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Abstract
Cytokine-based immunotherapy is executed by harnessing cytokines to activate the immune system to suppress tumors. Th1-type cytokines including IL-1, IL-2, IL-12 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor are potent stimulators of Th1 differentiation and Th1-based antitumor response. Many preclinical studies demonstrated the antitumor effects of Th1 cytokines but their clinical efficacy is limited. Multiple factors influence the efficacy of immunotherapy for tumors. For instance immunosuppressive cells in the tumor microenvironment can produce inhibitory cytokines which suppress antitumor immune response. Most studies on cytokine immunotherapy focused on how to boost Th1 response; many studies combined cytokine-based therapy with other treatments to reverse immunosuppression in tumor microenvironment. In addition, cytokines have pleiotropic functions and some cytokines show paradoxical activities under different settings. Better understanding the physiological and pathological functions of cytokines helps clinicians to design Th1-based cancer therapy in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Mei Xu
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, OX1 3RE, United Kingdom.
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52
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Rich AM, Hussaini HM, Parachuru VPB, Seymour GJ. Toll-like receptors and cancer, particularly oral squamous cell carcinoma. Front Immunol 2014; 5:464. [PMID: 25309546 PMCID: PMC4174116 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly apparent that the tumor microenvironment plays an important role in the progression of cancer. The microenvironment may promote tumor cell survival and proliferation or, alternatively may induce tumor cell apoptosis. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are transmembrane proteins, expressed on immune cells and epithelial cells, that recognize exogenous and endogenous macromolecules. Once activated, they initiate signaling pathways leading to the release of cytokines and chemokines, which recruit immune cells inducing further cytokine production, the production of angiogenic mediators and growth factors, all of which may influence tumor progression. This paper examines the actions of TLRs in carcinogenesis with particular emphasis on their role in oral squamous cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Mary Rich
- Faculty of Dentistry, Sir John Walsh Research Institute, University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Haizal Mohd Hussaini
- Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Pathology and Oral Medicine, National University of Malaysia , Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia
| | - Venkata P B Parachuru
- Faculty of Dentistry, Sir John Walsh Research Institute, University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Gregory J Seymour
- Faculty of Dentistry, Sir John Walsh Research Institute, University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
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53
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Dar AA, Patil RS, Chiplunkar SV. Insights into the Relationship between Toll Like Receptors and Gamma Delta T Cell Responses. Front Immunol 2014; 5:366. [PMID: 25132835 PMCID: PMC4116803 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is an important aspect of cancer biology that contributes to tumor initiation, tumor progression and responses to therapy. The composition and characteristics of the tumor microenvironment vary widely and are important in determining the anti-tumor immune response. Successful immunization requires activation of both innate and adaptive immunity. Generally, immune system is compromised in patients with cancer due to immune suppression, loss of tumor antigen expression and dysfunction of antigen presenting cells (APC). Thus, therapeutic immunization leading to cancer regression remains a significant challenge. Certain cells of the immune system, including dendritic cells (DCs) and gamma delta (γδ) T cells are capable of driving potent anti-tumor responses. The property of MHC-unrestricted cytotoxicity, high potential of cytokine release, tissue tropism and early activation in infections and malignant disease makes γδ T cells as an emerging candidate for immunotherapy. Various strategies are being developed to enhance anti-tumor immune responses of γδ T cells and DCs one of them is the use of novel adjuvants like toll like receptors (TLR) agonists, which enhance γδ T cell function directly or through DC activation, which has ability to prime γδ T cells. TLR agonists are being used clinically either alone or in combination with tumor antigens and has shown initial success in both enhancing immune responses and eliciting anti-tumor activity. TLR activated γδ T cells and DCs nurture each other's activation. This provides a potent base for first line of defense and manipulation of the adaptive response against pathogens and cancer. The available data provides a strong rationale for initiating combinatorial therapy for the treatment of diseases and this review will summarize the application of adjuvants (TLRs) for boosting immune response of γδ T cells to treat cancer and infectious diseases and their use in combinatorial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asif Amin Dar
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre , Navi Mumbai , India
| | - Rushikesh Sudam Patil
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre , Navi Mumbai , India
| | - Shubhada Vivek Chiplunkar
- Chiplunkar Laboratory, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre , Navi Mumbai , India
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54
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A role for impaired regulatory T cell function in adverse responses to aluminum adjuvant-containing vaccines in genetically susceptible individuals. Vaccine 2014; 32:5149-55. [PMID: 25066736 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells play a critical role in the immune response to vaccination, but there is only a limited understanding of the response of regulatory T cells to aluminum adjuvants and the vaccines that contain them. Available studies in animal models show that although induced T regulatory cells may be induced concomitantly with effector T cells following aluminum-adjuvanted vaccination, they are unable to protect against sensitization, suggesting that under the Th2 immune-stimulating effects of aluminum adjuvants, Treg cells may be functionally compromised. Allergic diseases are characterized by immune dysregulation, with increases in IL-4 and IL-6, both of which exert negative effects on Treg function. For individuals with a genetic predisposition, the beneficial influence of adjuvants on immune responsiveness may be accompanied by immune dysregulation, leading to allergic diseases. This review examines aspects of the regulatory T cell response to aluminum-adjuvanted immunization and possible genetic susceptibility factors related to that response.
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55
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d'Adhemar CJ, Spillane CD, Gallagher MF, Bates M, Costello KM, Barry-O'Crowley J, Haley K, Kernan N, Murphy C, Smyth PC, O'Byrne K, Pennington S, Cooke AA, Ffrench B, Martin CM, O'Donnell D, Hennessy B, Stordal B, Finn S, McCann A, Gleeson N, D'Arcy T, Flood B, O'Neill LAJ, Sheils O, O'Toole S, O'Leary JJ. The MyD88+ phenotype is an adverse prognostic factor in epithelial ovarian cancer. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100816. [PMID: 24977712 PMCID: PMC4076208 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The prognosis of epithelial ovarian cancer is poor in part due to the high frequency of chemoresistance. Recent evidence points to the Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4), and particularly its adaptor protein MyD88, as one potential mediator of this resistance. This study aims to provide further evidence that MyD88 positive cancer cells are clinically significant, stem-like and reproducibly detectable for the purposes of prognostic stratification. Expression of TLR4 and MyD88 was assessed immunohistochemically in 198 paraffin-embedded ovarian tissues and in an embryonal carcinoma model of cancer stemness. In parallel, expression of TLR4 and MyD88 mRNA and regulatory microRNAs (miR-21 and miR-146a) was assessed, as well as in a series of chemosensitive and resistant cancer cells lines. Functional analysis of the pathway was assessed in chemoresistant SKOV-3 ovarian cancer cells. TLR4 and MyD88 expression can be reproducibly assessed via immunohistochemistry using a semi-quantitative scoring system. TLR4 expression was present in all ovarian epithelium (normal and neoplastic), whereas MyD88 was restricted to neoplastic cells, independent of tumour grade and associated with reduced progression-free and overall survival, in an immunohistological specific subset of serous carcinomas, p<0.05. MiR-21 and miR-146a expression was significantly increased in MyD88 negative cancers (p<0.05), indicating their participation in regulation. Significant alterations in MyD88 mRNA expression were observed between chemosensitive and chemoresistant cells and tissue. Knockdown of TLR4 in SKOV-3 ovarian cells recovered chemosensitivity. Knockdown of MyD88 alone did not. MyD88 expression was down-regulated in differentiated embryonal carcinoma (NTera2) cells, supporting the MyD88+ cancer stem cell hypothesis. Our findings demonstrate that expression of MyD88 is associated with significantly reduced patient survival and altered microRNA levels and suggest an intact/functioning TLR4/MyD88 pathway is required for acquisition of the chemoresistant phenotype. Ex vivo manipulation of ovarian cancer stem cell (CSC) differentiation can decrease MyD88 expression, providing a potentially valuable CSC model for ovarian cancer.
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MESH Headings
- Aged
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/pharmacology
- Carcinoma, Ovarian Epithelial
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cystadenocarcinoma, Serous/diagnosis
- Cystadenocarcinoma, Serous/drug therapy
- Cystadenocarcinoma, Serous/genetics
- Cystadenocarcinoma, Serous/mortality
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/genetics
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Genotype
- Humans
- Immunohistochemistry
- MicroRNAs/genetics
- MicroRNAs/metabolism
- Middle Aged
- Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88/genetics
- Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88/metabolism
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/diagnosis
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/drug therapy
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/genetics
- Neoplasms, Glandular and Epithelial/mortality
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/drug effects
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/metabolism
- Neoplastic Stem Cells/pathology
- Ovarian Neoplasms/diagnosis
- Ovarian Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Ovarian Neoplasms/genetics
- Ovarian Neoplasms/mortality
- Paclitaxel/pharmacology
- Phenotype
- Prognosis
- RNA, Small Interfering/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Survival Analysis
- Toll-Like Receptor 4/antagonists & inhibitors
- Toll-Like Receptor 4/genetics
- Toll-Like Receptor 4/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cathy D. Spillane
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Mark Bates
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Katie M. Costello
- Department of Pathology, Coombe Women's & Infants University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Kathryn Haley
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Niamh Kernan
- Department of Pathology, Coombe Women's & Infants University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Ciara Murphy
- Department of Pathology, Coombe Women's & Infants University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Paul C. Smyth
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Ken O'Byrne
- Translational Research Institute, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Stephen Pennington
- College of Health Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aoife A. Cooke
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brendan Ffrench
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Cara M. Martin
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Bryan Hennessy
- Department of Medical Oncology, Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Britta Stordal
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Stephen Finn
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Amanda McCann
- College of Health Sciences, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Noreen Gleeson
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Tom D'Arcy
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brian Flood
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Orla Sheils
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Sharon O'Toole
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- * E-mail:
| | - John J. O'Leary
- Department of Histopathology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Pathology, Coombe Women's & Infants University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
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56
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Immune Adjuvant Effect of Molecularly-defined Toll-Like Receptor Ligands. Vaccines (Basel) 2014; 2:323-53. [PMID: 26344622 PMCID: PMC4494261 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines2020323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccine efficacy is optimized by addition of immune adjuvants. However, although adjuvants have been used for over a century, to date, only few adjuvants are approved for human use, mostly aimed at improving vaccine efficacy and antigen-specific protective antibody production. The mechanism of action of immune adjuvants is diverse, depending on their chemical and molecular nature, ranging from non-specific effects (i.e., antigen depot at the immunization site) to specific activation of immune cells leading to improved host innate and adaptive responses. Although the detailed molecular mechanism of action of many adjuvants is still elusive, the discovery of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) has provided new critical information on immunostimulatory effect of numerous bacterial components that engage TLRs. These ligands have been shown to improve both the quality and the quantity of host adaptive immune responses when used in vaccine formulations targeted to infectious diseases and cancer that require both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. The potential of such TLR adjuvants in improving the design and the outcomes of several vaccines is continuously evolving, as new agonists are discovered and tested in experimental and clinical models of vaccination. In this review, a summary of the recent progress in development of TLR adjuvants is presented.
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57
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Veiga-Parga T, Sehrawat S, Rouse BT. Role of regulatory T cells during virus infection. Immunol Rev 2014; 255:182-96. [PMID: 23947355 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The host response to viruses includes multiple cell types that have regulatory function. Most information focuses on CD4(+) regulatory T cells that express the transcription factor Foxp3(+) (Tregs), which are the topic of this review. We explain how viruses through specific and non-specific means can trigger the response of thymus-derived natural Tregs as well as induce Tregs. The latter derive under appropriate stimulation conditions either from uncommitted precursors or from differentiated cells that convert to become Tregs. We describe instances where Tregs appear to limit the efficacy of antiviral protective immunity and other, perhaps more common, immune-mediated inflammatory conditions, where the Tregs function to limit the extent of tissue damage that occurs during a virus infection. We discuss the controversial roles that Tregs may play in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency and hepatitis C virus infections. The issue of plasticity is discussed, as this may result in Tregs losing their protective function when present in inflammatory environments. Finally, we mention approaches used to manipulate Treg numbers and function and assess their current value and likely future success to manage the outcome of virus infection, especially those that are responsible for chronic tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Veiga-Parga
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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58
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Guo C, Manjili MH, Subjeck JR, Sarkar D, Fisher PB, Wang XY. Therapeutic cancer vaccines: past, present, and future. Adv Cancer Res 2014; 119:421-75. [PMID: 23870514 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-407190-2.00007-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 361] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic vaccines represent a viable option for active immunotherapy of cancers that aim to treat late stage disease by using a patient's own immune system. The promising results from clinical trials recently led to the approval of the first therapeutic cancer vaccine by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. This major breakthrough not only provides a new treatment modality for cancer management but also paves the way for rationally designing and optimizing future vaccines with improved anticancer efficacy. Numerous vaccine strategies are currently being evaluated both preclinically and clinically. This review discusses therapeutic cancer vaccines from diverse platforms or targets as well as the preclinical and clinical studies employing these therapeutic vaccines. We also consider tumor-induced immune suppression that hinders the potency of therapeutic vaccines, and potential strategies to counteract these mechanisms for generating more robust and durable antitumor immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunqing Guo
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
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59
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Selvaraj RK. Avian CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells: properties and therapeutic applications. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 41:397-402. [PMID: 23665004 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2013] [Revised: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a subset of T cells that specialize in immune suppression. CD4(+)CD25(+)FoxP3(+) T cells have been characterized as Tregs and extensively studied in mammals. In the absence of a putative FoxP3 ortholog in avians, CD4(+)CD25(+) cells is characterized as Tregs in avians. Avian CD4(+)CD25(+) cells produce high amounts of IL-10, TGF-β, CTLA-4, and LAG-3 mRNA; lack IL-2 mRNA; and suppress T cell proliferation in vitro through both contact-dependent and -independent pathways. Depleting avian CD4(+)CD25(+) cells increases the proliferation of, IL-2 amount, and IFNγ mRNA amount of CD4(+)CD25(-) cells. Avian CD4(+)CD25(+) cells lose their suppressive properties immediately after inflammation and acquire supersuppressive properties once inflammation subsides. Although Treg activity could be beneficial to the host, Tregs simultaneously inhibit host immunity and cause persistent infections of certain pathogens. Therapy targeted toward alleviating Treg mediated immune suppression can improve host immunity against those persistent pathogens and benefit poultry production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesh K Selvaraj
- Department of Animal Sciences, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, 44691, United States.
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60
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Butt AQ, Mills KHG. Immunosuppressive networks and checkpoints controlling antitumor immunity and their blockade in the development of cancer immunotherapeutics and vaccines. Oncogene 2013; 33:4623-31. [PMID: 24141774 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Revised: 08/21/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Vaccines that promote protective adaptive immune responses have been successfully developed against a range of infectious diseases, and these are normally administered prior to exposure with the relevant virus or bacteria. Adaptive immunity also plays a critical role in the control of tumors. Immunotherapeutics and vaccines that promote effector T cell responses have the potential to eliminate tumors when used in a therapeutic setting. However, the induction of protective antitumor immunity is compromised by innate immunosuppressive mechanisms and regulatory cells that often dominate the tumor microenvironment. Recent studies have shown that blocking these suppressor cells and immune checkpoints to allow induction of antitumor immunity is a successful immunotherapeutic modality for the treatment of cancer. Furthermore, stimulation of innate and consequently adaptive immune responses with concomitant inhibition of immune suppression, especially that mediated by regulatory T (Treg) cells, is emerging as a promising approach to enhance the efficacy of therapeutic vaccines against cancer. This review describes the immunosuppressive mechanisms controlling antitumor immunity and the novel strategies being employed to design effective immunotherapeutics against tumors based on inhibition of suppressor cells or blockade of immune checkpoints to allow induction of more potent effector T cell responses. This review also discusses the potential of using a combination of adjuvants with inhibition of immune checkpoint or suppressor cells for therapeutic vaccines and the translation of pre-clinical studies to the next-generation vaccines against cancer in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Q Butt
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - K H G Mills
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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61
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Walsh KP, Mills KHG. Dendritic cells and other innate determinants of T helper cell polarisation. Trends Immunol 2013; 34:521-30. [PMID: 23973621 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 07/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Adaptive immunity plays a crucial role in natural host defence against pathogens and tumours, and is central to the long-term protective effect of vaccines. It is mediated by T and B cells that are activated through antigen-specific receptors. By contrast, innate immunity responds immediately to infection and damage, and is activated through binding of conserved pathogen or damage-associated molecules to pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on dendritic cells (DCs) and other innate immunity cell types. Recent studies have demonstrated that the innate immune system also functions to direct the adaptive immune response, not only through antigen presentation but also by providing the key signals for the differentiation of naive CD4+ T cells into functionally distinct T helper (Th) cell subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin P Walsh
- Immune Regulation Research Group and Immunology Research Centre, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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62
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Reynolds JM, Dong C. Toll-like receptor regulation of effector T lymphocyte function. Trends Immunol 2013; 34:511-9. [PMID: 23886621 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The landmark discovery of pattern-recognition receptors, including Toll-like receptors (TLRs), furthered our understanding on how the host rapidly responds to invading pathogens. For over a decade now, extensive research has demonstrated the crucial role of multiple TLRs in the detection of a broad range of molecules expressed by microbial pathogens as well as host-derived danger signals. TLR activation is the hallmark of the innate immune response. Recent evidence, however, demonstrates that cells of the adaptive immune response use these innate signaling pathways as well. This review discusses recent findings regarding TLR functionality in T lymphocytes with a specific emphasis on the promotion of T helper cell-dependent inflammation through direct TLR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Reynolds
- Department of Immunology and Center for Inflammation and Cancer, MD Anderson Cancer Center, 7455 Fannin, Unit 906, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
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63
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Li X, Liu Z, Yan X, Zhang X, Li Y, Zhao B, Wang S, Zhou X, Gao GF, Meng S. Induction of regulatory T cells by high-dose gp96 suppresses murine liver immune hyperactivation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68997. [PMID: 23874845 PMCID: PMC3715452 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunization with high-dose heat shock protein gp96, an endoplasmic reticulum counterpart of the Hsp90 family, significantly enhances regulatory T cell (Treg) frequency and suppressive function. Here, we examined the potential role and mechanism of gp96 in regulating immune-mediated hepatic injury in mice. High-dose gp96 immunization elicited rapid and long-lasting protection of mice against concanavalin A (Con A)-and anti-CD137-induced liver injury, as evidenced by decreased alanine aminotransaminase (ALT) levels, hepatic necrosis, serum pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-6), and number of IFN-γ + CD4+ and IFN-γ + CD8+ T cells in the spleen and liver. In contrast, CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Treg frequency and suppressive function were both increased, and the protective effect of gp96 could be generated by adoptive transfer of Treg cells from gp96-immunized mice. In vitro co-culture experiments demonstrated that gp96 stimulation enhanced Treg proliferation and suppressive function, and up-regulation of Foxp3, IL-10, and TGF-β1 induced by gp96 was dependent on TLR2- and TLR4-mediated NF-κB activation. Our work shows that activation of Tregs by high-dose gp96 immunization protects against Con A- and anti-CD137-induced T cell-hepatitis and provides therapeutic potential for the development of a gp96-based anti-immune hyperactivation vaccine against immune-mediated liver destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinghui Li
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoli Yan
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Li
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bao Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shengdian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xuyu Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - George F. Gao
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Songdong Meng
- Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
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64
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Galvin KC, Dyck L, Marshall NA, Stefanska AM, Walsh KP, Moran B, Higgins SC, Dungan LS, Mills KHG. Blocking retinoic acid receptor-α enhances the efficacy of a dendritic cell vaccine against tumours by suppressing the induction of regulatory T cells. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2013; 62:1273-82. [PMID: 23657628 PMCID: PMC11029272 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-013-1432-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The immune system has evolved regulatory mechanisms to control immune responses to self-antigens. Regulatory T (Treg) cells play a pivotal role in maintaining immune tolerance, but tumour growth is associated with local immunosuppression, which can subvert effector immune responses. Indeed, the induction and recruitment of Treg cells by tumours is a major barrier in the development of effective immunotherapeutics and vaccines against cancer. Retinoic acid (RA) has been shown to promote conversion of naïve T cells into Treg cells. This study addresses the hypothesis that blocking RA receptor alpha (RARα) may enhance the efficacy of a tumour vaccine by inhibiting the induction of Treg cells. We found that RA significantly enhanced TGF-β-induced expression of Foxp3 on naïve and committed T cells in vitro and that this was blocked by an antagonist of RARα (RARi). In addition, RARi significantly suppressed TGF-β and IL-10 and enhanced IL-12 production by dendritic cells (DC) in response to killed tumour cells or TLR agonists. Furthermore, RARi augmented the efficacy of an antigen-pulsed and TLR-activated DC vaccine, significantly attenuating growth of B16 tumours in vivo and enhancing survival of mice. This protective effect was associated with significant reduction in tumour-infiltrating FoxP3(+) and IL-10(+) Treg cells and a corresponding increase in tumour-infiltrating CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells that secreted IFN-γ. Our findings demonstrate that RARα is an important target for the development of effective anti-tumour immunotherapeutics and for improving the efficacy of cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen C. Galvin
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Lydia Dyck
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Neil A. Marshall
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Anna M. Stefanska
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Kevin P. Walsh
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Barry Moran
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Sarah C. Higgins
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Lara S. Dungan
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Kingston H. G. Mills
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College, 152-160 Pearse St, Dublin 2, Ireland
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Wang X, Dong L, Ni H, Zhou S, Xu Z, Hoellwarth JS, Chen X, Zhang R, Chen Q, Liu F, Wang J, Su C. Combined TLR7/8 and TLR9 ligands potentiate the activity of a Schistosoma japonicum DNA vaccine. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2164. [PMID: 23593527 PMCID: PMC3617091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands have been explored as vaccine adjuvants for tumor and virus immunotherapy, but few TLR ligands affecting schistosoma vaccines have been characterized. Previously, we developed a partially protective DNA vaccine encoding the 26-kDa glutathione S-transferase of Schistosoma japonicum (pVAX1-Sj26GST). Methodology/Principal Findings In this study, we evaluated a TLR7/8 ligand (R848) and a TLR9 ligand (CpG oligodeoxynucleotides, or CpG) as adjuvants for pVAX1-Sj26GST and assessed their effects on the immune system and protection against S. japonicum. We show that combining CpG and R848 with pVAX1-Sj26GST immunization significantly increases splenocyte proliferation and IgG and IgG2a levels, decreases CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg) frequency in vivo, and enhances protection against S. japonicum. CpG and R848 inhibited Treg-mediated immunosuppression, upregulated the production of interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-2, and IL-6, and decreased Foxp3 expression in vitro, which may contribute to prevent Treg suppression and conversion during vaccination and allow expansion of antigen-specific T cells against pathogens. Conclusions Our data shows that selective TLR ligands can increase the protective efficacy of DNA vaccines against schistosomiasis, potentially through combined antagonism of Treg-mediated immunosuppression and conversion. There is evidence that TLR activation can block Treg cell responses and thereby break tolerance to self-antigens. It is expected that the use of TLR ligands as vaccine adjuvants will induce potent anti-pathogen immune responses and simultaneously overcome immune inhibition mediated by Tregs. However, the impact of TLR ligands on schistosomiasis vaccines is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the use of a TLR7/8 ligand (R848) and a TLR9 ligand (CpG) as adjuvants in combination with the S. japonicum vaccine pVAX1-Sj26GST improves disease protection. The combination of CpG and R848 administered after vaccination causes an immune response marked by an upregulation of splenocyte proliferation and IgG and IgG2a levels that also coincides with a decreased proportion of CD4+CD25+ Tregs in mice. We also show that combined adjuvant use of CpG and R848 may impair Treg development and function by promoting the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and reducing Foxp3 expression. Our findings suggest that in combination with the vaccine, TLR ligands may protect the effector response from Treg-mediated suppression, thereby eliciting the appropriate immune response to improve vaccine efficacy. Immunization combined with the TLR ligands CpG and R848 thus represents a promising new approach for the design of schistosoma vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefeng Wang
- Department of Central Laboratory, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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66
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Kurarinone regulates immune responses through regulation of the JAK/STAT and TCR-mediated signaling pathways. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 85:1134-44. [PMID: 23333426 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Revised: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Sophora flavescens is a medicinal herb that contains flavonoids and quinolizidine alkaloids and has a wide range of biological activities due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and anti-cancer properties. We isolated a series of flavonoids from the roots of Sophora flavescens and examined their ability to inhibit immune responses. Among the flavonoids, kurarinone exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect on immune responses. Kurarinone suppressed the differentiation of CD4(+) T cells by inhibiting the expression and production of T-cell lineage-specific master regulators and cytokines. Our results also demonstrated that kurarinone directly suppressed the cytokine-induced Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling and T-cell receptor (TCR) pathways. In two established animal models of chronic inflammatory skin disease, one in which psoriasis-like skin disease was induced by an interleukin 23 (IL-23) injection into mouse ears and another in which 2,4,6-trinitrochlorobenzene (TNCB) application on the abdomens of mice was used to induce contact dermatitis, kurarinone repressed disease development by inhibiting the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines and enzyme in murine ear skin. This study provides new evidence that kurarinone may ameliorate chronic inflammatory skin diseases through the suppression of pathogenic CD4(+) T-cell differentiation and the overall immune response.
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67
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Weigand LU, Liang X, Schmied S, Mall S, Klar R, Stötzer OJ, Salat C, Götze K, Mautner J, Peschel C, Krackhardt AM. Isolation of human MHC class II-restricted T cell receptors from the autologous T-cell repertoire with potent anti-leukaemic reactivity. Immunology 2012; 137:226-38. [PMID: 23025755 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Adoptive transfer of T cells genetically modified with tumour-specific T-cell receptors (TCR) is a promising novel approach in the treatment of cancer. We have previously isolated an allorestricted MHC class I-restricted TCR with specificity for Formin-like protein 1 (FMNL1) with potent activity against chronic lymphocytic leukaemia cells. CD4(+) T cells have been described to be highly important for tumour elimination although TCR derived from CD4(+) T cells with anti-tumour reactivity have been only rarely described. In this study we aimed to isolate MHC class-II-restricted CD4(+) T cells and TCR with specificity for leukaemia antigens. We used professional antigen-presenting cells pulsed with the leukaemia-associated and tumour-associated antigen FMNL1 for stimulation of autologous T cells in vitro. We isolated two CD4(+) HLA-DR-restricted T-cell clones and T-cell-derived TCR with so far unknown specificity but high reactivity against lymphoma cells and native malignant cells derived from HLA-matched patients with diverse leukaemias. Moreover, characterization of the TCR after TCR gene transfer revealed that specific characteristics of isolated TCR as reactivity in response to Toll-like receptors were transferable on effector cells. Our results have a major impact on the development of novel immunotherapies. They demonstrate that TCR with potent HLA-DR-restricted anti-leukaemic reactivity against so far undefined self-restricted antigens can be isolated from the healthy autorestricted CD4(+) T-cell repertoire and these TCR are highly interesting candidate tools for novel immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luise U Weigand
- Medizinische Klinik III, Innere Medizin mit Schwerpunkt Hämatologie und Onkologie, Technische Universität München, Münich
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68
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Towards curative cancer immunotherapy: overcoming posttherapy tumor escape. Clin Dev Immunol 2012; 2012:124187. [PMID: 22778760 PMCID: PMC3386616 DOI: 10.1155/2012/124187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The past decade has witnessed the evolvement of cancer immunotherapy as an increasingly effective therapeutic modality, evidenced by the approval of two immune-based products by the FDA, that is, the cancer vaccine Provenge (sipuleucel-T) for prostate cancer and the antagonist antibody against cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) ipilimumab for advanced melanoma. In addition, the clinical evaluations of a variety of promising immunotherapy drugs are well under way. Benefiting from more efficacious immunotherapeutic agents and treatment strategies, a number of recent clinical studies have achieved unprecedented therapeutic outcomes in some patients with certain types of cancers. Despite these advances, however, the efficacy of most cancer immunotherapies currently under clinical development has been modest. A recurring scenario is that therapeutic maneuvers initially led to measurable antitumor immune responses in cancer patients but ultimately failed to improve patient outcomes. It is increasingly recognized that tumor cells can antagonize therapy-induced immune attacks through a variety of counterregulation mechanisms, which represent a fundamental barrier to the success of cancer immunotherapy. Herein we summarize the findings from some recent preclinical and clinical studies, focusing on how tumor cells advance their survival and expansion by hijacking therapy-induced immune effector mechanisms that would otherwise mediate their destruction.
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69
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van Eden W, Spiering R, Broere F, van der Zee R. A case of mistaken identity: HSPs are no DAMPs but DAMPERs. Cell Stress Chaperones 2012; 17:281-92. [PMID: 22139593 PMCID: PMC3312964 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-011-0311-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Until recently, the immune system was seen solely as a defense system with its primary task being the elimination of unwanted microbial invaders. Currently, however, the functional significance of the immune system has obtained a much wider perspective, to include among others the maintenance and restoration of homeostasis following tissue damage. In this latter aspect, there is a growing interest in the identification of molecules involved, such as the so-called danger or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), also called alarmins. Since heat shock proteins are archetypical molecules produced under stressful conditions, such as tissue damage or inflammation, they are frequently mentioned as prime examples of DAMPs (Bianchi, J Leukoc Biol 81:1-5, 2007; Kono and Rock, Nat Rev Immunol 8:279-289, 2008; Martin-Murphy et al., Toxicol Lett 192:387-394, 2010). See for instance also a recent review (Chen and Nunez, Science 298:1395-1401, 2010). Contrary to this description, we recently presented some of the arguments against a role of heat shock protein as DAMPs (Broere et al., Nat Rev Immunol 11:565-c1, 2011). With this perspective and reflection article, we hope to elaborate on this debate and provide additional thoughts to further ignite this discussion on this critical and evolving issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem van Eden
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
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70
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Toll-like receptor 2 ligand pretreatment attenuates retinal microglial inflammatory response but enhances phagocytic activity toward Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun 2012; 80:2076-88. [PMID: 22431652 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00149-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of severe endophthalmitis, which often results in vision loss in some patients. Previously, we showed that Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) ligand pretreatment prevented the development of staphylococcal endophthalmitis in mice and suggested that microglia might be involved in this protective effect (Kumar A, Singh CN, Glybina IV, Mahmoud TH, Yu FS. J. Infect. Dis. 201:255-263, 2010). The aim of the present study was to understand how microglial innate response is modulated by TLR2 ligand pretreatment. Here, we demonstrate that S. aureus infection increased the CD11b(+) CD45(+) microglial/macrophage population in the C57BL/6 mouse retina. Using cultured primary retinal microglia and a murine microglial cell line (BV-2), we found that these cells express TLR2 and that its expression is increased upon stimulation with bacteria or an exclusive TLR2 ligand, Pam3Cys. Furthermore, challenge of primary retinal microglia with S. aureus and its cell wall components peptidoglycan (PGN) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) induced the secretion of proinflammatory mediators (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α] and MIP-2). This innate response was attenuated by a function-blocking anti-TLR2 antibody or by small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of TLR2. In order to assess the modulation of the innate response, microglia were pretreated with a low dose (0.1 or 1 μg/ml) of Pam3Cys and then challenged with live S. aureus. Our data showed that S. aureus-induced production of proinflammatory mediators is dramatically reduced in pretreated microglia. Importantly, microglia pretreated with the TLR2 agonist phagocytosed significantly more bacteria than unstimulated cells. Together, our data suggest that TLR2 plays an important role in retinal microglial innate response to S. aureus, and its sensitization inhibits inflammatory response while enhancing phagocytic activity.
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71
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Ludwig-Portugall I, Layland LE. TLRs, Treg, and B Cells, an Interplay of Regulation during Helminth Infection. Front Immunol 2012; 3:8. [PMID: 22566894 PMCID: PMC3342019 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Commonly described as masters of regulation parasitic helminth infections provide a fascinating insight into the complexity of our immune system. As with many other pathogens helminths have developed complex evasion strategies and the immune response of the host has to find a balance between eliciting severe damage to eliminate the parasite or limiting damage and thereby accepting the infection. Nevertheless, one should not forget that these infections still pose a serious public health problem and can elicit severe disfigurement or death in the individual. An interesting spin-off of helminth manipulation on host responses is the apparent prevention of autoimmune diseases or allergy although the actual mechanisms remain unclear. It is well known that Toll-like-receptors (TLR) and non-TLR PRRs play a critical role in initiating innate immune responses which in turn create appropriate adaptive immune reactions. Helminths comprise of a multitude of (glyco)-proteins and (glyco)-lipids and some have been shown to trigger TLR, or alter TLR-mediated responses. Such reactions of course alter adaptive immunity as well. This review will address the consequences of TLR-triggering by helminth antigens and the downstream effect on B cell and regulatory T cell (Treg) actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isis Ludwig-Portugall
- Institutes of Molecular Medicine and Experimental Immunology, University Bonn Bonn, Germany
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72
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Yan Y, Cao Z, Yang M, Li H, Wei H, Fu Y, Song D, Wang L, Yu Y. A CpG oligodeoxynucleotide potentiates the anti-tumor effect of HSP65-Her2 fusion protein against Her2 positive B16 melanoma in mice. Int Immunopharmacol 2012; 12:402-7. [PMID: 22222115 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Revised: 12/04/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Although being promising tumor vaccine candidates in animal models, heat shock protein (HSP)-based tumor vaccines have not yet succeeded in the clinical trials, implying the necessity to be formulated with appropriate adjutants to enhance their immunogenicity. In this study, we investigated whether a B-class CpG ODN (BW006), a TLR9 agonist, could facilitate HSP65-Her2, a recombinant protein between mycobacterial HSP65 and Her2-derived peptide, to induce vigorous anti-tumor activity against Her2 positive tumors in mice both prophylactically and therapeutically. It was found that BW006 could enhance prophylactic and therapeutic effect of HSP65-Her2 with improved survival of the mice bearing Her2(+) B16 melanoma and HSP65-Her2 specific Th1 response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youyou Yan
- Department of Immunology, Norman Bethune College of Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
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73
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Marshall NA, Galvin KC, Corcoran AMB, Boon L, Higgs R, Mills KHG. Immunotherapy with PI3K inhibitor and Toll-like receptor agonist induces IFN-γ+IL-17+ polyfunctional T cells that mediate rejection of murine tumors. Cancer Res 2011; 72:581-91. [PMID: 22158905 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-11-0307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The immunosuppressive microenvironment in tumors hampers the induction of antitumor immunity by vaccines or immunotherapies. Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands have the potential to treat tumors, but they can exert a mixture of positive and negative effects on inflammation in the tumor microenvironment. In this study, we show that specific small molecule inhibitors of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) relieve immunosuppression to heighten the proinflammatory effects of TLR ligands that support antitumor immunity. Multiple strategies to inhibit PI3K in dendritic cells (DC) each led to suppression of interleukin (IL)-10 and TGF-β but did affect IL-12 or IL-1β induction by the TLR5 ligand flagellin. In three different mouse models of cancer, combining flagellin with a class I PI3K inhibitor, either with or without a DC vaccine, delayed tumor growth and increased survival, with some animals exhibiting complete rejection and resistance to secondary challenge. Tumor growth suppression was associated with increased accumulation of polyfunctional T cells that secreted multiple effector cytokines, including IFN-γ, IL-17, and IL-2. Therapeutic protection was abolished in mice deficient in IL-17 or deprived of IFN-γ. Together, our results indicate that PI3K inhibition heighten the antitumor properties of TLR ligands, eliciting tumor regression directly but also indirectly by relieving suppressive signals that restrict potent antitumor T-cell responses. These findings suggest important uses for PI3K inhibitors in heightening responses to cancer immunotherapy and immunochemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil A Marshall
- Immune Regulation Research Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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74
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Abstract
Autoimmune disease can develop as a result of a breakdown in immunological tolerance, leading to the activation of self-reactive T cells. There is an established link between infection and human autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, experimental autoimmune diseases can be induced by autoantigens that are administered together with complete Freund's adjuvant, which contains killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis; in some cases, these bacteria can be replaced by individual pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Exogenous PAMPs and endogenous danger signals from necrotic cells bind to pattern recognition receptors (including Toll-like receptors) and activate signalling pathways in innate immune cells and in T cells. This leads to pro-inflammatory cytokine production and T cell activation, which are now considered to be major factors in the development of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kingston H G Mills
- Immunology Research Centre and School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
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75
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Abstract
Infiltration of tumors by regulatory T cells confers growth and metastatic advantages by inhibiting antitumor immunity and by production of receptor activator of NF-κB (RANK) ligand, which may directly stimulate metastatic propagation of RANK-expressing cancer cells. Modulation of regulatory T cells can enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Strategies include depletion, interference with function, inhibition of tumoral migration, and exploitation of T-cell plasticity. Problems with these strategies include a lack of specificity, resulting in depletion of antitumor effector T cells or global interruption of regulatory T cells, which may predispose to autoimmune diseases. Emerging technologies, such as RNA interference and tetramer-based targeting, may have the potential to improve selectivity and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- William L Byrne
- Cork Cancer Research Centre, Mercy University Hospital and Leslie C. Quick Jnr. Laboratory, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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76
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The dendritic cell-regulatory T lymphocyte crosstalk contributes to tumor-induced tolerance. Clin Dev Immunol 2011; 2011:430394. [PMID: 22110524 PMCID: PMC3216392 DOI: 10.1155/2011/430394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2011] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Tumor cells commonly escape from elimination by innate and adaptive immune responses using multiple strategies among which is the active suppression of effector immune cells. Regulatory T lymphocytes (Treg) and tolerogenic dendritic cells play essential roles in the establishment and persistence of cancer-induced immunosuppression. Differentiating dendritic cells (DCs) exposed to tumor-derived factors may be arrested at an immature stage becoming inept at initiating immune responses and may induce effector T-cell anergy or deletion. These tolerogenic DCs, which accumulate in patients with different types of cancers, are also involved in the generation of Treg. In turn, Treg that expand during tumor progression contribute to the immune tolerance of cancer by impeding DCs' ability to orchestrate immune responses and by directly inhibiting antitumoral T lymphocytes. Herein we review these bidirectional communications between DCs and Treg as they relate to the promotion of cancer-induced tolerance.
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77
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Swiatczak B, Rescigno M, Cohen IR. Systemic features of immune recognition in the gut. Microbes Infect 2011; 13:983-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2011.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Revised: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 06/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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78
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Leffers N, Daemen T, Boezen HM, Melief KJM, Nijman HW. Vaccine-based clinical trials in ovarian cancer. Expert Rev Vaccines 2011; 10:775-84. [PMID: 21692699 DOI: 10.1586/erv.11.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer vaccines are one of the new treatment strategies under investigation in epithelial ovarian cancer. This article discusses the results of different immunization strategies, points out potential pitfalls in study designs and provides possible solutions for augmentation of clinical efficacy. Most ovarian cancer vaccines have not yet evolved beyond Phase I/II studies, which do not primarily evaluate clinical efficacy. Although different approaches of antigen-specific immunization generally result in antigen-specific immune responses, clinical benefit is not consistently observed. Based on the currently available results, we emphasize the necessity of multimodal treatment of ovarian cancer, combining classical cytoreductive surgery, (neo)adjuvant chemotherapy, immunotherapy and/or targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ninke Leffers
- Department of Gynaecologic Oncology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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79
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St Paul M, Mallick AI, Haq K, Orouji S, Abdul-Careem MF, Sharif S. In vivo administration of ligands for chicken toll-like receptors 4 and 21 induces the expression of immune system genes in the spleen. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011; 144:228-37. [PMID: 22019071 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2011] [Revised: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/22/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a group of conserved proteins that play an important role in pathogen recognition in addition to the initiation and regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses. To date, several TLRs have been identified in chickens, each recognizing different ligands. TLR stimulation in chickens has been shown to play a role in host-responses to pathogens. However, the mechanisms through which TLRs modulate the chicken immune system have not been well examined. The present study was conducted to characterize the kinetics of responses to TLR4 and TLR21 stimulation in chickens following intramuscular injections of their corresponding ligands, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs), respectively. To this end, relative expression of cytokine genes in the spleen was determined at 2, 6, 12 and 24 h after injection of TLR ligands. The results indicated that LPS strongly induced the up-regulation of some immune system genes early on in the response to treatment, including interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-10, and IL-1β. Furthermore, treatment with CpG ODN promoted the up-regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-II, IFN-γ and IL-10. The response to CpG ODN appeared to be somewhat delayed compared to the response to LPS. Moreover, we found a significant increase in IFN-α gene expression in response to LPS but not CpG ODNs. Future studies may be aimed to further characterize the molecular mechanisms of TLR activation in chickens or to exploit TLR agonists as vaccine adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael St Paul
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1
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80
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Sehrawat S, Rouse BT. Tregs and infections: on the potential value of modifying their function. J Leukoc Biol 2011; 90:1079-87. [PMID: 21914856 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0611271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4(+) T cells, which express a master transcription factor, Foxp3, have been recognized as bona fide Tregs. These cells are essential to maintain immune homeostasis in healthy as well as infected mice and humans. Extensive investigations in the last decade have provided ways to manipulate the Foxp3(+) Treg response therapeutically so the role of such cells in microbe-induced inflammatory reactions can be evaluated. This review focuses on our current understanding of the mechanisms required for the generation and sustenance of Tregs in vivo and the potential value of modulating Tregs to control microbe-induced immunopathological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharvan Sehrawat
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA.
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81
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Wakasa K, Shime H, Kurita-Taniguchi M, Matsumoto M, Imamura M, Seya T. Development of monoclonal antibodies that specifically interact with necrotic lymphoma cells. Microbiol Immunol 2011; 55:373-7. [PMID: 21517948 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2011.00319.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The immune system has evolved mechanisms to sense not only microbes, but also necrotic cells. The pattern-recognition receptors in macrophages/dendritic cells that stimulate the acquired immune system are closely associated with danger signaling. In this study monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that specifically interact with necrotic cells were developed. One IgG1 and two IgM mAbs were established, and they recognized a 80 kDa protein expressed in necrotic, but not live or apoptotic, cells. These mAbs, which serve as a probe for necrosis, facilitate analyses of the role of the immune complex that consists of necrotic cells and Ab and contributes to the formation of the inflammatory milieu induced by necrotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Wakasa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Japan
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82
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Higgins SC, Mills KHG. TLR, NLR Agonists, and Other Immune Modulators as Infectious Disease Vaccine Adjuvants. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2011; 12:4-12. [PMID: 21308494 DOI: 10.1007/s11908-009-0080-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Vaccines based on attenuated or killed viruses and bacteria are highly effective in preventing infection with a range of pathogens, but can have safety issues. Therefore, a move is underway toward the development of subunit vaccines based on recombinant proteins or naked DNA. However, protein subunit vaccines are typically poorly immunogenic when administered alone and therefore require coadministration with adjuvants to boost the immune response. For many decades, very little progress was made in understanding the mechanism of action of adjuvants, but recently several significant breakthroughs have occurred in this area. The binding of pathogen-derived molecules to different immune sensors, including Toll-like receptors (TLR), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLR), and retinoic acid-inducible gene (RIG)-1-like receptors (RLR), activates important innate immune pathways and provides not only an understanding of how current vaccines and adjuvants work, but also potential targets for novel adjuvant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Higgins
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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Seregin SS, Aldhamen YA, Appledorn DM, Aylsworth CF, Godbehere S, Liu CJJ, Quiroga D, Amalfitano A. TRIF is a critical negative regulator of TLR agonist mediated activation of dendritic cells in vivo. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22064. [PMID: 21760953 PMCID: PMC3132756 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2011] [Accepted: 06/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite recent advances in developing and licensing adjuvants, there is a great need for more potent formulations to enhance immunogenicity of vaccines. An Eimeria tenella derived antigen (rEA) augments immune responses against several pathogens in animal models and recently was confirmed to be safe for human use. In this study, we have analyzed the molecular mechanisms underlying rEA activity in mice, and confirmed that rEA activates multiple immune cell types, including DCs, macrophages, NK, B, and T cells. The rEA adjuvant also elicits the induction of pleiotropic pro-inflammatory cytokines, responses that completely depend upon the presence of the TLR adaptor protein MyD88. Surprisingly, we also found that the TRIF adaptor protein acts as a potent negative regulator of TLR agonist-triggered immune responses. For example, IL12 production and the induction of co-stimulatory molecule expression by DCs and IFNγ production by NK cells in vivo were significantly increased in rEA-treated TRIF-KO mice. Importantly, however, TRIF suppressive effects were not restricted to rEA-mediated responses, but were apparent in LPS- or ODN2006-activated DCs as well. Taken together, our findings confirm that rEA is a potent adjuvant, triggering robust activation of the innate immune system, in a manner that is augmented by MyD88 and inhibited by TRIF; thereby unveiling the potential complexities of modulating TLR activity to augment vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey S. Seregin
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Yasser A. Aldhamen
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Daniel M. Appledorn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Charles F. Aylsworth
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Sarah Godbehere
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Chyong-Jy Joyce Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Dionisia Quiroga
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Andrea Amalfitano
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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84
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Amarante MK, Watanabe MAE. Toll-like receptor 3: involvement with exogenous and endogenous RNA. Int Rev Immunol 2011; 29:557-73. [PMID: 21073327 DOI: 10.3109/08830185.2010.525723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The recognition of pathogens is assigned to an evolutionarily conserved family of receptors, the Toll-like receptors (TLRs). The investigation of RNA-based immunology has been reinvigorated with the observation that TLR3s interact with RNA (dsRNA of viral origin, poly (I:C) and endogenous RNA). Many RNAs, therefore, join the list of endogenous ligands for TLRs. The further finding that nucleoside modification alters RNA-mediated TLR signaling presents a mechanism for the long-observed differences in immunogenicity. The involvement of RNA modification in the pathogenesis of diseases, and its implications in the therapeutics, are still being studied, and will have important implications in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marla Karine Amarante
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetic-Immunology, Biological Science Center, State University of Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
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85
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Olivier A, Sainz-Perez A, Dong H, Sparwasser T, Majlessi L, Leclerc C. The adjuvant effect of TLR agonists on CD4(+) effector T cells is under the indirect control of regulatory T cells. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:2303-13. [PMID: 21538349 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201041387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2010] [Revised: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
TLR agonists have been suggested to directly impact Tregs, thereby enhancing or reversing their suppressive function. Here, in order to select TLR agonists leading to potent effector T-cell responses, while minimizing Treg inhibitory function, we used a model antigen, covalently linked to an inert delivery system, combined with a large panel of TLR agonists, for the immunization of mice with an attenuated/depleted or intact Treg subset. We observed that the negative modulation of effector CD4(+) T cells exerted by Tregs cannot be circumvented, whatever the TLR agonist used as adjuvant. To better understand the impact of TLR agonists on Tregs, we investigated (i) the TLR expression profile of highly purified CD4(+) Foxp3(+) Tregs, at steady state or subsequent to in vivo activation by TLR agonists and (ii) the Treg phenotype after in vivo and in vitro activation by TLR agonists. Our results demonstrate that TLR agonists, as single signal inducers, are not able to directly activate Tregs. The phenotypic Treg activation observed in vivo, following TLR administration, does not result from cross-talk with conventional T cells but is rather a consequence of the interaction with other immune cell type(s).
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86
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Dasgupta G, Chentoufi AA, You S, Falatoonzadeh P, Urbano LAA, Akhtarmalik A, Nguyen K, Ablabutyan L, Nesburn AB, BenMohamed L. Engagement of TLR2 reverses the suppressor function of conjunctiva CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells and promotes herpes simplex virus epitope-specific CD4+CD25- effector T cell responses. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52:3321-33. [PMID: 21273544 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.10-6522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE. The authors recently reported that Foxp3(+)CD4(+) CD25(+(Bright)) "natural" regulatory T cells (nT(reg) cells) are abundant in rabbit conjunctiva and suppress herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) effector T cells (T(eff) cells). However, little is known about the overall regulatory mechanisms of these nT(reg) cells. The authors investigate the regulation of conjunctiva-resident nT(reg) cells through Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their effect on ocular mucosal T(eff) cell immunity. METHODS. CD4(+)CD25(+) nT(reg) cells were purified from naive rabbit conjunctivas, and their TLR expression profile was determined. The effects of TLR engagement on nT(reg) cell-mediated suppression of CD4(+) T(eff) cells were determined in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS. The authors found that conjunctiva-resident nT(reg) cells express high levels of TLR2 and TLR9; exposure to the TLR2 ligand lipoteichoic acid (LTA) led to the increased activation and proliferation of nT(reg) cells, and the addition of autologous APCs further increased nT(reg) cell expansion; in contrast, the TLR9 ligand CpG(2007) inhibited the proliferation of nT(reg) cells, and the addition of autologous APCs had no effect on such inhibition; nT(reg) cells treated with LTA, but not with CpG(2007), expressed IFN-γ and IL-10 mRNA, but not TGF-β; consistent with in vitro data, rabbits immunized by topical ocular drops of HSV-gD peptides + TLR2 ligand (LTA) displayed enhanced CD4(+)CD25(-) T(eff) cell immune responses when compared with HSV-gD peptides + TLR9 ligand (CpG(2007)). CONCLUSIONS. Although conjunctiva-resident CD4(+)CD25(+) nT(reg) cells express high level of TLR2 and TLR9, their suppressive function is more significantly reversed after the administration of TLR2 ligand (LTA; P < 0.005) than of TLR9 ligand (CpG(200); P > 0.005). These findings will likely help optimize the topical ocular administration of immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gargi Dasgupta
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, School of Medicine, University of California at Irvine, California
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87
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Maturation of human dendritic cells with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) reduces the number and function of regulatory T cells and enhances the ratio of antigen-specific effectors to regulatory T cells. Vaccine 2011; 29:4992-9. [PMID: 21569810 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We compared the effects of yeast-treated human dendritic cells (DCs) with CD40L-matured human DCs for the induction of effector cells and the number and functionality of CD4(+)CD25(+)CD127(-)FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs). DCs were treated with yeast or CD40L and cocultured with isolated autologous CD4(+) T cells. CD4(+)CD25(+)CD127(-) T cells isolated from the coculture of CD4(+) T cells plus yeast-treated DCs (yeast coculture) had a lower expression of FoxP3 and decreased suppressive function compared to CD4(+)CD25(+)CD127(-) T cells isolated from the coculture of CD4(+) T cells plus CD40L-treated DCs (CD40L coculture). Also, compared to the CD40L coculture, the yeast coculture showed increases in the ratio of CD4(+)CD25(+) activated T cells to Tregs and in the production of Th1-related cytokines (IL-2, TNF-α, IFN-γ) and IL-6. In addition, yeast-treated DCs used as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) incubated with the tumor antigen CEA enhanced the proliferation of CEA-specific CD4(+) T cells compared to the use of CD40L-matured DCs used as APCs. This is the first study to report on the role of yeast-treated/matured human DCs in reducing Treg frequency and functionality and in enhancing effector to Treg ratios. These results provide an additional rationale for the use of yeast as a vector in cancer vaccines.
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88
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Starska K, Bryś M, Forma E, Głowacka E, Józefowicz-Korczyńska M, Lewy-Trenda I, Stasikowska O, Krajewska WM. Analiza ekspresji JAK1, STAT3, STAT1 i SOCS1 w jednojądrzastych komórkach krwi obwodowej u chorych z rakiem krtani. Otolaryngol Pol 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/s0030-6657(11)70650-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Dunne A, Marshall NA, Mills KHG. TLR based therapeutics. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2011; 11:404-11. [PMID: 21501972 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a crucial role in innate immune responses to infection. Binding of agonists to TLRs promotes maturation of antigen presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, which in turn directs the induction of adaptive immune responses. For this reason TLR agonists are being exploited as vaccine adjuvants for infectious disease or cancer and as therapeutics against tumors. However TLR agonists also promote inflammatory cytokine production and have a pathogenic role in many diseases with an inflammatory basis, including autoimmune diseases. Consequently, antibodies to TLRs and inhibitors of TLR signalling pathways have considerable potential as therapeutics for inflammatory disorders. Some have shown to be efficacious in pre-clinical models, and have now entered clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisling Dunne
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, and Immunology Research Centre, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
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90
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Morecki S, Slavin S. Immunoregulation of GVHD by triggering the innate immune system with CpG. Expert Rev Hematol 2011; 2:443-53. [PMID: 21082948 DOI: 10.1586/ehm.09.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Stimulation of Toll-like receptors by oligodeoxynucleotide sequences containing a CpG motif provides signals capable of triggering the innate and adaptive immune systems, thereby leading either to stimulation or suppression of immunoreactivities. Similar immunoregulatory capabilities are necessary for achieving the fine balance between engraftment and graft-versus-host disease required in the setup of allogeneic cell therapy. Ligation of CpG to its Toll-like receptors can be accomplished by treatment of the host or pretransplant treatment of the donor in vivo. These different strategies are presented in this review, which summarizes the attempts to maximize beneficial alloreactivity against malignant or other undesirable host cells, while controlling graft-versus-host disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoshana Morecki
- Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cancer Immunotherapy, Cell Therapy and Transplantation Research Laboratory, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel.
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91
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Kim KS, Pham TNN, Jin CJ, Umeyama A, Shoji N, Hashimoto T, Lee JJ, Takei M. Uncarinic Acid C Isolated from Uncaria rhynchophylla Induces Differentiation of Th1-Promoting Dendritic Cells Through TLR4 Signaling. Biomark Insights 2011; 6:27-38. [PMID: 21499439 PMCID: PMC3076018 DOI: 10.4137/bmi.s6441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Uncarinic acid C (URC) is triterpene isolated from Uncaria rhynchophylla and is a pharmacologically active substance. The induction of dendritic cells (DC) is critical for the induction of Ag-specific T lymphocyte responses and may be essential for the development of human vaccines relying on T cell immunity. DC might be a potential target for URC. We demonstrate that URC activates human DC as documented by phenotypic and functional maturation, and altered cytokine production. The expression of CD1a, CD38, CD40, CD54, CD80, CD83, CD86, HLA-DR and CCR7 on URC-primed DC was enhanced. The production of IL-12p70 by URC-primed DC was higher than that of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed DC. The production of IL-12p70 by URC-primed DC was inhibited by the anti-Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) monoclonal antibody (mAb), but partially abolished by anti-TLR2 mAb. mRNA coding for TLR2 and TLR4 was expressed in URC-primed DC. URC-primed DC induced the NF-κB transcription factor. Naïve T cells co-cultured with URC-primed DC turned into typical Th1 cells that produced large quantities of IFN-γ depending on IL-12 secretion. URC enhanced the T cell stimulatory capacity in an allo MLR. In the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte assay (CTL) assay, DNA fragmentation assay and (51)Cr release on URC-primed DC were more augmented than that of TNF-α-primed DC. DC matured with URC had an intermediate migratory capacity towards CCL19 and CCL21. These results suggest that URC modulates DC function in a fashion that favors Th1 polarization via the activation of IL-12p70 dependent on TLR4 signaling, and may be used on DC-based vaccine for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyu Sik Kim
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangiu
| | - Thanh Nhan Nguyen Pham
- Research Center for Cancer Immunotherapy, Chonnam National University Hwasun Hospital, 160 IIsim-ri, Hwasun-eup, Hwasun-gun, Jeollanam-do 519-809, South Korea
| | - Chun-Ji Jin
- Research Center for Cancer Immunotherapy, Chonnam National University Hwasun Hospital, 160 IIsim-ri, Hwasun-eup, Hwasun-gun, Jeollanam-do 519-809, South Korea
- Department of Surgery, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju
| | - Akemi Umeyama
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Noboru Shoji
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Hashimoto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima University, Yamashiro-cho, Tokushima, 770-8514, Japan
| | - Je-Jung Lee
- Research Center for Cancer Immunotherapy, Chonnam National University Hwasun Hospital, 160 IIsim-ri, Hwasun-eup, Hwasun-gun, Jeollanam-do 519-809, South Korea
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangiu
| | - Masao Takei
- Research Center for Cancer Immunotherapy, Chonnam National University Hwasun Hospital, 160 IIsim-ri, Hwasun-eup, Hwasun-gun, Jeollanam-do 519-809, South Korea
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Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern-recognition receptors related to the Drosophila Toll protein. TLR activation alerts the immune system to microbial products and initiates innate and adaptive immune responses. The naturally powerful immunostimulatory property of TLR agonists can be exploited for active immunotherapy against cancer. Antitumor activity has been demonstrated in several cancers, and TLR agonists are now undergoing extensive clinical investigation. This review discusses recent advances in the field and highlights potential opportunities for the clinical development of TLR agonists as single agent immunomodulators, vaccine adjuvants and in combination with conventional cancer therapies.
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Zhang Y, Luo F, Cai Y, Liu N, Wang L, Xu D, Chu Y. TLR1/TLR2 agonist induces tumor regression by reciprocal modulation of effector and regulatory T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:1963-9. [PMID: 21217015 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Using TLR agonists in cancer treatment can have either beneficial or detrimental effects. Therefore, it is important to determine their effect on the tumor growth and understand the underlying mechanisms in animal tumor models. In this study, we report a general immunotherapeutic activity of a synthetic bacterial lipoprotein (BLP), a TLR1/TLR2 agonist, on established lung carcinoma, leukemia, and melanoma in mice. Systemic treatment of 3LL tumor-bearing mice with BLP, but not LPS, led to a dose-dependent tumor regression and a long-lasting protective response against tumor rechallenge. The BLP-mediated tumor remission was neither mediated by a direct tumoricidal activity nor by innate immune cells, because it lacked therapeutic effect in immunodeficient SCID mice. Instead, BLP treatment reduced the suppressive function of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) and enhanced the cytotoxicity of tumor-specific CTL in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, adoptive cotransfer of BLP-pretreated but not untreated CTL and Tregs from wild-type but not from TLR2(-/-) mice was sufficient to restore antitumor immunity in SCID mice by reciprocally modulating Treg and CTL function. These results demonstrate that the TLR1/TLR2 agonist BLP may have a general tumor therapeutic property involving reciprocal downregulation of Treg and upregulation of CTL function. This property may play an important role in the development of novel antitumor strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Department of Immunology, Shanghai Medical College, Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine of Ministry of Education, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
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95
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Duggan S, Prichard D, Kirca M, Kelleher D. Inherited Syndromes Predisposing to Inflammation and GI Cancer. Recent Results Cancer Res 2011; 185:35-50. [PMID: 21822818 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-03503-6_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cancers arising within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are commonly associated with an immune component at their inception and later in their maintenance. While many of the immune factors and immune cell types surrounding these lesions have been highlighted, the underlying pre-dispositions in immunesupported carcinogenesis are not well characterised. Inherited Mendelian GI disorders such as polyposis syndromes, while classically due to germline mutations in non-immune genes, commonly demonstrate alterations in key immune and inflammatory genes. In some cases immune based therapies have been shown to provide at least some benefit in animal models of these syndromes. The advent of genome wide association studies has begun to powerfully examine the genetic nature of complex non-Mendelian GI diseases highlighting polymorphisms within immune related genes and their potential to provide the niche in which GI cancers may originate. Here in the role in which Mendelian and non-Mendelian genetics of immune related factors supporting GI malignancy will be presented and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane Duggan
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Institute of Molecular Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
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96
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Vendrell A, Gravisaco MJ, Pasetti MF, Croci M, Colombo L, Rodríguez C, Mongini C, Waldner CI. A novel Salmonella Typhi-based immunotherapy promotes tumor killing via an antitumor Th1-type cellular immune response and neutrophil activation in a mouse model of breast cancer. Vaccine 2011; 29:728-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Revised: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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97
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Palha De Sousa C, Blum CM, Sgroe EP, Crespo AM, Kurt RA. Murine mammary carcinoma cells and CD11c(+) dendritic cells elicit distinct responses to lipopolysaccharide and exhibit differential expression of genes required for TLR4 signaling. Cell Immunol 2010; 266:67-75. [PMID: 20869044 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2010.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2010] [Revised: 08/29/2010] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Although TLR are often studied on DC because of their ability to bridge innate and adaptive defenses, TLR are also expressed by epithelial cells. Because the majority of cancers are carcinomas, and thus of epithelial origin, we wanted to know whether a carcinoma and DC responded similarly to a TLR agonist. We found the mammary carcinoma 4T1 and CD11c(+) DC both secreted proinflammatory chemokines in response to the TLR4 agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS). However a clear dichotomy existed. DC, but not 4T1 secreted IL-1β, TNF-α, and upregulated CD80 and CD86 expression following LPS treatment. A potential reason for differential responsiveness was that DC expressed greater levels of TLR4, CD14, Myd88, and TRAM. Despite the low level of TLR signaling proteins, the carcinoma were able to elicit a range of responses contingent upon the source, dose, length, and frequency of TLR agonist treatment. Thus, carcinoma and DC are distinctly responsive to LPS.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) on cells associated with oral squamous cell carcinoma, epithelial dysplasia and irritative hyperplasia, using immunohistochemistry. RESULTS More immune cells expressed TLR2 in carcinoma and dysplasia than in hyperplasia (P<0.001). No hyperplastic samples showed positive TLR2 staining on keratinocytes, whereas keratinocytes in 64% of cases of carcinoma and 74% of cases of dysplasia were TLR2 positive. CONCLUSION Positive TLR2 expression in the microenvironment suggests activation of immune surveillance against the altered epithelium, whereas TLR2 expression by malignant keratinocytes may be indicative of resistance to apoptosis as a pro-survival mechanism.
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99
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Activation of Toll-like receptor 9 attenuates unilateral ureteral obstruction-induced renal fibrosis. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2010; 31:1583-92. [PMID: 21113175 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2010.202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM to study whether activation of TLR9 by CpG-ODN would protect against and/or reverse renal fibrosis. METHODS animals were treated with CpG-ODN before or after undergoing a unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) procedure. The interstitial fibrotic lesions of obstructed kidneys were evaluated using histology and immunohistostaining. The Th2-type cytokine profile and the expression and activity of sma and mad related protein (Smad)3, signal transducers and activators of transcription (Stat)3, extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK), and p38 kinase were determined using RT-PCR or Western blot. RESULTS the obstructed kidneys displayed a significant increase in interstitial fibrosis, an infiltration of macrophages in the interstitium, and an enhanced expression of Th2 cytokines. Prophylactic application of CpG-ODN (40 microg/kg every 3 days from 2 h before UUO until the 14th day after UUO) suppressed the expression of α-smooth muscle actin, collagen deposition, and hydroxyproline in the UUO kidneys of rats. Moreover, CpG-ODN not only decreased the infiltration of macrophages but also inhibited the expression of chemokines CCL2 and CCL5, the Th2 cytokine IL-13, and the profibrogenic cytokines transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 in UUO kidneys of rats. Importantly, therapeutic administration of CpG-ODN (10 microg/mouse, ip, every 3 days from the 4th day to 21st day after UUO) reversed the established renal fibrosis, which was accompanied by significant reductions in the activity of ERK, Smad3, and Stat3 and an increase in the activity of p38 kinase. CONCLUSION the activation of TLR9 by CpG-ODN attenuates UUO-induced renal fibrosis by reversing an immunosuppressive microenvironment in the fibrotic renal tissue, which might be a novel therapeutic strategy against fibrotic renal diseases.
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100
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Li H, Matte-Martone C, Tan HS, Venkatesan S, McNiff J, Demetris AJ, Jain D, Lakkis F, Rothstein D, Shlomchik WD. Graft-versus-host disease is independent of innate signaling pathways triggered by pathogens in host hematopoietic cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 186:230-41. [PMID: 21098219 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is initiated by APCs that prime alloreactive donor T cells. In antipathogen responses, Ag-bearing APCs receive signals through pattern-recognition receptors, including TLRs, which induce the expression of costimulatory molecules and production of inflammatory cytokines, which in turn mold the adaptive T cell response. However, in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloSCT), there is no specific pathogen, alloantigen is ubiquitous, and signals that induce APC maturation are undefined. To investigate APC activation in GVHD, we used recipient mice with hematopoietic cells genetically deficient in pathways critical for APC maturation in models in which host APCs are absolutely required. Strikingly, CD8-mediated and CD4-mediated GVHD were similar whether host APCs were wild-type or deficient in MyD88, TRIF, or MyD88 and TRIF, which excludes essential roles for TLRs and IL-1β, the key product of inflammasome activation. Th1 differentiation was if anything augmented when APCs were MyD88/TRIF(-/-), and T cell production of IFN-γ did not require host IL-12. GVHD was also intact when APCs lacked the type I IFNR, which amplifies APC activation pathways that induce type I IFNs. Thus in GVHD, alloreactive T cells can be activated when pathways critical for antipathogen T cell responses are impaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Li
- Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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