Glut4

Glut4 exocytosis in adipocytes uses protein machinery that is shared with other regulated secretory processes. Synapsins are phosphoproteins that regulate a ;reserve pool' of vesicles clustered behind the active zone in neurons. We found that adipocytes (primary cells and the 3T3-L1 cell line) express synapsin IIb mRNA and protein. Synapsin IIb co-localizes with Glut4 in perinuclear vesicle clusters. To test whether synapsin plays a role in Glut4 traffic, a site 1 phosphorylation mutant (S10A synapsin) was expressed in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Interestingly, expression of S10A synapsin increased basal cell surface Glut4 almost fourfold (50% maximal insulin effect). Insulin caused a further twofold translocation of Glut4 in these cells. Expression of the N-terminus of S10A synapsin (amino acids 1-118) was sufficient to inhibit basal Glut4 retention. Neither wild-type nor S10D synapsin redistributed Glut4. S10A synapsin did not elevate surface levels of the transferrin receptor in adipocytes or Glut4 in fibroblasts. Therefore, S10A synapsin is inhibiting the specialized process of basal intracellular retention of Glut4 in adipocytes, without affecting general endocytic cycling. While mutant forms of many proteins inhibit Glut4 exocytosis in response to insulin, S10A synapsin is one of only a few that specifically inhibits Glut4 retention in basal adipocytes. These data indicate that the synapsins are important regulators of membrane traffic in many cell types.

Neural expression of G protein-coupled receptors GPR3, GPR6, and GPR12 up-regulates cyclic AMP levels and promotes neurite outgrowth

Cyclic AMP regulates multiple neuronal functions, including neurite outgrowth and axonal regeneration. GPR3, GPR6, and GPR12 make up a family of constitutively active G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that share greater than 50% identity and 65% similarity at the amino acid level. They are highly expressed in the central nervous system, and their expression in various cell lines results in constitutive stimulation of cAMP production. When the constitutively active GPCRs were overexpressed in rat cerebellar granule neurons in culture, the transfected neurons exhibited significantly enhanced neurite outgrowth and overcame growth inhibition caused by myelin-associated glycoprotein. GPR12-mediated neurite outgrowth was the most prominent and was shown to depend on G(s) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Moreover, the GPR12-mediated rescue from myelin-associated glycoprotein inhibition was attributable to cAMP-dependent protein kinase-mediated inhibition of the small GTPase, RhoA. Among the three receptors, GPR3 was revealed to be enriched in the developing rat cerebellar granule neurons. When the endogenous GPR3 was knocked down, significant reduction of neurite growth was observed, which was reversed by expression of either GPR3 or GPR12. Taken together, our results indicate that expression of the constitutively active GPCRs up-regulates cAMP production in neurons, stimulates neurite outgrowth, and counteracts myelin inhibition. Further characterization of the GPCRs in developing and injured mammalian neurons should provide insights into how basal cAMP levels are regulated in neurons and could establish a firm scientific foundation for applying receptor biology to treatment of various neurological disorders.

Stimulation of prostaglandin E2-EP3 receptors exacerbates stroke and excitotoxic injury

The effect of PGE(2) EP3 receptors on injury size was investigated following cerebral ischemia and induced excitotoxicity in mice. Treatment with the selective EP3 agonist ONO-AE-248 significantly and dose-dependently increased infarct size in the middle cerebral artery occlusion model. In a separate experiment, pretreatment with ONO-AE-248 exacerbated the lesion caused by N-methyl-d-aspartic acid-induced acute excitotoxicity. Conversely, genetic deletion of EP3 provided protection against N-methyl-d-aspartic acid-induced toxicity. The results suggest that PGE(2), by stimulating EP3 receptors, can contribute to the toxicity associated with cyclooxygenase and that antagonizing this receptor could be used therapeutically to protect against stroke- and excitotoxicity-induced brain damage.

Differential regulation of the high affinity choline transporter and the cholinergic locus by cAMP signaling pathways

Synthesis, storage and release of acetylcholine (ACh) require the expression of several specialized enzymes, including choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) and the high-affinity choline transporter (CHT). Extracellular factors that regulate CHT expression and their signaling pathways remain poorly characterized. Using the NSC-19 cholinergic cell line, derived from embryonic spinal cord, we compared the effects of the second messenger cAMP on the expression of CHT and the cholinergic locus containing the ChAT and VAChT genes. Treatment of NSC-19 cells with dbcAMP and forskolin, thus increasing intracellular cAMP levels, significantly reduced CHT mRNA expression, while it upregulated ChAT/VAChT mRNA levels and ChAT activity. The cAMP-induced CHT downregulation was independent of PKA activity, as shown in treatments with the PKA inhibitor H-89. The alternative Epac-Rap pathway, when stimulated by a specific Epac activator, led to significant downregulation of CHT and ChAT, and, to a lesser extent, VAChT. In contrast, the PKA activator 6-BNZ-cAMP stimulated the expression of all three genes, but with varying concentration-dependence profiles. Our results indicate that elevations of intraneuronal cAMP concentration have differential effects on the cholinergic phenotype, depending on the involvement of different downstream effectors. Interestingly, although CHT is expressed predominantly in cholinergic cells, its regulation appears to be distinct from that of the cholinergic locus.

Protein kinase A-mediated synapsin I phosphorylation is a central modulator of Ca2+-dependent synaptic activity

Protein kinase A (PKA) modulates several steps of synaptic transmission. However, the identification of the mediators of these effects is as yet incomplete. Synapsins are synaptic vesicle (SV)-associated phosphoproteins that represent the major presynaptic targets of PKA. We show that, in hippocampal neurons, cAMP-dependent pathways affect SV exocytosis and that this effect is primarily brought about through synapsin I phosphorylation. Phosphorylation by PKA, by promoting dissociation of synapsin I from SVs, enhances the rate of SV exocytosis on stimulation. This effect becomes relevant when neurons are challenged with sustained stimulation, because it appears to counteract synaptic depression and accelerate recovery from depression by fostering the supply of SVs from the reserve pool to the readily releasable pool. In contrast, synapsin phosphorylation appears to be dispensable for the effects of cAMP on the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous synaptic currents and on the amplitude of evoked synaptic currents. The modulation of depolarization-evoked SV exocytosis by PKA phosphorylation of synapsin I is primarily caused by calmodulin (CaM)-dependent activation of cAMP pathways rather than by direct activation of CaM kinases. These data define a hierarchical crosstalk between cAMP- and CaM-dependent cascades and point to synapsin as a major effector of PKA in the modulation of activity-dependent SV exocytosis.

Therapeutic interventions after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can lead to paraplegia or quadriplegia. Although there are no fully restorative treatments for SCI, various rehabilitative, cellular and molecular therapies have been tested in animal models. Many of these have reached, or are approaching, clinical trials. Here, we review these potential therapies, with an emphasis on the need for reproducible evidence of safety and efficacy. Individual therapies are unlikely to provide a panacea. Rather, we predict that combinations of strategies will lead to improvements in outcome after SCI. Basic scientific research should provide a rational basis for tailoring specific combinations of clinical therapies to different types of SCI.

Ginsenoside Rb1 promotes neurotransmitter release by modulating phosphorylation of synapsins through a cAMP-dependent protein kinase pathway

Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (Araliaceae), has been extensively used in traditional oriental medicine for the prevention and treatment of aging-related disorders for over 2000 years. Accumulating evidence suggests that ginsenosides such as Rg1 and Rb1, which are the pharmacologically active ingredients of ginseng, modulate neurotransmission. Synapsins are abundant phosphoproteins essential for regulating neurotransmitter release. All synapsins contain a short amino-terminal domain A that is highly conserved and phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), which plays a key role in regulating neurotransmitter release. In the present study, we demonstrated that both Rg1 and Rb1 increased neurotransmitter release in undifferentiated and differentiated PC12 cells. However, in the presence of the PKA inhibitor H89, Rg1, but not Rb1, still induced neurotransmitter release. Moreover, Rb1, but not Rg1, enhanced the phosphorylation of synapsins via PKA pathway. In summary, Rb1 promotes neurotransmitter release by increasing the phosphorylation of synapsins through the PKA pathway, whereas the similar effects observed with Rg1 are independent of the phosphorylation of synapsins.

Neurite outgrowth in dorsal root ganglia induced by islet neogenesis-associated protein peptide involves protein kinase A activation

Islet neogenesis-associated protein (INGAP) peptide is a candidate therapeutic for diabetes and corrects sensory dysfunction in experimental diabetes in mice. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of action by which INGAP peptide promotes neurite outgrowth in sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia. Treatment of dorsal root ganglia primary dispersed cultures with INGAP peptide led to the displacement of fluorescently labeled forskolin from adenylate cyclase, the cyclic AMP-generating enzyme that has been implicated in neuritogenesis. The addition of forskolin or dibutyryl cyclic AMP enhanced the effects of INGAP peptide on neurite outgrowth in dorsal root ganglia explant cultures. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of adenylate cyclase with SQ22,536 or of protein kinase A with H89 or KT5720 significantly reduced the neurite-promoting effects of INGAP peptide. These results suggest that INGAP peptide-induced neurite outgrowth in the dorsal root ganglia partially involves cyclic AMP-dependent activation of protein kinase A.

1-hydroxyPGE reduces infarction volume in mouse transient cerebral ischemia

Differential neurological outcomes due to prostaglandin E2 activating G-protein-coupled prostaglandin E (EP) receptors have been observed. Here, we investigated the action of the EP4/EP3 agonist 1-hydroxyPGE1 (1-OHPGE1) in modulating transient ischemic brain damage. C57BL/6 mice were pretreated 50 min before transient occlusion of the middle cerebral artery with an intraventricular injection of 1-OHPGE1 (0.1, 0.2, 2.0 nmol/0.2 microL). Brain damage 4 days after reperfusion, as estimated by infarct volume, was significantly reduced by more than 19% with 1-OHPGE1 in the two higher-dose groups (P < 0.05). To further address whether protection also was extended to neurons, primary mouse cultured neuronal cells were exposed to N-methyl-D-aspartate. Co-treatment with 1-OHPGE1 resulted in significant neuroprotection (P < 0.05). To better understand potential mechanisms of action and to test whether changes in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels and downstream signaling would be neuroprotective, we measured cAMP levels in primary neuronal cells. Brief exposure to 1-OHPGE1 increased cAMP levels more than twofold and increased the phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinases at positions Thr-202/Tyr-204. In a separate cohort of animals, 1-OHPGE1 at all doses tested produced no significant effect on the physiological parameters of core body temperature, mean arterial pressure and relative cerebral blood flow observed following drug treatment. Together, these results suggest that modulation of PGE2 receptors that increase cAMP levels and activate extracellular-regulated kinases 1/2 caused by treatment with 1-OHPGE1 can be protective against neuronal injury induced by focal ischemia.

Actions of neurotrophic factors and their signaling pathways in neuronal survival and axonal regeneration

Adult axons in the mammalian central nervous system do not elicit spontaneous regeneration after injury, although many affected neurons have survived the neurotrauma. However, axonal regeneration does occur under certain conditions. These conditions include: (a) modification of regrowth environment, such as supply of peripheral nerve bridges and transplantation of Schwann cells or olfactory ensheathing glia to the injury site; (b) application of neurotrophic factors at the cell soma and axon tips; (c) blockade of growth-inhibitory molecules such as Nogo-A, myelin-associated glycoprotein, and oligodendrocyte-myelin glycoprotein; (d) prevention of chondroitin-sulfate-proteoglycans-related scar tissue formation at the injury site using chondroitinase ABC; and (e) elevation of intrinsic growth potential of injured neurons via increasing intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate level. A large body of evidence suggests that these conditions achieve enhanced neuronal survival and axonal regeneration through sometimes overlapping and sometimes distinct signal transduction mechanisms, depending on the targeted neuronal populations and intervention circumstances. This article reviews the available information on signal transduction pathways underlying neurotrophic-factor-mediated neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth/axonal regeneration. Better understanding of signaling transduction is important in helping us develop practical therapeutic approaches for encouraging neuronal survival and axonal regeneration after traumatic injury in clinical context.

cAMP regulates axon outgrowth and guidance during optic nerve regeneration in goldfish

Increased cAMP improves neuronal survival and axon regeneration in mammals. Here, we assess cAMP levels and identify activated pathways in a spontaneously regenerating central nervous system. Following optic nerve crush in goldfish, almost all retinal ganglion cells (RGC) survive and regenerate retinotectal topography. Goldfish received injections of a cAMP analogue (CPT-cAMP), a protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor (KT5720), both compounds combined, or PBS (control). RGC survival in experimental groups was unaffected at any stage. The rate of axon regeneration was accelerated by the activator and decelerated both by the inhibitor and by combined injections, suggesting a PKA-dependent pathway. In addition, errors in regenerate retinotectal topography were observed when agents were applied in vivo and RGC response to the guidance cue ephrin-A5 in vitro was altered by the inhibitor. Our results highlight that therapeutic manipulation of cAMP levels to enhance axonal regeneration in mammals must ensure that topography, and consequently function, is not disrupted.

PKA-dependent and PKA-independent pathways for cAMP-regulated exocytosis

Stimulus-secretion coupling is an essential process in secretory cells in which regulated exocytosis occurs, including neuronal, neuroendocrine, endocrine, and exocrine cells. While an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) is the principal signal, other intracellular signals also are important in regulated exocytosis. In particular, the cAMP signaling system is well known to regulate and modulate exocytosis in a variety of secretory cells. Until recently, it was generally thought that the effects of cAMP in regulated exocytosis are mediated by activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), a major cAMP target, followed by phosphorylation of the relevant proteins. Although the involvement of PKA-independent mechanisms has been suggested in cAMP-regulated exocytosis by pharmacological approaches, the molecular mechanisms are unknown. Newly discovered cAMP-GEF/Epac, which belongs to the cAMP-binding protein family, exhibits guanine nucleotide exchange factor activities and exerts diverse effects on cellular functions including hormone/transmitter secretion, cell adhesion, and intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization. cAMP-GEF/Epac mediates the PKA-independent effects on cAMP-regulated exocytosis. Thus cAMP regulates and modulates exocytosis by coordinating both PKA-dependent and PKA-independent mechanisms. Localization of cAMP within intracellular compartments (cAMP compartmentation or compartmentalization) may be a key mechanism underlying the distinct effects of cAMP in different domains of the cell.

Cellular mechanisms associated with spontaneous and ciliary neurotrophic factor-cAMP-induced survival and axonal regeneration of adult retinal ganglion cells

We have shown previously that intraocular elevation of cAMP using the cAMP analog 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-cAMP (CPT-cAMP) failed to promote axonal regeneration of axotomized adult retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) into peripheral nerve (PN) grafts but significantly potentiated ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)-induced axonal regeneration. Using the PN graft model, we now examine the mechanisms underlying spontaneous and CNTF/CPT-cAMP-induced neuronal survival and axonal regrowth. We found that blockade of the cAMP pathway executor protein kinase A (PKA) using the cell-permeable inhibitor KT5720 did not affect spontaneous survival and axonal regeneration but essentially abolished the CNTF/CPT-cAMP-induced RGC survival and axonal regeneration. Blockade of CNTF signaling pathways such as phosphotidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/akt by 2-(4-morpholinyl)-8-phenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (LY294002), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) by 2-(2-diamino-3-methoxyphenyl-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (PD98059), or Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activators of transcription (STAT3) by tyrphostin AG490 also blocked the CNTF/CPT-cAMP-dependent survival and regeneration effects. PKA activity assay and Western blots showed that KT5720, LY294002, and PD98059 almost completely inhibited PKA, PI3K/akt, and MAPK/ERK signal transduction, respectively, whereas AG490 substantially decreased JAK/STAT3 signal transduction. Intraocular injection of CPT-cAMP resulted in a small PKA-dependent increase in CNTF receptor alpha mRNA expression in the retinas, an effect that may facilitate CNTF action on survival and axonal regeneration. Surprisingly, in the absence of CNTF/CPT-cAMP, LY294002, PD98059, and AG490, but not KT5720, significantly enhanced spontaneous RGC survival, suggesting differential roles of these pathways in RGC survival under different conditions. Our data suggest that CNTF/CPT-cAMP-induced RGC survival and axonal regeneration are a result of multiple pathway actions, with PKA as an essential component, but that these pathways can function in an antagonistic manner under different conditions.

Role of Ser50 phosphorylation in SCG10 regulation of microtubule depolymerization

Members of the stathmin-like protein family depolymerize microtubules (MTs), probably due to the ability of each stathmin monomer to bind two tubulin heterodimers in a complex (T(2)S complex). SCG10, a member of this family, is localized in the growth cone of neurons. It has four identified sites of serine phosphorylation (S50, S63, S73, and S97). Of these, S50 and S97 are phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase, an enzyme involved in growth cone guidance. When the equivalent sites in stathmins are phosphorylated, they lose their ability to depolymerize MTs. We investigated the specific role of the two cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) phosphorylation sites in SCG10. A mutant of SCG10 phosphorylated only on S50 retained the ability to depolymerize MTs, but SCG10 phosphorylated on S97 or on both S50 and S97 lost MT-depolymerizing activity. Surface plasmon resonance studies revealed that the phosphorylation of SCG10 at these sites reduced the tubulin heterodimer binding, mainly due to a reduced rate of association. In particular, compared to the two other phosphorylated forms, SCG10 phosphorylated at S50 had a significantly smaller dissociation constant for the binding of the first tubulin heterodimer and larger association and dissociation rate constants for the binding of the second heterodimer. This indicates that the phosphorylation of S50 compensates for the effect of phosphorylation at other sites by modulating T2S complex formation. Furthermore, these results suggest that S50-P maintains MT-depolymerizing activity, which indicates that the biological functions of phosphorylation at S50 and S97 are different.

Essential role of the synaptic vesicle protein synapsin II in formalin-induced hyperalgesia and glutamate release in the spinal cord

The synaptic vesicle protein synapsin II plays an important role in the regulation of neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Here, we investigated its involvement in the synaptic transmission of nociceptive signals in the spinal cord and the development of pain hypersensitivity. We show that synapsin II is predominantly expressed in terminals and neuronal fibers in superficial laminae of the dorsal horn (laminae I-II). Formalin injection into a mouse hindpaw normally causes an immediate and strong release of glutamate in the dorsal horn. In synapsin II deficient mice this glutamate release is almost completely missing. This is associated with reduced nociceptive behavior in the formalin test and in the zymosan-induced paw inflammation model. In addition, the formalin evoked increase in the number of c-Fos IR neurons is significantly reduced in synapsin II knockout mice. Touch perception and motor coordination, however, are normal indicating that synapsin II deficiency does not generally disrupt sensory and/or motor functions. Antisense-mediated transient knockdown of synapsin II in the spinal cord of adult animals also reduced the nociceptive behavior. As the antisense effect is independent of a potential role of synapsin II during development we suggest that the hypoalgesia in synapsin II deficient mice does involve a direct 'pain-facilitating' effect of synapsin II and is not essentially dependent on potentially occurring developmental alterations. The distinctive role of synapsin II for pain signaling probably results from its specific localization and possibly from a specific control of glutamate release.

Role of phospholipase D1 in neurite outgrowth of neural stem cells

Employing neural stem cells from the brain cortex of E12 rat embryos, we investigated the possible role of phospholipase D (PLD) in the synaptogenesis and neurite formation of neural cells during differentiation. Expression level of PLD1 increased during neuronal differentiation of the neural stem cells, resulting in increased PLD activity. Expression level of synapsin I, a marker of synaptogenesis, also increased as the differentiation of neural stem cells progressed. To figure out the effect of PLD on synapsin I expression, we treated the neural stem cells with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) to stimulate PLD activity. Increased PLD activity induced by PMA treatment resulted in elevated synapsin I expression and neurite outgrowth during neuronal differentiation. To further confirm the role of PLD in neurite outgrowth, we transfected the dominant-negative form of rat PLD1 cDNA (DN-rPLD1) into neural stem cells to downregulate PLD activity. Overexpression of DN-rPLD1 showed the complete inhibition of neurite outgrowth of neural stem cells under differentiation condition. While transfection of DN-rPLD1 did not affect the synapsin I expression, overexpression of rPLD1 resulted in increased synapsin I expression of the neural cells. These results suggest that PLD1 plays a critical role in neurite outgrowth during differentiation of the neural stem cells. In conclusion, this is the first evidence to show that PLD1 acts as an important regulator of neurite outgrowth in neural stem cell by promoting neuronal differentiation via increase of synapsin I expression.

Modulation of synaptic plasticity by antimanic agents: the role of AMPA glutamate receptor subunit 1 synaptic expression

Increasing data suggest that impairments of cellular plasticity underlie the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. In this context, it is noteworthy that AMPA glutamate receptor trafficking regulates synaptic plasticity, effects mediated by signaling cascades, which are targets for antimanic agents. The present studies were undertaken to determine whether two clinically effective, but structurally highly dissimilar, antimanic agents lithium and valproate regulate synaptic expression of AMPA receptor subunit glutamate receptor 1 (GluR1). Chronic (but not acute) treatment of rats with therapeutically relevant concentrations of lithium or valproate reduced hippocampal synaptosomal GluR1 levels. The reduction in synaptic GluR1 by lithium and valproate was attributable to a reduction of surface GluR1 distribution onto the neuronal membrane as demonstrated by three independent assays in cultured hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, these agents induced a decrease in GluR1 phosphorylation at a specific PKA site (GluR1p845), which is known to be critical for AMPA receptor insertion. Sp-cAMP treatment reversed the attenuation of phosphorylation by lithium and valproate and also brought GluR1 back to the surface, suggesting that phosphorylation of GluR1p845 is involved in the mechanism of GluR1 surface attenuation. In addition, GluR1p845 phosphorylation also was attenuated in hippocampus from lithium- or valproate-treated animals in vivo. In contrast, imipramine, an antidepressant that can trigger manic episodes, increased synaptic expression of GluR1 in hippocampus in vivo. These studies suggest that regulation of glutamatergically mediated synaptic plasticity may play a role in the treatment of bipolar disorder and raise the possibility that agents more directly affecting synaptic GluR1 may represent novel therapies for this devastating illness.