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Luo S, Hieu TB, Ma F, Yu Y, Cao Z, Wang M, Wu W, Mao Y, Rose P, Law BYK, Zhu YZ. ZYZ-168 alleviates cardiac fibrosis after myocardial infarction through inhibition of ERK1/2-dependent ROCK1 activation. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43242. [PMID: 28266583 PMCID: PMC5339863 DOI: 10.1038/srep43242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Selective treatments for myocardial infarction (MI) induced cardiac fibrosis are lacking. In this study, we focus on the therapeutic potential of a synthetic cardio-protective agent named ZYZ-168 towards MI-induced cardiac fibrosis and try to reveal the underlying mechanism. ZYZ-168 was administered to rats with coronary artery ligation over a period of six weeks. Ecocardiography and Masson staining showed that ZYZ-168 substantially improved cardiac function and reduced interstitial fibrosis. The expression of α–smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and Collagen I were reduced as was the activity of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9). These were related with decreased phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and expression of Rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1 (ROCK1). In cardiac fibroblasts stimulated with TGF-β1, phenotypic switches of cardiac fibroblasts to myofibroblasts were observed. Inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation or knockdown of ROCK1 expectedly reduced TGF-β1 induced fibrotic responses. ZYZ-168 appeared to inhibit the fibrotic responses in a concentration dependent manner, in part via a decrease in ROCK 1 expression through inhibition of the phosphorylation status of ERK1/2. For inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation with a specific inhibitor reduced the activation of ROCK1. Considering its anti-apoptosis activity in MI, ZYZ-168 may be a potential drug candidate for treatment of MI-induced cardiac fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Luo
- Pharmacy and State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China.,Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tran Ba Hieu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fenfen Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Cardiology, Xin Hua Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhonglian Cao
- Instrumental Analysis Center, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Minjun Wang
- Pharmacy and State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China.,Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weijun Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yicheng Mao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Peter Rose
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, Leics LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Betty Yuen-Kwan Law
- Pharmacy and State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China
| | - Yi Zhun Zhu
- Pharmacy and State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China.,Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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52
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Christensen KV, Smith GP, Williamson DS. Development of LRRK2 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2017; 56:37-80. [PMID: 28314412 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmch.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Linkage and genome-wide association studies have identified a genetic risk locus for late-onset Parkinson's disease in chromosome 12, originally identified as PARK6. The causative gene was identified to code for a large multifunctional protein, LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2). The combined genetic and biochemical evidence supports a hypothesis in which the LRRK2 kinase function is causally involved in the pathogenesis of sporadic and familial forms of PD, and therefore that LRRK2 kinase inhibitors could be useful for treatment. Although LRRK2 has so far not been crystallised, the use of homology modelling and crystallographic surrogates has allowed the optimisation of chemical structures such that compounds of high selectivity with good brain penetration and appropriate pharmacokinetic properties are now available for understanding the biology of LRRK2 in vitro and in vivo. This chapter reviews LRRK2 biology, the structural biology of LRRK2 and gives an overview of inhibitors of LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Christensen
- Neuroscience Drug Discovery, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, Denmark
| | - G P Smith
- Neuroscience Drug Discovery, H. Lundbeck A/S, Valby, Denmark
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53
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Abstract
Polymorphisms in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) have been linked to familial Parkinson's disease, increased risk of sporadic Parkinson's disease, increased risk of Crohn's inflammatory bowel disease, and increased susceptibility to leprosy. As well as LRRK2 mutations, these diseases share in common immune dysfunction and inflammation. LRRK2 is highly expressed in particular immune cells and has been biochemically linked to the intertwined pathways regulating inflammation, mitochondrial function, and autophagy/lysosomal function. This review outlines what is currently understood about LRRK2 function in the immune system and the potential implications of LRRK2 dysfunction for diseases genetically linked to this enigmatic enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas L Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, NSW, 2052, Australia.
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia.
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54
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Hatcher JM, Choi HG, Alessi DR, Gray NS. Small-Molecule Inhibitors of LRRK2. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2017; 14:241-264. [PMID: 28353288 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-49969-7_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein have been genetically and functionally linked to Parkinson's disease (PD). The kinase activity of LRRK2 is increased by pathogenic mutations; therefore, modulation of LRRK2 kinase activity by a selective small-molecule inhibitor has been proposed as a potentially viable treatment for Parkinson's disease. This chapter presents a historical overview of the development and bioactivity of several small-molecule LRRK2 inhibitors that have been used to inhibit LRRK2 kinase activity in vitro or in vivo. These compounds are important tools for understanding the cellular biology of LRRK2 and for evaluating the potential of LRRK2 inhibitors as disease-modifying PD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Hatcher
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Hwan Geun Choi
- New Drug Development Center, Daegu Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation, 80 Cheombok-ro, Dong-gu, Daegu, 41061, South Korea
| | - Dario R Alessi
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, University of Dundee, Sir James Black Centre, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Nathanael S Gray
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
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55
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56
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Atashrazm F, Dzamko N. LRRK2 inhibitors and their potential in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: current perspectives. Clin Pharmacol 2016; 8:177-189. [PMID: 27799832 PMCID: PMC5076802 DOI: 10.2147/cpaa.s102191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Major advances in understanding how genetics underlies Parkinson's disease (PD) have provided new opportunities for understanding disease pathogenesis and potential new targets for therapeutic intervention. One such target is leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), an enigmatic enzyme implicated in both familial and idiopathic PD risk. Both academia and industry have promoted the development of potent and selective inhibitors of LRRK2, and these are currently being employed to assess the safety and efficacy of such compounds in preclinical models of PD. This review examines the evidence that LRRK2 kinase activity contributes to the pathogenesis of PD and outlines recent progress on inhibitor development and early results from preclinical safety and efficacy testing. This review also looks at some of the challenges remaining for translation of LRRK2 inhibitors to the clinic, if indeed this is ultimately warranted. As a disease with no current cure that is increasing in prevalence in line with an aging population, there is much need for developing new treatments for PD, and targeting LRRK2 is currently a promising option.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia
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57
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Lobbestael E, Civiero L, De Wit T, Taymans JM, Greggio E, Baekelandt V. Pharmacological LRRK2 kinase inhibition induces LRRK2 protein destabilization and proteasomal degradation. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33897. [PMID: 27658356 PMCID: PMC5034242 DOI: 10.1038/srep33897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) kinase activity is increased in several pathogenic mutations, including the most common mutation, G2019S, and is known to play a role in Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathobiology. This has stimulated the development of potent, selective LRRK2 kinase inhibitors as one of the most prevailing disease-modifying therapeutic PD strategies. Although several lines of evidence support beneficial effects of LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, many questions need to be answered before clinical applications can be envisaged. Using six different LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, we show that LRRK2 kinase inhibition induces LRRK2 dephosphorylation and can reduce LRRK2 protein levels of overexpressed wild type and G2019S, but not A2016T or K1906M, LRRK2 as well as endogenous LRRK2 in mouse brain, lung and kidney. The inhibitor-induced reduction in LRRK2 levels could be reversed by proteasomal inhibition, but not by lysosomal inhibition, while mRNA levels remained unaffected. In addition, using LRRK2 S910A and S935A phosphorylation mutants, we show that dephosphorylation of these sites is not required for LRRK2 degradation. Increasing our insight in the molecular and cellular consequences of LRRK2 kinase inhibition will be crucial in the further development of LRRK2-based PD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Lobbestael
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 33, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - L Civiero
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - T De Wit
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 33, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - J-M Taymans
- UMR-S1172 Jean-Pierre Aubert Research Center - (INSERM - CHRU de Lille - Université de Lille), Early Stages of Parkinson's Disease Team, Lille, France
| | - E Greggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - V Baekelandt
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 33, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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58
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Eyers PA. 'Up with the LRRK': a phosphorylated Rab10 assay for evaluation of LRRK2 activity and inhibitor engagement. Biochem J 2016; 473:2757-62. [PMID: 27621483 PMCID: PMC5095898 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160671c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinases catalyse the addition of phosphate groups to Ser/Thr and Tyr residues in cognate substrates and are mutated or hyperactive in a variety of diseases, making them important targets for rationally designed drugs. A good example is the Parkinson's disease-associated kinase, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), which is mutated (and probably hyperactive) in a small, but significant, subset of patients. An exciting new approach for personalised therapy is the development of central nervous system (CNS)-active small-molecule kinase inhibitors, which could be employed to 'normalise' LRRK2 signalling in affected cell types. However, the development of such drugs requires validated assays for the analysis of target engagement and the assembly of a set of tools for interrogating LRRK2, and its substrates, both in vitro and in vivo A new study published in the Biochemical Journal by Ito et al. establishes that a 'Phos-tag'™-binding assay can be exploited to measure phosphorylation of a recently identified LRRK2 substrate (Ras-related protein in brain 10 (Rab10)), and to compare and contrast relative catalytic output from disease-associated LRRK2 mutants. Powerful in vivo chemical genetic approaches are also disclosed, in which the catalytic activity of LRRK2 is unequivocally linked to the extent of Rab10 phosphorylation and the effects of chemically distinct LRRK2 inhibitors are matched with on-target inhibition mechanisms mediated through LRRK2 and its substrate Rab10. These important findings should simplify the generic analysis of Rab10 phosphorylation in model biological systems and are likely to be applicable to other substrates of LRRK2 (or indeed other kinases) for which phospho-specific antibodies are either absent or unsatisfactory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick A Eyers
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, U.K
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59
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Schenkelaars Q, Quintero O, Hall C, Fierro-Constain L, Renard E, Borchiellini C, Hill AL. ROCK inhibition abolishes the establishment of the aquiferous system in Ephydatia muelleri (Porifera, Demospongiae). Dev Biol 2016; 412:298-310. [PMID: 26944094 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The Rho associated coiled-coil protein kinase (ROCK) plays crucial roles in development across bilaterian animals. The fact that the Rho/Rock pathway is required to initiate epithelial morphogenesis and thus to establish body plans in bilaterians makes this conserved signaling pathway key for studying the molecular mechanisms that may control early development of basally branching metazoans. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether or not the main components of this signaling pathway exist in sponges, and if present, to investigate the possible role of the regulatory network in an early branching non-bilaterian species by evaluating ROCK function during Ephydatia muelleri development. Molecular phylogenetic analyses and protein domain predictions revealed the existence of Rho/Rock components in all studied poriferan lineages. Binding assays revealed that both Y-27632 and GSK429286A are capable of inhibiting Em-ROCK activity in vitro. Treatment with both drugs leads to impairment of growth and formation of the basal pinacoderm layer in the developing sponge. Furthermore, inhibition of Em-Rock prevents the establishment of a functional aquiferous system, including the absence of an osculum. In contrast, no effect of ROCK inhibition was observed in juvenile sponges that already possess a fully developed and functional aquiferous system. Thus, the Rho/Rock pathway appears to be essential for the proper development of the freshwater sponge, and may play a role in various cell behaviors (e.g. cell proliferation, cell adhesion and cell motility). Taken together, these data are consistent with an ancestral function of Rho/Rock signaling in playing roles in early developmental processes and may provide a new framework to study the interaction between Wnt signaling and the Rho/Rock pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Schenkelaars
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie marine et continentale (IMBE) - UMR CNRS 7263- IRD 237 - UAPV, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France; Department of Genetics and Evolution, Institute of Genetics and Genomics in Geneva (IGe3), Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Omar Quintero
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, USA
| | - Chelsea Hall
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, USA
| | - Laura Fierro-Constain
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie marine et continentale (IMBE) - UMR CNRS 7263- IRD 237 - UAPV, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Emmanuelle Renard
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie marine et continentale (IMBE) - UMR CNRS 7263- IRD 237 - UAPV, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Carole Borchiellini
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie marine et continentale (IMBE) - UMR CNRS 7263- IRD 237 - UAPV, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - April L Hill
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, USA.
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60
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Steger M, Tonelli F, Ito G, Davies P, Trost M, Vetter M, Wachter S, Lorentzen E, Duddy G, Wilson S, Baptista MAS, Fiske BK, Fell MJ, Morrow JA, Reith AD, Alessi DR, Mann M. Phosphoproteomics reveals that Parkinson's disease kinase LRRK2 regulates a subset of Rab GTPases. eLife 2016; 5:e12813. [PMID: 26824392 PMCID: PMC4769169 DOI: 10.7554/elife.12813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 656] [Impact Index Per Article: 82.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in Park8, encoding for the multidomain Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein, comprise the predominant genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). G2019S, the most common amino acid substitution activates the kinase two- to threefold. This has motivated the development of LRRK2 kinase inhibitors; however, poor consensus on physiological LRRK2 substrates has hampered clinical development of such therapeutics. We employ a combination of phosphoproteomics, genetics, and pharmacology to unambiguously identify a subset of Rab GTPases as key LRRK2 substrates. LRRK2 directly phosphorylates these both in vivo and in vitro on an evolutionary conserved residue in the switch II domain. Pathogenic LRRK2 variants mapping to different functional domains increase phosphorylation of Rabs and this strongly decreases their affinity to regulatory proteins including Rab GDP dissociation inhibitors (GDIs). Our findings uncover a key class of bona-fide LRRK2 substrates and a novel regulatory mechanism of Rabs that connects them to PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Steger
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Francesca Tonelli
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Genta Ito
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Davies
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Matthias Trost
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Melanie Vetter
- Department of Structural Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Stefanie Wachter
- Department of Structural Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Esben Lorentzen
- Department of Structural Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Graham Duddy
- Molecular Discovery Research, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Harlow, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Wilson
- RD Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Stevenage, United Kingdom
| | - Marco AS Baptista
- The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research, New York, United States
| | - Brian K Fiske
- The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research, New York, United States
| | - Matthew J Fell
- Early Discovery Neuroscience, Merck Research Laboratories, Boston, United States
| | - John A Morrow
- Neuroscience, Merck Research Laboratories, Westpoint, United States
| | - Alastair D Reith
- Neurodegeneration Discovery Performance Unit, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Stevenage, United Kingdom
| | - Dario R Alessi
- Medical Research Council Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Matthias Mann
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
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61
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Leveridge M, Collier L, Edge C, Hardwicke P, Leavens B, Ratcliffe S, Rees M, Stasi LP, Nadin A, Reith AD. A High-Throughput Screen to Identify LRRK2 Kinase Inhibitors for the Treatment of Parkinson’s Disease Using RapidFire Mass Spectrometry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 21:145-55. [DOI: 10.1177/1087057115606707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
LRRK2 is a large multidomain protein containing two functional enzymatic domains: a GTPase domain and a protein kinase domain. Dominant coding mutations in the LRRK2 protein are associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD). Among such pathogenic mutations, Gly2019Ser mutation in the LRRK2 kinase domain is the most frequent cause of familial PD in Caucasians and is also found in some apparently sporadic PD cases. This mutation results in 2- to 3-fold elevated LRRK2 kinase activity compared with wild type, providing a clear clinical hypothesis for the application of kinase inhibitors in the treatment of this disease. To date, reported screening assays for LRRK2 have been based on detection of labeled adenosine triphosphate and adenosine diphosphate or on antibody-based detection of phosphorylation events. While these assays do offer a high-throughput method of monitoring LRRK2 kinase activity, they are prone to interference from autofluorescent compounds and nonspecific events. Here we describe a label-free assay for LRRK2 kinase activity using the RapidFire mass spectrometry system. This assay format was found to be highly robust and enabled a screen of 100,000 lead-like small molecules. The assay successfully identified a number of known LRRK2 chemotypes that met stringent physicochemical criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Leveridge
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Lee Collier
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
- Cancer Research Technology, Babraham Research Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Colin Edge
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Phil Hardwicke
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Bill Leavens
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Steve Ratcliffe
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Mike Rees
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Luigi Piero Stasi
- Neurodegeneration DPU, Neurosciences Therapy Area Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK, and Pudong, China
- Nuevolution A/S, Rønnegade 8, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Alan Nadin
- Department of Platform Technology and Science, GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Alastair D. Reith
- Neurodegeneration DPU, Neurosciences Therapy Area Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Pharmaceuticals R&D, Hertfordshire, UK, and Pudong, China
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62
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Choi I, Kim B, Byun JW, Baik SH, Huh YH, Kim JH, Mook-Jung I, Song WK, Shin JH, Seo H, Suh YH, Jou I, Park SM, Kang HC, Joe EH. LRRK2 G2019S mutation attenuates microglial motility by inhibiting focal adhesion kinase. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8255. [PMID: 26365310 PMCID: PMC4647842 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In response to brain injury, microglia rapidly extend processes that isolate lesion sites and protect the brain from further injury. Here we report that microglia carrying a pathogenic mutation in the Parkinson's disease (PD)-associated gene, G2019S-LRRK2 (GS-Tg microglia), show retarded ADP-induced motility and delayed isolation of injury, compared with non-Tg microglia. Conversely, LRRK2 knockdown microglia are highly motile compared with control cells. In our functional assays, LRRK2 binds to focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and phosphorylates its Thr–X–Arg/Lys (TXR/K) motif(s), eventually attenuating FAK activity marked by decreased pY397 phosphorylation (pY397). GS-LRRK2 decreases the levels of pY397 in the brain, microglia and HEK cells. In addition, treatment with an inhibitor of LRRK2 kinase restores pY397 levels, decreased pTXR levels and rescued motility of GS-Tg microglia. These results collectively suggest that G2019S mutation of LRRK2 may contribute to the development of PD by inhibiting microglial response to brain injury. In response to brain injury, microglia extend processes to isolate the lesion. Here Choi et al. show that microglia expressing a pathogenic mutation in the Parkinson's disease-associated LRRK2 gene show reduced motility and delayed lesion isolation in vitro and in vivo due to attenuated focal adhesion kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insup Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Beomsue Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Ji-Won Byun
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Sung Hoon Baik
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 110-799, Korea
| | - Yun Hyun Huh
- Bio Imaging and Cell Dynamics Research Center, School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea
| | - Jong-Hyeon Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Inhee Mook-Jung
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 110-799, Korea
| | - Woo Keun Song
- Bio Imaging and Cell Dynamics Research Center, School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 500-712, Korea
| | - Joo-Ho Shin
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746, Korea
| | - Hyemyung Seo
- Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansan 426-791, Korea
| | - Young Ho Suh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Ilo Jou
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Sang Myun Park
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Ho Chul Kang
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
| | - Eun-Hye Joe
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Department of Brain Science, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea.,Brain Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-380, Korea
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A real-time, fluorescence-based assay for Rho-associated protein kinase activity. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 891:284-90. [PMID: 26388388 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.07.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Inhibitors of Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) enzymatic activity have been shown to reduce the invasive phenotype observed in metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We describe the design, synthesis, and evaluation of a direct probe for ROCK activity utilizing a phosphorylation-sensitive sulfonamido-oxine fluorophore, termed Sox. The Sox fluorophore undergoes an increase in fluorescence upon phosphorylation of a proximal amino acid via chelation-enhanced fluorescence (CHEF, ex. = 360 nm and em. = 485 nm), allowing for the direct visualization of the rate of phosphate addition to a peptide substrate over time. Our optimal probe design, ROCK-S1, is capable of sensitively reporting ROCK activity with a limit of detection of 10 pM and a high degree of reproducibility (Z'-factor = 0.6 at 100 pM ROCK2). As a proof-of-principle for high-throughput screening (HTS) we demonstrate the ability to rapidly assess the efficacy of a 78 member, small molecule library against ROCK2 using a robotics platform. We identify two previously unreported ROCK2 inhibitor scaffolds, PHA665752 and IKK16, with IC50 values of 3.6 μM and 247 nM respectively. Lastly, we define conditions for selectively monitoring ROCK activity in the presence of potential off-target enzymes (PKCα, PKA, and PAK) with similar substrate specificities.
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Tagliaferro P, Kareva T, Oo TF, Yarygina O, Kholodilov N, Burke RE. An early axonopathy in a hLRRK2(R1441G) transgenic model of Parkinson disease. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 82:359-371. [PMID: 26192625 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the gene for LRRK2 are the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and patients with these mutations manifest clinical features that are indistinguishable from those of the more common sporadic form. Thus, investigations of disease mechanisms based on disease-causing LRRK2 mutations can be expected to shed light on the more common sporadic form as well as the inherited form. We have shown that as human BAC transgenic hLRRK2(R1441G) mice age, they exhibit two abnormalities in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system: an axonopathy and a diminished number of dendrites in the substantia nigra (SN). To better understand disease mechanisms it is useful to determine where in the affected neural system the pathology first begins. We therefore examined the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system in young mice to determine the initial site of pathology. Brains from hLRRK2(R1441G) and littermate control mice at 2-4months of age were examined by immunohistochemistry, anterograde fluorescent axon labeling and ultrastructural analysis. SN neurons, their projecting axons and the striatal terminal fields were assessed. The first identifiable abnormality in this system is an axonopathy characterized by giant polymorphic axon spheroids, the presence of intra-axonal autophagic vacuoles and intra-axonal myelin invagination. An initial involvement of axons has also been reported for other genetic models of PD. These observations support the concept that axons are involved early in the course of the disease. We suggest that effective neuroprotective approaches will be aimed at preventing axonal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Tagliaferro
- Departments of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, 650 W 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Tatyana Kareva
- Departments of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, 650 W 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Tinmarla F Oo
- Departments of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, 650 W 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Olga Yarygina
- Departments of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, 650 W 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Nikolai Kholodilov
- Departments of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, 650 W 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Robert E Burke
- Departments of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, 650 W 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA; Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, 650 W 168th St., New York, NY 10032, USA.
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65
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Estrada AA, Sweeney ZK. Chemical Biology of Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) Inhibitors. J Med Chem 2015; 58:6733-46. [PMID: 25915084 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b00261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for the development of Parkinson's disease (PD) treatments that can slow disease progression. The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) protein has been genetically and functionally linked to PD, and modulation of LRRK2 enzymatic activity has been proposed as a novel therapeutic strategy. In this review, we describe the bioactivity of selected small molecules that have been used to inhibit LRRK2 kinase activity in vitro or in vivo. These compounds are important tools for understanding the cellular biology of LRRK2 and for evaluating the potential of LRRK2 inhibitors as disease-modifying PD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Estrada
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, Inc. , 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Zachary K Sweeney
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, Inc. , 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
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66
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Abstract
Activating mutations in the leucine rich repeat protein kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most common cause of inherited Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 is phosphorylated on a cluster of phosphosites including Ser(910), Ser(935), Ser(955) and Ser(973), which are dephosphorylated in several PD-related LRRK2 mutants (N1437H, R1441C/G, Y1699C and I2020T) linking the regulation of these sites to PD. These serine residues are also dephosphorylated after kinase inhibition and lose 14-3-3 binding, which serves as a pharmacodynamic marker for inhibited LRRK2. Loss of 14-3-3 binding is well established, but the consequences of dephosphorylation are only now being uncovered. In the present study, we found that potent and selective inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity leads to dephosphorylation of Ser(935) then ubiquitination and degradation of a significant fraction of LRRK2. GNE1023 treatment decreased the phosphorylation and stability of LRRK2 in expression systems and endogenous LRRK2 in A549 cells and in mouse dosing studies. We next established that LRRK2 is ubiquitinated through at least Lys(48) and Lys(63) ubiquitin linkages in response to inhibition. To investigate the link between dephosphorylation induced by inhibitor treatment and LRRK2 ubiquitination, we studied LRRK2 in conditions where it is dephosphorylated such as expression of PD mutants [R1441G, Y1699C and I2020T] or by blocking 14-3-3 binding to LRRK2 via difopein expression, and found LRRK2 is hyper-ubiquitinated. Calyculin A treatment prevents inhibitor and PD mutant induced dephosphorylation and reverts LRRK2 to a lesser ubiquitinated species, thus directly implicating phosphatase activity in LRRK2 ubiquitination. This dynamic dephosphorylation-ubiquitination cycle could explain detrimental loss-of-function phenotypes found in peripheral tissues of LRRK2 kinase inactive mutants, LRRK2 KO (knockout) animals and following LRRK2 inhibitor administration.
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67
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Munoz L, Kavanagh ME, Phoa AF, Heng B, Dzamko N, Chen EJ, Doddareddy MR, Guillemin GJ, Kassiou M. Optimisation of LRRK2 inhibitors and assessment of functional efficacy in cell-based models of neuroinflammation. Eur J Med Chem 2015; 95:29-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2015.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Revised: 03/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Progressive dopaminergic alterations and mitochondrial abnormalities in LRRK2 G2019S knock-in mice. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 78:172-95. [PMID: 25836420 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the LRRK2 gene represent the most common genetic cause of late onset Parkinson's disease. The physiological and pathological roles of LRRK2 are yet to be fully determined but evidence points towards LRRK2 mutations causing a gain in kinase function, impacting on neuronal maintenance, vesicular dynamics and neurotransmitter release. To explore the role of physiological levels of mutant LRRK2, we created knock-in (KI) mice harboring the most common LRRK2 mutation G2019S in their own genome. We have performed comprehensive dopaminergic, behavioral and neuropathological analyses in this model up to 24months of age. We find elevated kinase activity in the brain of both heterozygous and homozygous mice. Although normal at 6months, by 12months of age, basal and pharmacologically induced extracellular release of dopamine is impaired in both heterozygous and homozygous mice, corroborating previous findings in transgenic models over-expressing mutant LRRK2. Via in vivo microdialysis measurement of basal and drug-evoked extracellular release of dopamine and its metabolites, our findings indicate that exocytotic release from the vesicular pool is impaired. Furthermore, profound mitochondrial abnormalities are evident in the striatum of older homozygous G2019S KI mice, which are consistent with mitochondrial fission arrest. We anticipate that this G2019S mouse line will be a useful pre-clinical model for further evaluation of early mechanistic events in LRRK2 pathogenesis and for second-hit approaches to model disease progression.
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69
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Clark PR, Kim RK, Pober JS, Kluger MS. Tumor necrosis factor disrupts claudin-5 endothelial tight junction barriers in two distinct NF-κB-dependent phases. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120075. [PMID: 25816133 PMCID: PMC4376850 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Capillary leak in severe sepsis involves disruption of endothelial cell tight junctions. We modeled this process by TNF treatment of cultured human dermal microvascular endothelial cell (HDMEC) monolayers, which unlike human umbilical vein endothelial cells form claudin-5-dependent tight junctions and a high-resistance permeability barrier. Continuous monitoring with electrical cell-substrate impedance sensing revealed that TNF disrupts tight junction-dependent HDMEC barriers in discrete steps: an ~5% increase in transendothelial electrical resistance over 40 minutes; a decrease to ~10% below basal levels over 2 hours (phase 1 leak); an interphase plateau of 1 hour; and a major fall in transendothelial electrical resistance to < 70% of basal levels by 8–10 hours (phase 2 leak), with EC50 values of TNF for phase 1 and 2 leak of ~30 and ~150 pg/ml, respectively. TNF leak is reversible and independent of cell death. Leak correlates with disruption of continuous claudin-5 immunofluorescence staining, myosin light chain phosphorylation and loss of claudin-5 co-localization with cortical actin. All these responses require NF-κB signaling, shown by inhibition with Bay 11 or overexpression of IκB super-repressor, and are blocked by H-1152 or Y-27632, selective inhibitors of Rho-associated kinase that do not block other NF-κB-dependent responses. siRNA combined knockdown of Rho-associated kinase-1 and -2 also prevents myosin light chain phosphorylation, loss of claudin-5/actin co-localization, claudin-5 reorganization and reduces phase 1 leak. However, unlike H-1152 and Y-27632, combined Rho-associated kinase-1/2 siRNA knockdown does not reduce the magnitude of phase 2 leak, suggesting that H-1152 and Y-27632 have targets beyond Rho-associated kinases that regulate endothelial barrier function. We conclude that TNF disrupts TJs in HDMECs in two distinct NF-κB-dependent steps, the first involving Rho-associated kinase and the second likely to involve an as yet unidentified but structurally related protein kinase(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R. Clark
- Department of Immunobiology and Program in Vascular Biology and Therapeutics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Richard K. Kim
- Department of Immunobiology and Program in Vascular Biology and Therapeutics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Jordan S. Pober
- Department of Immunobiology and Program in Vascular Biology and Therapeutics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Martin S. Kluger
- Department of Immunobiology and Program in Vascular Biology and Therapeutics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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70
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Yun HJ, Kim H, Ga I, Oh H, Ho DH, Kim J, Seo H, Son I, Seol W. An early endosome regulator, Rab5b, is an LRRK2 kinase substrate. J Biochem 2015; 157:485-95. [PMID: 25605758 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvv005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been identified as a causative gene for Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 contains a kinase and a GTPase domain, both of which provide critical intracellular signal-transduction functions. We showed previously that Rab5b, a small GTPase protein that regulates the motility and fusion of early endosomes, interacts with LRRK2 and co-regulates synaptic vesicle endocytosis. Using recombinant proteins, we show here that LRRK2 phosphorylates Rab5b at its Thr6 residue in in vitro kinase assays with mass spectrophotometry analysis. Phosphorylation of Rab5b by LRRK2 on the threonine residue was confirmed by western analysis using cells stably expressing LRRK2 G2019S. The phosphomimetic T6D mutant exhibited stronger GTPase activity than that of the wild-type Rab5b. In addition, phosphorylation of Rab5b by LRRK2 also exhibited GTPase activity stronger than that of the unphosphorylated Rab5b protein. Two assays testing Rab5's activity, neurite outgrowth analysis and epidermal growth factor receptor degradation assays, showed that Rab5b T6D exhibited phenotypes that were expected to be observed in the inactive Rab5b, including longer neurite length and less degradation of EGFR. These results suggest that LRRK2 kinase activity functions as a Rab5b GTPase activating protein and thus, negatively regulates Rab5b signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Jin Yun
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Hyejung Kim
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Inhwa Ga
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Hakjin Oh
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Dong Hwan Ho
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Jiyoung Kim
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Hyemyung Seo
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Ilhong Son
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
| | - Wongi Seol
- Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea Institute for Brain Science and Technology, Inje University, Gaegumdong, Busanjingu, Busan, South Korea; InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, Hanyang University, Ansanshi, Gyeonggido, South Korea; and Department of Neurology, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbondong, Gunposhi, Gyeonggido, South Korea
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Lamas NJ, Serra SC, Salgado AJ, Sousa N. Failure of Y-27632 to improve the culture of adult human adipose-derived stem cells. STEM CELLS AND CLONING-ADVANCES AND APPLICATIONS 2015; 8:15-26. [PMID: 25609984 PMCID: PMC4293935 DOI: 10.2147/sccaa.s66597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Y-27632 is a well-known inhibitor of the Rho-associated coiled kinase (ROCK) and has been shown to significantly improve the culture of a variety of multipotent stem cell types. However, the effects of Y-27632 on the expansion of adult human adipose-derived stem cell (hADSC) cultures remain to be established. Here, we aimed to characterize the effects of Y-27632 on the culture of hADSCs. Adult hADSCs were isolated from subjects submitted to elective plastic surgery procedures and cultivated in vitro under optimized conditions. Our results show that the continuous supplementation of hADSC cultures with Y-27632 led to decreased numbers of cells and decreased global metabolic viability of hADSC cultures when compared with control conditions. This effect appeared to be dependent on the continuous presence of the drug and was shown to be concentration-dependent and significant for 10 μM and 20 μM of Y-27632. Moreover, the Y-27632-induced decrease in hADSC numbers was not linked to a block in global cell proliferation, as cell numbers consistently increased from the moment of plating until passaging. In addition, Y-27632 was not able to increase the number of hADSCs present in culture 24 hours after passaging. Taken together, our results suggest that, in contrast to other stem cell types, Y-27632 supplementation is not a suitable strategy to enhance hADSC culture expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno Jorge Lamas
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences (ECS), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal ; ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal ; Clinical Pathology Department, Centro Hospitalar do Alto Ave (CHAA), EPE, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Sofia C Serra
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences (ECS), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal ; ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - António J Salgado
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences (ECS), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal ; ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Nuno Sousa
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences (ECS), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal ; ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
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72
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Design, synthesis, and evaluation of a selective chemosensor for leucine-rich repeat kinase 2. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:5648-5651. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.10.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2014] [Revised: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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73
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Schapansky J, Nardozzi JD, LaVoie MJ. The complex relationships between microglia, alpha-synuclein, and LRRK2 in Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2014; 302:74-88. [PMID: 25284317 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The proteins alpha-synuclein (αSyn) and leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are both key players in the pathogenesis of the neurodegenerative disorder Parkinson's disease (PD), but establishing a functional link between the two proteins has proven elusive. Research studies for these two proteins have traditionally and justifiably focused in neuronal cells, but recent studies indicate that each protein could play a greater pathological role elsewhere. αSyn is expressed at high levels within neurons, but they also secrete the protein into the extracellular milieu, where it can have broad ranging effects in the nervous system and relevance to disease etiology. Similarly, low neuronal LRRK2 expression and activity suggests that LRRK2-related functions could be more relevant in cells with higher expression, such as brain-resident microglia. Microglia are monocytic immune cells that protect neurons from noxious stimuli, including pathological αSyn species, and microglial activation is believed to contribute to neuroinflammation and neuronal death in PD. Interestingly, both αSyn and LRRK2 can be linked to microglial function. Secreted αSyn can directly activate microglia, and can be taken up by microglia for clearance, while LRRK2 has been implicated in the intrinsic regulation of microglial activation and of lysosomal degradation processes. Based on these observations, the present review will focus on how PD-associated mutations in LRRK2 could potentially alter microglial biology with respect to neuronally secreted αSyn, resulting in cell dysfunction and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Schapansky
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - J D Nardozzi
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - M J LaVoie
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School, and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, United States.
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74
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Novel insights into the neurobiology underlying LRRK2-linked Parkinson's disease. Neuropharmacology 2014; 85:45-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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75
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Liu Z, Galemmo RA, Fraser KB, Moehle MS, Sen S, Volpicelli-Daley LA, DeLucas LJ, Ross LJ, Valiyaveettil J, Moukha-Chafiq O, Pathak AK, Ananthan S, Kezar H, White EL, Gupta V, Maddry JA, Suto MJ, West AB. Unique functional and structural properties of the LRRK2 protein ATP-binding pocket. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:32937-51. [PMID: 25228699 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.602318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic mutations in the LRRK2 gene can cause late-onset Parkinson disease. The most common mutation, G2019S, resides in the kinase domain and enhances activity. LRRK2 possesses the unique property of cis-autophosphorylation of its own GTPase domain. Because high-resolution structures of the human LRRK2 kinase domain are not available, we used novel high-throughput assays that measured both cis-autophosphorylation and trans-peptide phosphorylation to probe the ATP-binding pocket. We disclose hundreds of commercially available activity-selective LRRK2 kinase inhibitors. Some compounds inhibit cis-autophosphorylation more strongly than trans-peptide phosphorylation, and other compounds inhibit G2019S-LRRK2 more strongly than WT-LRRK2. Through exploitation of structure-activity relationships revealed through high-throughput analyses, we identified a useful probe inhibitor, SRI-29132 (11). SRI-29132 is exquisitely selective for LRRK2 kinase activity and is effective in attenuating proinflammatory responses in macrophages and rescuing neurite retraction phenotypes in neurons. Furthermore, the compound demonstrates excellent potency, is highly blood-brain barrier-permeant, but suffers from rapid first-pass metabolism. Despite the observed selectivity of SRI-29132, docking models highlighted critical interactions with residues conserved in many protein kinases, implying a unique structural configuration for the LRRK2 ATP-binding pocket. Although the human LRRK2 kinase domain is unstable and insoluble, we demonstrate that the LRRK2 homolog from ameba can be mutated to approximate some aspects of the human LRRK2 ATP-binding pocket. Our results provide a rich resource for LRRK2 small molecule inhibitor development. More broadly, our results provide a precedent for the functional interrogation of ATP-binding pockets when traditional approaches to ascertain structure prove difficult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Liu
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and Center for Biophysical Sciences and Engineering, Department of Optometry, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 and
| | - Robert A Galemmo
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Kyle B Fraser
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Mark S Moehle
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Saurabh Sen
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Laura A Volpicelli-Daley
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
| | - Lawrence J DeLucas
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Larry J Ross
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Jacob Valiyaveettil
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Omar Moukha-Chafiq
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Ashish K Pathak
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Subramaniam Ananthan
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Hollis Kezar
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - E Lucile White
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Vandana Gupta
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Joseph A Maddry
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Mark J Suto
- the Drug Discovery Division, Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
| | - Andrew B West
- From the Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology and
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76
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Galatsis P, Henderson JL, Kormos BL, Han S, Kurumbail RG, Wager TT, Verhoest PR, Noell GS, Chen Y, Needle E, Berger Z, Steyn SJ, Houle C, Hirst WD. Kinase domain inhibition of leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) using a [1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-b]pyridazine scaffold. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2014; 24:4132-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Genetic and pharmacological evidence that G2019S LRRK2 confers a hyperkinetic phenotype, resistant to motor decline associated with aging. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 71:62-73. [PMID: 25107341 PMCID: PMC4194318 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutation G2019S in the kinase-domain is the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease. To investigate the impact of the G2019S mutation on motor activity in vivo, a longitudinal phenotyping approach was developed in knock-in (KI) mice bearing this kinase-enhancing mutation. Two cohorts of G2019S KI mice and wild-type littermates (WT) were subjected to behavioral tests, specific for akinesia, bradykinesia and overall gait ability, at different ages (3, 6, 10, 15 and 19 months). The motor performance of G2019S KI mice remained stable up to the age of 19 months and did not show the typical age-related decline in immobility time and stepping activity of WT. Several lines of evidence suggest that enhanced LRRK2 kinase activity is the main contributor to the observed hyperkinetic phenotype of G2019S KI mice: i) KI mice carrying a LRRK2 kinase-dead mutation (D1994S KD) showed a similar progressive motor decline as WT; ii) two LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, H-1152 and Nov-LRRK2-11, acutely reversed the hyperkinetic phenotype of G2019S KI mice, while being ineffective in WT or D1994S KD animals. LRRK2 target engagement in vivo was further substantiated by reduction of LRRK2 phosphorylation at Ser935 in the striatum and cortex at efficacious doses of Nov-LRRK2-11, and in the striatum at efficacious doses of H-1152. In summary, expression of the G2019S mutation in the mouse LRRK2 gene confers a hyperkinetic phenotype that is resistant to age-related motor decline, likely via enhancement of LRRK2 kinase activity. This study provides an in vivo model to investigate the effects of LRRK2 inhibitors on motor function. The LRRK2 G2019S mutation confers a hyperkinetic phenotype. The LRRK2 D1994S kinase-dead mutation does not affect motor phenotype. The LRRK2 kinase inhibitors reverse motor phenotype of G2019S mice. The LRRK2 kinase inhibitors inhibit LRRK2 phosphorylation at Ser935 ex-vivo.
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78
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Pedraza CE, Taylor C, Pereira A, Seng M, Tham CS, Izrael M, Webb M. Induction of oligodendrocyte differentiation and in vitro myelination by inhibition of rho-associated kinase. ASN Neuro 2014; 6:6/4/1759091414538134. [PMID: 25289646 PMCID: PMC4189421 DOI: 10.1177/1759091414538134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In inflammatory demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), myelin
degradation results in loss of axonal function and eventual axonal degeneration.
Differentiation of resident oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) leading to
remyelination of denuded axons occurs regularly in early stages of MS but halts as
the pathology transitions into progressive MS. Pharmacological potentiation of
endogenous OPC maturation and remyelination is now recognized as a promising
therapeutic approach for MS. In this study, we analyzed the effects of modulating the
Rho-A/Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) signaling pathway, by the use of selective
inhibitors of ROCK, on the transformation of OPCs into mature, myelinating
oligodendrocytes. Here we demonstrate, with the use of cellular cultures from rodent
and human origin, that ROCK inhibition in OPCs results in a significant generation of
branches and cell processes in early differentiation stages, followed by accelerated
production of myelin protein as an indication of advanced maturation. Furthermore,
inhibition of ROCK enhanced myelin formation in cocultures of human OPCs and neurons
and remyelination in rat cerebellar tissue explants previously demyelinated with
lysolecithin. Our findings indicate that by direct inhibition of this signaling
molecule, the OPC differentiation program is activated resulting in morphological and
functional cell maturation, myelin formation, and regeneration. Altogether, we show
evidence of modulation of the Rho-A/ROCK signaling pathway as a viable target for the
induction of remyelination in demyelinating pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos E Pedraza
- EMD Serono Research & Development Institute, Inc., Billerica, MA, USA
| | | | - Albertina Pereira
- EMD Serono Research & Development Institute, Inc., Billerica, MA, USA
| | - Michelle Seng
- EMD Serono Research & Development Institute, Inc., Billerica, MA, USA
| | - Chui-Se Tham
- EMD Serono Research & Development Institute, Inc., Billerica, MA, USA
| | | | - Michael Webb
- EMD Serono Research & Development Institute, Inc., Billerica, MA, USA
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79
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Reynolds A, Doggett EA, Riddle SM, Lebakken CS, Nichols RJ. LRRK2 kinase activity and biology are not uniformly predicted by its autophosphorylation and cellular phosphorylation site status. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:54. [PMID: 25009464 PMCID: PMC4068021 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Missense mutations in the Leucine-Rich Repeat protein Kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most common genetic predisposition to develop Parkinson's disease (PD) (Farrer et al., 2005; Skipper et al., 2005; Di Fonzo et al., 2006; Healy et al., 2008; Paisan-Ruiz et al., 2008; Lesage et al., 2010). LRRK2 is a large multi-domain phosphoprotein with a GTPase domain and a serine/threonine protein kinase domain whose activity is implicated in neuronal toxicity; however the precise mechanism is unknown. LRRK2 autophosphorylates on several serine/threonine residues across the enzyme and is found constitutively phosphorylated on Ser910, Ser935, Ser955, and Ser973, which are proposed to be regulated by upstream kinases. Here we investigate the phosphoregulation at these sites by analyzing the effects of disease-associated mutations Arg1441Cys, Arg1441Gly, Ala1442Pro, Tyr1699Cys, Ile2012Thr, Gly2019Ser, and Ile2020Thr. We also studied alanine substitutions of phosphosite serines 910, 935, 955, and 973 and specific LRRK2 inhibition on autophosphorylation of LRRK2 Ser1292, Thr1491, Thr2483 and phosphorylation at the cellular sites. We found that mutants in the Roc-COR domains, including Arg1441Cys, Arg1441His, Ala1442Pro, and Tyr1699Cys, can positively enhance LRRK2 kinase activity, while concomitantly inducing the dephosphorylation of the cellular sites. Mutation of the cellular sites individually did not affect LRRK2 intrinsic kinase activity; however, Ser910/935/955/973Ala mutations trended toward increased kinase activity of LRRK2. Increased cAMP levels did not lead to increased LRRK2 cellular site phosphorylation, 14-3-3 binding or kinase activity. In cells, inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity leads to dephosphorylation of Ser1292 by Calyculin A and Okadaic acid sensitive phosphatases, while the cellular sites are dephosphorylated by Calyculin A sensitive phosphatases. These findings indicate that comparative analysis of both Ser1292 and Ser910/935/955/973 phosphorylation sites will provide important and distinct measures of LRRK2 kinase and biological activity in vitro and in vivo.
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80
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Mamais A, Chia R, Beilina A, Hauser DN, Hall C, Lewis PA, Cookson MR, Bandopadhyay R. Arsenite stress down-regulates phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), promoting self-association and cellular redistribution. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:21386-400. [PMID: 24942733 PMCID: PMC4118103 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.528463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a common genetic cause of Parkinson disease, but the mechanisms whereby LRRK2 is regulated are unknown. Phosphorylation of LRRK2 at Ser910/Ser935 mediates interaction with 14-3-3. Pharmacological inhibition of its kinase activity abolishes Ser910/Ser935 phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding, and this effect is also mimicked by pathogenic mutations. However, physiological situations where dephosphorylation occurs have not been defined. Here, we show that arsenite or H2O2-induced stresses promote loss of Ser910/Ser935 phosphorylation, which is reversed by phosphatase inhibition. Arsenite-induced dephosphorylation is accompanied by loss of 14-3-3 binding and is observed in wild type, G2019S, and kinase-dead D2017A LRRK2. Arsenite stress stimulates LRRK2 self-association and association with protein phosphatase 1α, decreases kinase activity and GTP binding in vitro, and induces translocation of LRRK2 to centrosomes. Our data indicate that signaling events induced by arsenite and oxidative stress may regulate LRRK2 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adamantios Mamais
- From the Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom, the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom, the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892,
| | - Ruth Chia
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, D. C. 20057
| | - Alexandra Beilina
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - David N Hauser
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, the Brown University/National Institutes of Health Graduate Partnership Program, Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, and
| | - Christine Hall
- the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom, the School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - Mark R Cookson
- the Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- From the Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, United Kingdom, the Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 3BJ, United Kingdom,
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81
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Kethiri RR, Bakthavatchalam R. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 inhibitors: a review of recent patents (2011 – 2013). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2014; 24:745-57. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2014.907275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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82
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Vancraenenbroeck R, De Raeymaecker J, Lobbestael E, Gao F, De Maeyer M, Voet A, Baekelandt V, Taymans JM. In silico, in vitro and cellular analysis with a kinome-wide inhibitor panel correlates cellular LRRK2 dephosphorylation to inhibitor activity on LRRK2. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:51. [PMID: 24917786 PMCID: PMC4042160 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a complex, multidomain protein which is considered a valuable target for potential disease-modifying therapeutic strategies for Parkinson's disease (PD). In mammalian cells and brain, LRRK2 is phosphorylated and treatment of cells with inhibitors of LRRK2 kinase activity can induce LRRK2 dephosphorylation at a cluster of serines including Ser910/935/955/973. It has been suggested that phosphorylation levels at these sites reflect LRRK2 kinase activity, however kinase-dead variants of LRRK2 or kinase activating variants do not display altered Ser935 phosphorylation levels compared to wild type. Furthermore, Ser910/935/955/973 are not autophosphorylation sites, therefore, it is unclear if inhibitor induced dephosphorylation depends on the activity of compounds on LRRK2 or on yet to be identified upstream kinases. Here we used a panel of 160 ATP competitive and cell permeable kinase inhibitors directed against all branches of the kinome and tested their activity on LRRK2 in vitro using a peptide-substrate-based kinase assay. In neuronal SH-SY5Y cells overexpressing LRRK2 we used compound-induced dephosphorylation of Ser935 as readout. In silico docking of selected compounds was performed using a modeled LRRK2 kinase structure. Receiver operating characteristic plots demonstrated that the obtained docking scores to the LRRK2 ATP binding site correlated with in vitro and cellular compound activity. We also found that in vitro potency showed a high degree of correlation to cellular compound induced LRRK2 dephosphorylation activity across multiple compound classes. Therefore, acute LRRK2 dephosphorylation at Ser935 in inhibitor treated cells involves a strong component of inhibitor activity on LRRK2 itself, without excluding a role for upstream kinases. Understanding the regulation of LRRK2 phosphorylation by kinase inhibitors aids our understanding of LRRK2 signaling and may lead to development of new classes of LRRK2 kinase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renée Vancraenenbroeck
- Laboratory for Biomolecular Modelling, Division of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joren De Raeymaecker
- Laboratory for Biomolecular Modelling, Division of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Evy Lobbestael
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Fangye Gao
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marc De Maeyer
- Laboratory for Biomolecular Modelling, Division of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arnout Voet
- Laboratory for Biomolecular Modelling, Division of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, Department of Chemistry, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium ; Zhang Initiative Research Unit, Riken Saitama, Japan
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jean-Marc Taymans
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium
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83
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Cirnaru MD, Marte A, Belluzzi E, Russo I, Gabrielli M, Longo F, Arcuri L, Murru L, Bubacco L, Matteoli M, Fedele E, Sala C, Passafaro M, Morari M, Greggio E, Onofri F, Piccoli G. LRRK2 kinase activity regulates synaptic vesicle trafficking and neurotransmitter release through modulation of LRRK2 macro-molecular complex. Front Mol Neurosci 2014; 7:49. [PMID: 24904275 PMCID: PMC4034499 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2014.00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 is a complex protein that consists of multiple domains executing several functions, including GTP hydrolysis, kinase activity, and protein binding. Robust evidence suggests that LRRK2 acts at the synaptic site as a molecular hub connecting synaptic vesicles to cytoskeletal elements via a complex panel of protein-protein interactions. Here we investigated the impact of pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity on synaptic function. Acute treatment with LRRK2 inhibitors reduced the frequency of spontaneous currents, the rate of synaptic vesicle trafficking and the release of neurotransmitter from isolated synaptosomes. The investigation of complementary models lacking LRRK2 expression allowed us to exclude potential off-side effects of kinase inhibitors on synaptic functions. Next we studied whether kinase inhibition affects LRRK2 heterologous interactions. We found that the binding among LRRK2, presynaptic proteins and synaptic vesicles is affected by kinase inhibition. Our results suggest that LRRK2 kinase activity influences synaptic vesicle release via modulation of LRRK2 macro-molecular complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria D Cirnaru
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Vita-Salute University Milan, Italy ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marte
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova Genova, Italy
| | - Elisa Belluzzi
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Isabella Russo
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Martina Gabrielli
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy ; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Longo
- Department of Medical Science and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy
| | - Ludovico Arcuri
- Department of Medical Science and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy
| | - Luca Murru
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
| | - Luigi Bubacco
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Michela Matteoli
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan Milan, Italy ; Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Pharmacology and Brain Pathology Rozzano, Italy
| | - Ernesto Fedele
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa Genoa, Italy
| | - Carlo Sala
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy ; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Passafaro
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
| | - Michele Morari
- Department of Medical Science and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Franco Onofri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genova Genova, Italy
| | - Giovanni Piccoli
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Vita-Salute University Milan, Italy ; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, National Research Council, Neuroscience Institute Milan, Italy
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84
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Dusonchet J, Li H, Guillily M, Liu M, Stafa K, Derada Troletti C, Boon JY, Saha S, Glauser L, Mamais A, Citro A, Youmans KL, Liu L, Schneider BL, Aebischer P, Yue Z, Bandopadhyay R, Glicksman MA, Moore DJ, Collins JJ, Wolozin B. A Parkinson's disease gene regulatory network identifies the signaling protein RGS2 as a modulator of LRRK2 activity and neuronal toxicity. Hum Mol Genet 2014; 23:4887-905. [PMID: 24794857 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddu202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in LRRK2 are one of the primary genetic causes of Parkinson's disease (PD). LRRK2 contains a kinase and a GTPase domain, and familial PD mutations affect both enzymatic activities. However, the signaling mechanisms regulating LRRK2 and the pathogenic effects of familial mutations remain unknown. Identifying the signaling proteins that regulate LRRK2 function and toxicity remains a critical goal for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. In this study, we apply systems biology tools to human PD brain and blood transcriptomes to reverse-engineer a LRRK2-centered gene regulatory network. This network identifies several putative master regulators of LRRK2 function. In particular, the signaling gene RGS2, which encodes for a GTPase-activating protein (GAP), is a key regulatory hub connecting the familial PD-associated genes DJ-1 and PINK1 with LRRK2 in the network. RGS2 expression levels are reduced in the striata of LRRK2 and sporadic PD patients. We identify RGS2 as a novel interacting partner of LRRK2 in vivo. RGS2 regulates both the GTPase and kinase activities of LRRK2. We show in mammalian neurons that RGS2 regulates LRRK2 function in the control of neuronal process length. RGS2 is also protective against neuronal toxicity of the most prevalent mutation in LRRK2, G2019S. We find that RGS2 regulates LRRK2 function and neuronal toxicity through its effects on kinase activity and independently of GTPase activity, which reveals a novel mode of action for GAP proteins. This work identifies RGS2 as a promising target for interfering with neurodegeneration due to LRRK2 mutations in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Dusonchet
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center of Synthetic Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Hu Li
- Center for Individualized Medicine, Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Maria Guillily
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and
| | - Min Liu
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Klodjan Stafa
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Joon Y Boon
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and
| | - Shamol Saha
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and
| | - Liliane Glauser
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Adamantios Mamais
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL, Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 1PJ, UK
| | - Allison Citro
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and
| | | | - LiQun Liu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and
| | - Bernard L Schneider
- Neurodegenerative Studies Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Aebischer
- Neurodegenerative Studies Laboratory, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Zhenyu Yue
- Department of Neurology and Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Rina Bandopadhyay
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL, Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 1PJ, UK
| | - Marcie A Glicksman
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Darren J Moore
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurodegenerative Research, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - James J Collins
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center of Synthetic Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA,
| | - Benjamin Wolozin
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA,
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85
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Silva RG, Geoghegan KF, Qiu X, Aulabaugh A. A continuous and direct assay to monitor leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 activity. Anal Biochem 2014; 450:63-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2014.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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86
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Caesar M, Felk S, Zach S, Brønstad G, Aasly JO, Gasser T, Gillardon F. Changes in matrix metalloprotease activity and progranulin levels may contribute to the pathophysiological function of mutant leucine-rich repeat kinase 2. Glia 2014; 62:1075-92. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Revised: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mareike Caesar
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG; CNS Diseases Research; Biberach an der Riss Germany
| | - Sandra Felk
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG; CNS Diseases Research; Biberach an der Riss Germany
| | - Susanne Zach
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG; CNS Diseases Research; Biberach an der Riss Germany
| | - Gunnar Brønstad
- St. Olav's University Hospital; Department of Neurology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Jan O. Aasly
- St. Olav's University Hospital; Department of Neurology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Thomas Gasser
- Hertie Institut fuer klinische Hirnforschung; Tuebingen Germany
| | - Frank Gillardon
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co KG; CNS Diseases Research; Biberach an der Riss Germany
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87
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Kahn I, Lomaka A, Karelson M. Topological Fingerprints as an Aid in Finding Structural Patterns for LRRK2 Inhibition. Mol Inform 2014; 33:269-75. [DOI: 10.1002/minf.201300057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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88
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Characterization of WZ4003 and HTH-01-015 as selective inhibitors of the LKB1-tumour-suppressor-activated NUAK kinases. Biochem J 2014; 457:215-25. [PMID: 24171924 PMCID: PMC3969223 DOI: 10.1042/bj20131152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The related NUAK1 and NUAK2 are members of the AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) family of protein kinases that are activated by the LKB1 (liver kinase B1) tumour suppressor kinase. Recent work suggests they play important roles in regulating key biological processes including Myc-driven tumorigenesis, senescence, cell adhesion and neuronal polarity. In the present paper we describe the first highly specific protein kinase inhibitors of NUAK kinases namely WZ4003 and HTH-01-015. WZ4003 inhibits both NUAK isoforms (IC50 for NUAK1 is 20 nM and for NUAK2 is 100 nM), whereas HTH-01-015 inhibits only NUAK1 (IC50 is 100 nM). These compounds display extreme selectivity and do not significantly inhibit the activity of 139 other kinases that were tested including ten AMPK family members. In all cell lines tested, WZ4003 and HTH-01-015 inhibit the phosphorylation of the only well-characterized substrate, MYPT1 (myosin phosphate-targeting subunit 1) that is phosphorylated by NUAK1 at Ser(445). We also identify a mutation (A195T) that does not affect basal NUAK1 activity, but renders it ~50-fold resistant to both WZ4003 and HTH-01-015. Consistent with NUAK1 mediating the phosphorylation of MYPT1 we find that in cells overexpressing drug-resistant NUAK1[A195T], but not wild-type NUAK1, phosphorylation of MYPT1 at Ser(445) is no longer suppressed by WZ4003 or HTH-01-015. We also demonstrate that administration of WZ4003 and HTH-01-015 to MEFs (mouse embryonic fibroblasts) significantly inhibits migration in a wound-healing assay to a similar extent as NUAK1-knockout. WZ4003 and HTH-01-015 also inhibit proliferation of MEFs to the same extent as NUAK1 knockout and U2OS cells to the same extent as NUAK1 shRNA knockdown. We find that WZ4003 and HTH-01-015 impaired the invasive potential of U2OS cells in a 3D cell invasion assay to the same extent as NUAK1 knockdown. The results of the present study indicate that WZ4003 and HTH-01-015 will serve as useful chemical probes to delineate the biological roles of the NUAK kinases.
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89
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Kuss M, Adamopoulou E, Kahle PJ. Interferon-γ induces leucine-rich repeat kinase LRRK2 via extracellular signal-regulated kinase ERK5 in macrophages. J Neurochem 2014; 129:980-7. [PMID: 24479685 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) comprises a major risk factor for Parkinson's disease. Recently, it has emerged that LRRK2 plays important roles in the immune system. LRRK2 is induced by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in monocytes, but the signaling pathway is not known. Here, we show that IFN-γ-mediated induction of LRRK2 was suppressed by pharmacological inhibition and RNA interference of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5). This was confirmed by LRRK2 immunostaining, which also revealed that the morphological responses to IFN-γ were suppressed by ERK5 inhibitor treatment. Both human acute monocytic leukemia THP-1 cells and human peripheral blood monocytes stimulated the ERK5-LRRK2 pathway after differentiation into macrophages. Thus, LRRK2 is induced via a novel, ERK5-dependent IFN-γ signal transduction pathway, pointing to new functions of ERK5 and LRRK2 in human macrophages. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a major risk factor for the development of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the role of LRRK2 in the affected neurons remains enigmatic. Recently, LRRK2 has been reported to be strongly expressed in the immune system. Here, we demonstrate that LRRK2 is induced by Interferon gamma via extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) in macrophages, thus providing new insights in LRRK2 and ERK5 biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Kuss
- Graduate School of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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90
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Mills RD, Mulhern TD, Liu F, Culvenor JG, Cheng HC. Prediction of the Repeat Domain Structures and Impact of Parkinsonism-Associated Variations on Structure and Function of all Functional Domains of Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2). Hum Mutat 2014; 35:395-412. [DOI: 10.1002/humu.22515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan D. Mills
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Terrence D. Mulhern
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Chemistry & Biomolecular Sciences; Macquarie University; NSW Australia
| | - Janetta G. Culvenor
- Department of Pathology; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Heung-Chin Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute; University of Melbourne; Parkville Victoria Australia
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91
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Chai C, Lim KL. Genetic insights into sporadic Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Curr Genomics 2014; 14:486-501. [PMID: 24532982 PMCID: PMC3924245 DOI: 10.2174/1389202914666131210195808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Intensive research over the last 15 years has led to the identification of several autosomal recessive and dominant
genes that cause familial Parkinson’s disease (PD). Importantly, the functional characterization of these genes has
shed considerable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the etiology and pathogenesis of PD. Collectively;
these studies implicate aberrant protein and mitochondrial homeostasis as key contributors to the development of PD, with
oxidative stress likely acting as an important nexus between the two pathogenic events. Interestingly, recent genome-wide
association studies (GWAS) have revealed variations in at least two of the identified familial PD genes (i.e. α-synuclein
and LRRK2) as significant risk factors for the development of sporadic PD. At the same time, the studies also uncovered
variability in novel alleles that is associated with increased risk for the disease. Additionally, in-silico meta-analyses of
GWAS data have allowed major steps into the investigation of the roles of gene-gene and gene-environment interactions
in sporadic PD. The emergent picture from the progress made thus far is that the etiology of sporadic PD is multi-factorial
and presumably involves a complex interplay between a multitude of gene networks and the environment. Nonetheless,
the biochemical pathways underlying familial and sporadic forms of PD are likely to be shared.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chou Chai
- Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Kah-Leong Lim
- Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore ; Department of Physiology, National University of Singapore, Singapore ; Neurodegeneration Research Laboratory, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore
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92
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Robinson PA. Understanding the molecular basis of Parkinson’s disease, identification of biomarkers and routes to therapy. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 7:565-78. [DOI: 10.1586/epr.10.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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93
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Development of LRRK2 Kinase Inhibitors for Parkinson's Disease. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800167-7.00004-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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94
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The resistance tetrad: amino acid hotspots for kinome-wide exploitation of drug-resistant protein kinase alleles. Methods Enzymol 2014; 548:117-46. [PMID: 25399644 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-397918-6.00005-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Acquired resistance to targeted kinase inhibitors is a well-documented clinical problem that is potentially fatal for patients to whom a suitable back-up is not available. However, protein kinase alleles that promote resistance to inhibitors can be exploited experimentally as gold-standards for "on"- and "off"-target validation strategies and constitute a powerful resource for assessing the ability of new or combined therapies to override resistance. Clinical resistance to kinase inhibitors is an evident in all tyrosine kinase-driven malignancies, where high rates of mutation drive tumor evolution toward the insidious drug-resistant (DR) state through a variety of mechanisms. Unfortunately, this problem is likely to intensify in the future as the number of target kinases, approved inhibitors, and clinical indications increase. To empower the analysis of resistance in kinases, we have validated a bioinformatic, structural, and cellular workflow for designing and evaluating resistance at key mutational hotspots among kinome members. In this chapter, we discuss how mutation of amino acids in the gatekeeper and hinge-loop regions (collectively termed the "resistance tetrad") and the DFG motif represent an effective approach for generating panels of DR kinase alleles for chemical genetics and biological target validation.
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95
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96
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Zhu H, Chen H, Cho W, Estrada AA, Sweeney ZK. From Human Genetics to Drug Candidates: An Industrial Perspective on LRRK2 Inhibition as a Treatment for Parkinson's Disease. METHODS AND PRINCIPLES IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527677252.ch10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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97
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LRRK2 phosphorylates novel tau epitopes and promotes tauopathy. Acta Neuropathol 2013; 126:809-27. [PMID: 24113872 PMCID: PMC3830748 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-013-1188-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most frequent cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD). The neuropathology of LRRK2-related PD is heterogeneous and can include aberrant tau phosphorylation or neurofibrillary tau pathology. Recently, LRRK2 has been shown to phosphorylate tau in vitro; however, the major epitopes phosphorylated by LRRK2 and the physiological or pathogenic consequences of these modifications in vivo are unknown. Using mass spectrometry, we identified multiple sites on recombinant tau that are phosphorylated by LRRK2 in vitro, including pT149 and pT153, which are phospho-epitopes that to date have been largely unexplored. Importantly, we demonstrate that expression of transgenic LRRK2 in a mouse model of tauopathy increased the aggregation of insoluble tau and its phosphorylation at T149, T153, T205, and S199/S202/T205 epitopes. These findings indicate that tau can be a LRRK2 substrate and that this interaction can enhance salient features of human disease.
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98
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Luerman GC, Nguyen C, Samaroo H, Loos P, Xi H, Hurtado-Lorenzo A, Needle E, Stephen Noell G, Galatsis P, Dunlop J, Geoghegan KF, Hirst WD. Phosphoproteomic evaluation of pharmacological inhibition of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 reveals significant off-target effects of LRRK-2-IN-1. J Neurochem 2013; 128:561-76. [PMID: 24117733 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Genetic mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) have been linked to autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease. The most prevalent mutation, G2019S, results in enhanced LRRK2 kinase activity that potentially contributes to the etiology of Parkinson's disease. Consequently, disease progression is potentially mediated by poorly characterized phosphorylation-dependent LRRK2 substrate pathways. To address this gap in knowledge, we transduced SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with LRRK2 G2019S via adenovirus, then determined quantitative changes in the phosphoproteome upon LRRK2 kinase inhibition (LRRK2-IN-1 treatment) using stable isotope labeling of amino acids in culture combined with phosphopeptide enrichment and LC-MS/MS analysis. We identified 776 phosphorylation sites that were increased or decreased at least 50% in response to LRRK2-IN-1 treatment, including sites on proteins previously known to associate with LRRK2. Bioinformatic analysis of those phosphoproteins suggested a potential role for LRRK2 kinase activity in regulating pro-inflammatory responses and neurite morphology, among other pathways. In follow-up experiments, LRRK2-IN-1 inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) levels in astrocytes and also enhanced multiple neurite characteristics in primary neuronal cultures. However, LRRK2-IN-1 had almost identical effects in primary glial and neuronal cultures from LRRK2 knockout mice. These data suggest LRRK2-IN-1 may inhibit pathways of perceived LRRK2 pathophysiological function independently of LRRK2 highlighting the need to use multiple pharmacological tools and genetic approaches in studies determining LRRK2 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory C Luerman
- Pfizer Global Research & Development, Neuroscience Research Unit, Cambridge, MA, USA
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99
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Verma M, Steer EK, Chu CT. ERKed by LRRK2: a cell biological perspective on hereditary and sporadic Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1842:1273-81. [PMID: 24225420 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2/dardarin) is implicated in autosomal dominant familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD); mutations in LRRK2 account for up to 40% of PD cases in some populations. LRRK2 is a large protein with a kinase domain, a GTPase domain, and multiple potential protein interaction domains. As such, delineating the functional pathways for LRRK2 and mechanisms by which PD-linked variants contribute to age-related neurodegeneration could result in pharmaceutically tractable therapies. A growing number of recent studies implicate dysregulation of mitogen activated protein kinases 3 and 1 (also known as ERK1/2) as possible downstream mediators of mutant LRRK2 effects. As these master regulators of growth, differentiation, neuronal plasticity and cell survival have also been implicated in other PD models, a set of common cell biological pathways may contribute to neuronal susceptibility in PD. Here, we review the literature on several major cellular pathways impacted by LRRK2 mutations--autophagy, microtubule/cytoskeletal dynamics, and protein synthesis--in context of potential signaling crosstalk involving the ERK1/2 and Wnt signaling pathways. Emerging implications for calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial biology and synaptic dysregulation are discussed in relation to LRRK2 interactions with other PD gene products. It has been shown that substantia nigra neurons in human PD and Lewy body dementia patients exhibit cytoplasmic accumulations of ERK1/2 in mitochondria, autophagosomes and bundles of intracellular fibrils. Both experimental and human tissue data implicate pathogenic changes in ERK1/2 signaling in sporadic, toxin-based and mutant LRRK2 settings, suggesting engagement of common cell biological pathways by divergent PD etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Verma
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Erin K Steer
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Charleen T Chu
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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100
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Yang X, Liu Y, Liu C, Xie W, Huang E, Huang W, Wang J, Chen L, Wang H, Qiu P, Xu J, Zhang F, Wang H. Inhibition of ROCK2 expression protects against methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells. Brain Res 2013; 1533:16-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2013] [Revised: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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