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Schmees C, Villaseñor R, Zheng W, Ma H, Zerial M, Heldin CH, Hellberg C. Macropinocytosis of the PDGF β-receptor promotes fibroblast transformation by H-RasG12V. Mol Biol Cell 2012; 23:2571-82. [PMID: 22573884 PMCID: PMC3386220 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e11-04-0317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast transformation by H-RasG12V induces internalization of PDGFRβ by macropinocytosis, enhancing its signaling activity and increasing anchorage-independent proliferation. It is proposed that H-Ras transformation promotes tumor progression by enhancing growth factor receptor signaling through increased receptor macropinocytosis. Receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling is frequently increased in tumor cells, sometimes as a result of decreased receptor down-regulation. The extent to which the endocytic trafficking routes can contribute to such RTK hyperactivation is unclear. Here, we show for the first time that fibroblast transformation by H-RasG12V induces the internalization of platelet-derived growth factor β-receptor (PDGFRβ) by macropinocytosis, enhancing its signaling activity and increasing anchorage-independent proliferation. H-RasG12V transformation and PDGFRβ activation were synergistic in stimulating phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase activity, leading to receptor macropinocytosis. PDGFRβ macropinocytosis was both necessary and sufficient for enhanced receptor activation. Blocking macropinocytosis by inhibition of PI 3-kinase prevented the increase in receptor activity in transformed cells. Conversely, increasing macropinocytosis by Rabankyrin-5 overexpression was sufficient to enhance PDGFRβ activation in nontransformed cells. Simultaneous stimulation with PDGF-BB and epidermal growth factor promoted macropinocytosis of both receptors and increased their activation in nontransformed cells. We propose that H-Ras transformation promotes tumor progression by enhancing growth factor receptor signaling as a result of increased receptor macropinocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Schmees
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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52
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Ray PD, Huang BW, Tsuji Y. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis and redox regulation in cellular signaling. Cell Signal 2012. [PMID: 22286106 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2012.01.008.reactive] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated during mitochondrial oxidative metabolism as well as in cellular response to xenobiotics, cytokines, and bacterial invasion. Oxidative stress refers to the imbalance due to excess ROS or oxidants over the capability of the cell to mount an effective antioxidant response. Oxidative stress results in macromolecular damage and is implicated in various disease states such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, cancer, neurodegeneration, and aging. Paradoxically, accumulating evidence indicates that ROS also serve as critical signaling molecules in cell proliferation and survival. While there is a large body of research demonstrating the general effect of oxidative stress on signaling pathways, less is known about the initial and direct regulation of signaling molecules by ROS, or what we term the "oxidative interface." Cellular ROS sensing and metabolism are tightly regulated by a variety of proteins involved in the redox (reduction/oxidation) mechanism. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms through which ROS directly interact with critical signaling molecules to initiate signaling in a broad variety of cellular processes, such as proliferation and survival (MAP kinases, PI3 kinase, PTEN, and protein tyrosine phosphatases), ROS homeostasis and antioxidant gene regulation (thioredoxin, peroxiredoxin, Ref-1, and Nrf-2), mitochondrial oxidative stress, apoptosis, and aging (p66Shc), iron homeostasis through iron-sulfur cluster proteins (IRE-IRP), and ATM-regulated DNA damage response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul D Ray
- Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, North Carolina State University, Campus Box 7633, Raleigh, NC 27695-7633, USA
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53
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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis and redox regulation in cellular signaling. Cell Signal 2012; 24:981-90. [PMID: 22286106 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2012.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2834] [Impact Index Per Article: 236.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated during mitochondrial oxidative metabolism as well as in cellular response to xenobiotics, cytokines, and bacterial invasion. Oxidative stress refers to the imbalance due to excess ROS or oxidants over the capability of the cell to mount an effective antioxidant response. Oxidative stress results in macromolecular damage and is implicated in various disease states such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, cancer, neurodegeneration, and aging. Paradoxically, accumulating evidence indicates that ROS also serve as critical signaling molecules in cell proliferation and survival. While there is a large body of research demonstrating the general effect of oxidative stress on signaling pathways, less is known about the initial and direct regulation of signaling molecules by ROS, or what we term the "oxidative interface." Cellular ROS sensing and metabolism are tightly regulated by a variety of proteins involved in the redox (reduction/oxidation) mechanism. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms through which ROS directly interact with critical signaling molecules to initiate signaling in a broad variety of cellular processes, such as proliferation and survival (MAP kinases, PI3 kinase, PTEN, and protein tyrosine phosphatases), ROS homeostasis and antioxidant gene regulation (thioredoxin, peroxiredoxin, Ref-1, and Nrf-2), mitochondrial oxidative stress, apoptosis, and aging (p66Shc), iron homeostasis through iron-sulfur cluster proteins (IRE-IRP), and ATM-regulated DNA damage response.
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54
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Karisch R, Fernandez M, Taylor P, Virtanen C, St-Germain JR, Jin LL, Harris IS, Mori J, Mak TW, Senis YA, Östman A, Moran MF, Neel BG. Global proteomic assessment of the classical protein-tyrosine phosphatome and "Redoxome". Cell 2011; 146:826-40. [PMID: 21884940 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2010] [Revised: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), along with protein-tyrosine kinases, play key roles in cellular signaling. All Class I PTPs contain an essential active site cysteinyl residue, which executes a nucleophilic attack on substrate phosphotyrosyl residues. The high reactivity of the catalytic cysteine also predisposes PTPs to oxidation by reactive oxygen species, such as H(2)O(2). Reversible PTP oxidation is emerging as an important cellular regulatory mechanism and might contribute to diseases such as cancer. We exploited these unique features of PTP enzymology to develop proteomic methods, broadly applicable to cell and tissue samples, that enable the comprehensive identification and quantification of expressed classical PTPs (PTPome) and the oxidized subset of the PTPome (oxPTPome). We find that mouse and human cells and tissues, including cancer cells, display distinctive PTPomes and oxPTPomes, revealing additional levels of complexity in the regulation of protein-tyrosine phosphorylation in normal and malignant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Karisch
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto M5G 2M9, ON, Canada.
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55
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Ostman A, Frijhoff J, Sandin A, Böhmer FD. Regulation of protein tyrosine phosphatases by reversible oxidation. J Biochem 2011; 150:345-56. [PMID: 21856739 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvr104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidation of the catalytic cysteine of protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTP), which leads to their reversible inactivation, has emerged as an important regulatory mechanism linking cellular tyrosine phosphorylation and signalling by reactive-oxygen or -nitrogen species (ROS, RNS). This review focuses on recent findings about the involved pathways, enzymes and biochemical mechanisms. Both the general cellular redox state and extracellular ligand-stimulated ROS production can cause PTP oxidation. Members of the PTP family differ in their intrinsic susceptibility to oxidation, and different types of oxidative modification of the PTP catalytic cysteine can occur. The role of PTP oxidation for physiological signalling processes as well as in different pathologies is described on the basis of well-investigated examples. Criteria to establish the causal involvement of PTP oxidation in a given process are proposed. A better understanding of mechanisms leading to selective PTP oxidation in a cellular context, and finding ways to pharmacologically modulate these pathways are important topics for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Ostman
- Cancer Center Karolinska, Department of Oncology and Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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56
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Rousso-Noori L, Knobler H, Levy-Apter E, Kuperman Y, Neufeld-Cohen A, Keshet Y, Akepati VR, Klinghoffer RA, Chen A, Elson A. Protein tyrosine phosphatase epsilon affects body weight by downregulating leptin signaling in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. Cell Metab 2011; 13:562-72. [PMID: 21531338 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2011.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Revised: 12/28/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Molecular-level understanding of body weight control is essential for combating obesity. We show that female mice lacking tyrosine phosphatase epsilon (RPTPe) are protected from weight gain induced by high-fat food, ovariectomy, or old age and exhibit increased whole-body energy expenditure and decreased adiposity. RPTPe-deficient mice, in particular males, exhibit improved glucose homeostasis. Female nonobese RPTPe-deficient mice are leptin hypersensitive and exhibit reduced circulating leptin concentrations, suggesting that RPTPe inhibits hypothalamic leptin signaling in vivo. Leptin hypersensitivity persists in aged, ovariectomized, and high-fat-fed RPTPe-deficient mice, indicating that RPTPe helps establish obesity-associated leptin resistance. RPTPe associates with and dephosphorylates JAK2, thereby downregulating leptin receptor signaling. Leptin stimulation induces phosphorylation of hypothalamic RPTPe at its C-terminal Y695, which drives RPTPe to downregulate JAK2. RPTPe is therefore an inhibitor of hypothalamic leptin signaling in vivo, and provides controlled negative-feedback regulation of this pathway following its activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liat Rousso-Noori
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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57
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Hypoxia followed by re-oxygenation induces oxidation of tyrosine phosphatases. Cell Signal 2011; 23:820-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2011.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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58
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Sardina JL, López-Ruano G, Sánchez-Sánchez B, Llanillo M, Hernández-Hernández A. Reactive oxygen species: are they important for haematopoiesis? Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2011; 81:257-74. [PMID: 21507675 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2011] [Accepted: 03/22/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has traditionally been related to deleterious effects for cells. However, it is now widely accepted that ROS can play an important role in regulating cellular signalling and gene expression. NADPH oxidase ROS production seems to be especially important in this regard. Some lines of evidence suggest that ROS may be important modulators of cell differentiation, including haematopoietic differentiation, in both physiologic and pathologic conditions. Here we shall review how ROS can regulate cell signalling and gene expression. We shall also focus on the importance of ROS for haematopoietic stem cell (HSC) biology and for haematopoietic differentiation. We shall review the involvement of ROS and NADPH oxidases in cancer, and in particular what is known about the relationship between ROS and haematological malignancies. Finally, we shall discuss the use of ROS as cancer therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L Sardina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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59
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Hirakawa S, Saito R, Ohara H, Okuyama R, Aiba S. Dual Oxidase 1 Induced by Th2 Cytokines Promotes STAT6 Phosphorylation via Oxidative Inactivation of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B in Human Epidermal Keratinocytes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:4762-70. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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60
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Boivin B, Yang M, Tonks NK. Targeting the reversibly oxidized protein tyrosine phosphatase superfamily. Sci Signal 2010; 3:pl2. [PMID: 20807953 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.3137pl2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Controlled production of reactive oxygen species leads to reversible oxidation of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) and has emerged as an important tier of regulation over phosphorylation-dependent signal transduction. We present a modified cysteinyl-labeling assay that detects reversible oxidation of members of each of the different PTP subclasses. Here, we describe the methods for enriching reversibly oxidized PTPs from complex protein extracts, illustrating the procedure in IMR90 fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Boivin
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA
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61
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12/15-lipoxygenase-derived lipid peroxides control receptor tyrosine kinase signaling through oxidation of protein tyrosine phosphatases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:15774-9. [PMID: 20798033 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1007909107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are regulated through reversible oxidation of the active-site cysteine. Previous studies have implied soluble reactive oxygen species (ROS), like H(2)O(2), as the mediators of PTP oxidation. The potential role(s) of peroxidized lipids in PTP oxidation have not been described. This study demonstrates that increases in cellular lipid peroxides, induced by disruption of glutathione peroxidase 4, induce cellular PTP oxidation and reduce the activity of PDGF receptor targeting PTPs. These effects were accompanied by site-selective increased PDGF beta-receptor phosphorylation, sensitive to 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LOX) inhibitors, and increased PDGF-induced cytoskeletal rearrangements. Importantly, the 12/15-LOX-derived 15-OOH-eicosatetraenoic acid lipid peroxide was much more effective than H(2)O(2) in induction of in vitro PTP oxidation. Our study thus establishes that lipid peroxides are previously unrecognized inducers of oxidation of PTPs. This identifies a pathway for control of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling, which might also be involved in the etiology of diseases associated with increased lipid peroxidation.
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62
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Zhou X, Ma Y, Sugiura R, Kobayashi D, Suzuki M, Deng L, Kuno T. MAP kinase kinase kinase (MAPKKK)-dependent and -independent activation of Sty1 stress MAPK in fission yeast. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:32818-32823. [PMID: 20729203 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.135764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In fission yeast, the Sty1/Spc1/Phh1 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is known to be involved in multiple-stress responses. It is currently thought that the Sty1 MAPK cascade is mediated by histidine kinases and phosphorelay proteins in response to oxidative stress signals. However, studies of the exact transduction mechanism of multiple-stress responses are lacking. Thus, in response to various stimuli, we monitored the Sty1 MAPK pathway through the downstream transcription factor Atf1 in living cells using a highly sensitive luciferase reporter gene. Surprisingly, in cadmium and low glucose (LG) medium, Atf1 activation was observed even in the absence of all of the four fission yeast MAPK kinase kinases (MAPKKKs); whereas in osmotic stress, Atf1 activation was abolished. Thus, the osmotic stress likely mediates the MAPK activation via MAPKKKs, whereas a cadmium or LG condition activates the MAPK in a MAPKKK-independent manner. On the other hand, knockout of tyrosine phosphatase gene pyp1(+) abolished the Atf1 response to cadmium and LG, but not to osmotic stress, suggesting that Pyp1 is a sensor for cadmium and LG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhou
- From the Division of Molecular Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kusunoki-cho 6-5-1, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Yan Ma
- From the Division of Molecular Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kusunoki-cho 6-5-1, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Reiko Sugiura
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacogenomics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kinki University, Kowakae 3-4-1, Higashi-Osaka, 577-8502, Japan
| | - Daiki Kobayashi
- From the Division of Molecular Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kusunoki-cho 6-5-1, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Masahiro Suzuki
- From the Division of Molecular Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kusunoki-cho 6-5-1, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Lu Deng
- From the Division of Molecular Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kusunoki-cho 6-5-1, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan
| | - Takayoshi Kuno
- From the Division of Molecular Pharmacology and Pharmacogenomics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kusunoki-cho 6-5-1, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan.
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63
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Shimizu H, Nakagawa Y, Murakami C, Aoki N, Kim-Mitsuyama S, Miyazaki H. Protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPepsilonM negatively regulates PDGF beta-receptor signaling induced by high glucose and PDGF in vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2010; 299:C1144-52. [PMID: 20686073 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00536.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration and vascular endothelial cell (VEC) dysfunction are closely associated with the development of atherosclerosis. We previously demonstrated that protein tyrosine phosphatase ε M (PTPεM) promotes VEC survival and migration. The present study investigates the biological functions of PTPεM in VSMCs and determines whether PTPεM is implicated in diabetes-accelerated atherosclerosis. We overexpressed wild-type and inactive PTPεM and an small interfering RNA (siRNA) of PTPεM by using an adenovirus vector to investigate the effects of PTPεM upon platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)- and high glucose (HG)-induced responses of rat VSMCs in vitro. We found that PTPεM decreased PDGF-induced DNA synthesis and migration by reducing the phosphorylation level of the PDGF β-receptor (PDGFRβ) with subsequently suppressed H(2)O(2) generation. The HG content in the medium generated H(2)O(2), upregulated PDGFRβ expression and its tyrosine-phosphorylation, and elevated NADPH oxidase 1 (Nox1) expression even without exogenous PDGF, all of which were downregulated by PTPεM. The PDGFR inhibitor AG1296 also blocked HG-induced Nox1 expression and H(2)O(2) production. Moreover, HG suppressed PTPεM expression itself, which was blocked by the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine. The effects of PTPεM siRNA were the opposite of those of wild-type PTPεM. Therefore, PTPεM negatively regulates PDGFRβ-mediated signaling pathways that are crucial for the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, and PTPεM may be involved in diabetes-accelerated atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidehisa Shimizu
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Alliance for Research on North Africa, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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64
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Boivin B, Tonks NK. Analysis of the redox regulation of protein tyrosine phosphatase superfamily members utilizing a cysteinyl-labeling assay. Methods Enzymol 2010; 474:35-50. [PMID: 20609903 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(10)74003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The catalytic activity of protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) superfamily members is regulated by the reversible oxidation of their invariant catalytic Cys residue in vivo. Transient and specific regulation of PTP activity by reactive oxygen species (ROS) attenuates dephosphorylation and, thereby, promotes phosphorylation, hence facilitating signal transduction. We have recently developed a modified cysteinyl-labeling assay [Boivin, B., Zhang, S., Arbiser, J. L., Zhang, Z. Y., and Tonks, N. K. (2008). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA105, 9959-9964.] that showed broad selectivity in detecting reversible oxidation of members from different PTP subclasses in platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB overexpressing cells. Herein, we applied this assay, which utilizes the unique chemistry of the invariant catalytic Cys residue to enrich and identify PTPs that are reversibly oxidized upon acute growth factor stimulation. Performing the cysteinyl-labeling assay with Rat-1 fibroblasts enabled us to capture both PTEN and SHP-2 as a consequence to acute PDGF-BB stimulation. Given the ability of this assay to detect reversible oxidation of a broad array of members of the PTP family, we anticipate that it should permit profiling of the entire ROS-regulated PTPome in a wide array of signaling paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Boivin
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA
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65
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Abstract
MK-STYX [MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) phospho-serine/threonine/tyrosine-binding protein] is a pseudophosphatase member of the dual-specificity phosphatase subfamily of the PTPs (protein tyrosine phosphatases). MK-STYX is catalytically inactive due to the absence of two amino acids from the signature motif that are essential for phosphatase activity. The nucleophilic cysteine residue and the adjacent histidine residue, which are conserved in all active dual-specificity phosphatases, are replaced by serine and phenylalanine residues respectively in MK-STYX. Mutations to introduce histidine and cysteine residues into the active site of MK-STYX generated an active phosphatase. Using MS, we identified G3BP1 [Ras-GAP (GTPase-activating protein) SH3 (Src homology 3) domain-binding protein-1], a regulator of Ras signalling, as a binding partner of MK-STYX. We observed that G3BP1 bound to native MK-STYX; however, binding to the mutant catalytically active form of MK-STYX was dramatically reduced. G3BP1 is also an RNA-binding protein with endoribonuclease activity that is recruited to 'stress granules' after stress stimuli. Stress granules are large subcellular structures that serve as sites of mRNA sorting, in which untranslated mRNAs accumulate. We have shown that expression of MK-STYX inhibited stress granule formation induced either by aresenite or expression of G3BP itself; however, the catalytically active mutant MK-STYX was impaired in its ability to inhibit G3BP-induced stress granule assembly. These results reveal a novel facet of the function of a member of the PTP family, illustrating a role for MK-STYX in regulating the ability of G3BP1 to integrate changes in growth-factor stimulation and environmental stress with the regulation of protein synthesis.
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66
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Lukosz M, Jakob S, Büchner N, Zschauer TC, Altschmied J, Haendeler J. Nuclear redox signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010; 12:713-42. [PMID: 19737086 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2009.2609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species have been described to modulate proteins within the cell, a process called redox regulation. However, the importance of compartment-specific redox regulation has been neglected for a long time. In the early 1980s and 1990s, many in vitro studies introduced the possibility that nuclear redox signaling exists. However, the functional relevance for that has been greatly disregarded. Recently, it has become evident that nuclear redox signaling is indeed one important signaling mechanism regulating a variety of cellular functions. Transcription factors, and even kinases and phosphatases, have been described to be redox regulated in the nucleus. This review describes several of these proteins in closer detail and explains their functions resulting from nuclear localization and redox regulation. Moreover, the redox state of the nucleus and several important nuclear redox regulators [Thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1), Glutaredoxins (Grxs), Peroxiredoxins (Prxs), and APEX nuclease (multifunctional DNA-repair enzyme) 1 (APEX1)] are introduced more precisely, and their necessity for regulation of transcription factors is emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarete Lukosz
- Molecular Cell & Aging Research, IUF (Institute for Molecular Preventive Medicine), At the University of Duesseldorf gGmbH, Auf'm Hennekamp 50, 40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
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67
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Capasso M, Bhamrah MK, Henley T, Boyd RS, Langlais C, Cain K, Dinsdale D, Pulford K, Khan M, Musset B, Cherny VV, Morgan D, Gascoyne RD, Vigorito E, DeCoursey TE, MacLennan ICM, Dyer MJS. HVCN1 modulates BCR signal strength via regulation of BCR-dependent generation of reactive oxygen species. Nat Immunol 2010; 11:265-72. [PMID: 20139987 PMCID: PMC3030552 DOI: 10.1038/ni.1843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2009] [Accepted: 01/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Voltage-gated proton currents regulate generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in phagocytic cells. In B cells, stimulation of the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) results in the production of ROS that participate in B cell activation, but the involvement of proton channels is unknown. We report here that the voltage-gated proton channel HVCN1 associated with the BCR complex and was internalized together with the BCR after activation. BCR-induced generation of ROS was lower in HVCN1-deficient B cells, which resulted in attenuated BCR signaling via impaired BCR-dependent oxidation of the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1. This resulted in less activation of the kinases Syk and Akt, impaired mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis and diminished antibody responses in vivo. Our findings identify unanticipated functions for proton channels in B cells and demonstrate the importance of ROS in BCR signaling and downstream metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melania Capasso
- Medical Research Council Toxicology Unit, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
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68
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Heneberg P, Dráberová L, Bambousková M, Pompach P, Dráber P. Down-regulation of protein-tyrosine phosphatases activates an immune receptor in the absence of its translocation into lipid rafts. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:12787-802. [PMID: 20157115 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.052555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The earliest known biochemical step that occurs after ligand binding to the multichain immune recognition receptor is tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor subunits. In mast cells and basophils activated by multivalent antigen-IgE complexes, this step is mediated by Src family kinase Lyn, which phosphorylates the high affinity IgE receptor (Fc epsilonRI). However, the exact molecular mechanism of this phosphorylation step is incompletely understood. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that changes in activity and/or topography of protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) could play a major role in the Fc epsilonRI triggering. We found that exposure of rat basophilic leukemia cells or mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells to PTP inhibitors, H(2)O(2) or pervanadate, induced phosphorylation of the Fc epsilonRI subunits, similarly as Fc epsilonRI triggering. Interestingly, and in sharp contrast to antigen-induced activation, neither H(2)O(2) nor pervanadate induced any changes in the association of Fc epsilonRI with detergent-resistant membranes and in the topography of Fc epsilonRI detectable by electron microscopy on isolated plasma membrane sheets. In cells stimulated with pervanadate, H(2)O(2) or antigen, enhanced oxidation of active site cysteine of several PTPs was detected. Unexpectedly, most of oxidized phosphatases bound to the plasma membrane were associated with the actin cytoskeleton. Several PTPs (SHP-1, SHP-2, hematopoietic PTP, and PTP-MEG2) showed changes in their enzymatic activity and/or oxidation state during activation. Based on these and other data, we propose that down-regulation of enzymatic activity of PTPs and/or changes in their accessibility to the substrates play a key role in initial tyrosine phosphorylation of the Fc epsilonRI and other multichain immune receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Heneberg
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, CZ-142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic
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69
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Soulsby M, Bennett AM. Physiological Signaling Specificity by Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases. Physiology (Bethesda) 2009; 24:281-9. [DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00017.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are now recognized to be involved in a multitude of signaling events that control fundamental biological processes such as cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and cell movement. PTPs, which were initially thought to be less discriminating in their actions compared with their protein tyrosine kinase counterparts, are now known to regulate these various biological processes in a precise manner. This review will focus on the concept that PTPs exhibit remarkable signaling specificity through intrinsic differences between their PTP domains and through various modes of regulation that endows them with the capacity to promote unique physiological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Soulsby
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Anton M. Bennett
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
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70
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Trümpler A, Schlott B, Herrlich P, Greer PA, Böhmer FD. Calpain-mediated degradation of reversibly oxidized protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B. FEBS J 2009; 276:5622-33. [PMID: 19712109 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07255.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are regulated by reversible inactivating oxidation of the catalytic-site cysteine. We have previously shown that reversible oxidation upon UVA irradiation is followed by calpain-mediated PTP degradation. Here, we address the mechanism of regulated cleavage and the physiological function of PTP degradation. Reversible oxidation of PTP1B in vitro strongly facilitated the association with calpain and led to greatly increased calpain-dependent inactivating cleavage. Both oxidation-induced association and cleavage depended exclusively on the presence of the catalytic (reversibly oxidized) cysteine residue 215. A major cleavage site was identified preceding amino acid position Ala77. In calpain-deficient cells, insulin signaling was apparently diminished, consistent with a possible role for calpain in removing a negative regulator of insulin signaling. Reversibly oxidized PTP1B may be a target of calpain in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Trümpler
- Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
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71
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Redox regulation of interleukin-4 signaling. Immunity 2008; 29:551-64. [PMID: 18957266 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2008.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2007] [Revised: 05/20/2008] [Accepted: 07/23/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The physiologic control of cytokine receptor activation is primarily mediated by reciprocal activation of receptor-associated protein tyrosine kinases and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Here, we show that immediately after ligand-dependent activation, interleukin (IL)-4 receptor generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent activation of NAD(P)H oxidase (NOX)1 and NOX5L. ROS, in turn, promoted IL-4 receptor activation by oxidatively inactivating PTP1B that physically associated with and deactivated IL-4 receptor. However, ROS were not required for the initiation of IL-4 receptor activation. ROS generated by other cytokine receptors, including those for erythropoietin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, or IL-3, also promoted IL-4 signaling. These data indicate that inactivation of receptor-associated PTP activity by cytokine-generated ROS is a physiologic mechanism for the amplification of cytokine receptor activation in both cis and trans, revealing a role for ROS in cytokine crosstalk.
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72
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Ying J, Sharov V, Xu S, Jiang B, Gerrity R, Schöneich C, Cohen RA. Cysteine-674 oxidation and degradation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) ATPase in diabetic pig aorta. Free Radic Biol Med 2008; 45:756-62. [PMID: 18590812 PMCID: PMC2654240 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2007] [Revised: 03/25/2008] [Accepted: 05/27/2008] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) is redox-regulated by posttranslational thiol modifications of cysteine-674 to regulate smooth muscle relaxation and migration. To detect oxidation of cysteine-674 that irreversibly prevents redox regulation, a polyclonal, sequence-specific antibody was developed toward a peptide containing cysteine-674 sulfonic acid. The antibody stained intact 110-kDa SERCA in pig cardiac SR that was oxidized in vitro by peroxynitrite in a sequence-specific manner, and histochemically stained atherosclerotic pig and rabbit aorta. Surprisingly, immunoblots of the pig aorta failed to stain intact 110-kDa SERCA protein, but rather, higher molecular mass aggregates and lower molecular mass bands. Of the latter bands at 70 and 60 kDa, the largest were observed in diabetic, hyperlipidemic pigs, and coincided with the most positive histochemical staining. The 70- and 60-kDa molecular mass bands also coincided with the majority of the protein detected by a monoclonal total anti-SERCA antibody, which detected the intact 110-kDa protein in normal pigs. Mass spectrometry identified SERCA in all the major bands detected by the sulfonic acid antibody as well as the oxidation of cysteine-674 in the 70-kDa band. These studies demonstrate a sequence-specific antibody that detects partial degradation products of SERCA, which represent the majority of the protein in some diabetic hypercholesterolemic pig aortae. In addition, the results suggest an association between irreversible oxidation of SERCA and its degradation, and that an important portion of the oxidized protein in tissue samples may be partially degraded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Ying
- Vascular Biology Unit, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Victor Sharov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045
| | - Shanqin Xu
- Vascular Biology Unit, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Bingbing Jiang
- Vascular Biology Unit, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Ross Gerrity
- Department of Pathology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912
| | - Christian Schöneich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045
| | - Richard A. Cohen
- Vascular Biology Unit, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
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73
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A modified cysteinyl-labeling assay reveals reversible oxidation of protein tyrosine phosphatases in angiomyolipoma cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:9959-64. [PMID: 18632564 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0804336105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) exerts an additional tier of control over tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent signal transduction by transiently inhibiting the catalytic activity of specific protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Hence, the ability to detect reversible oxidation of PTPs in vivo is critical to understanding the complex biological role of ROS in the control of cellular signaling. Here, we describe an assay for identifying those PTPs that are reversibly oxidized in vivo, which utilizes the unique chemistry of the invariant catalytic Cys residue in labeling the active site with biotinylated small molecules under mildly acidic conditions. We have applied this cysteinyl-labeling assay to the study of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptor signaling in an angiomyolipoma cell model. Doing so has allowed us to detect reversible oxidation of several proteins in response to sustained PDGF stimulation. As in other cell systems, we have observed the reversible oxidation of the classical PTP SHP2 and the tumor suppressor phosphatase PTEN in response to PDGF stimulation. Furthermore, we detected reversible oxidation of members of two other subclasses of PTPs, the receptor PTP LAR and the dual-specificity phosphatase MKP1. These data demonstrate the broad selectivity of the assay, allowing us to detect representatives of all of the major subgroups of the PTP superfamily. We anticipate that this cysteinyl-labeling enrichment strategy can be applied broadly to study reversible oxidation as a mechanism of harnessing PTP catalytic activity in a variety of signaling pathways.
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74
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Monteiro HP, Arai RJ, Travassos LR. Protein tyrosine phosphorylation and protein tyrosine nitration in redox signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal 2008; 10:843-89. [PMID: 18220476 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2007.1853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Reversible phosphorylation of protein tyrosine residues by polypeptide growth factor-receptor protein tyrosine kinases is implicated in the control of fundamental cellular processes including the cell cycle, cell adhesion, and cell survival, as well as cell proliferation and differentiation. During the last decade, it has become apparent that receptor protein tyrosine kinases and the signaling pathways they activate belong to a large signaling network. Such a network can be regulated by various extracellular cues, which include cell adhesion, agonists of G protein-coupled receptors, and oxidants. It is well documented that signaling initiated by receptor protein tyrosine kinases is directly dependent on the intracellular production of oxidants, including reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Accumulated evidence indicates that the intracellular redox environment plays a major role in the mechanisms underlying the actions of growth factors. Oxidation of cysteine thiols and nitration of tyrosine residues on signaling proteins are described as posttranslational modifications that regulate, positively or negatively, protein tyrosine phosphorylation (PTP). Early observations described the inhibition of PTP activities by oxidants, resulting in increased levels of proteins phosphorylated on tyrosine. Therefore, a redox circuitry involving the increasing production of intracellular oxidants associated with growth-factor stimulation/cell adhesion, oxidative reversible inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatases, and the activation of protein tyrosine kinases can be delineated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo P Monteiro
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Biology and CINTERGEN, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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75
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Groen A, Overvoorde J, van der Wijk T, den Hertog J. Redox regulation of dimerization of the receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatases RPTPα, LAR, RPTPμ and CD45. FEBS J 2008; 275:2597-604. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06407.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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76
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Abstract
Protein-tyrosine phosphatases are tightly controlled by various mechanisms, ranging from differential expression in specific cell types to restricted subcellular localization, limited proteolysis, post-translational modifications affecting intrinsic catalytic activity, ligand binding and dimerization. Here, we review the regulatory mechanisms found to control the classical protein-tyrosine phosphatases.
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77
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Tabernero L, Aricescu AR, Jones EY, Szedlacsek SE. Protein tyrosine phosphatases: structure-function relationships. FEBS J 2008; 275:867-82. [PMID: 18298793 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06251.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Structural analysis of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) has expanded considerably in the last several years, producing more than 200 structures in this class of enzymes (from 35 different proteins and their complexes with ligands). The small-medium size of the catalytic domain of approximately 280 residues plus a very compact fold makes it amenable to cloning and overexpression in bacterial systems thus facilitating crystallographic analysis. The low molecular weight PTPs being even smaller, approximately 150 residues, are also perfect targets for NMR analysis. The availability of different structures and complexes of PTPs with substrates and inhibitors has provided a wealth of information with profound effects in the way we understand their biological functions. Developments in mammalian expression technology recently led to the first crystal structure of a receptor-like PTP extracellular region. Altogether, the PTP structural work significantly advanced our knowledge regarding the architecture, regulation and substrate specificity of these enzymes. In this review, we compile the most prominent structural traits that characterize PTPs and their complexes with ligands. We discuss how the data can be used to design further functional experiments and as a basis for drug design given that many PTPs are now considered strategic therapeutic targets for human diseases such as diabetes and cancer.
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78
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van der Vliet A. NADPH oxidases in lung biology and pathology: host defense enzymes, and more. Free Radic Biol Med 2008; 44:938-55. [PMID: 18164271 PMCID: PMC2323509 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2007] [Revised: 10/19/2007] [Accepted: 11/28/2007] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The deliberate production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by phagocyte NADPH oxidase is widely appreciated as a critical component of antimicrobial host defense. Recently, additional homologs of NADPH oxidase (NOX) have been discovered throughout the animal and plant kingdoms, which appear to possess diverse functions in addition to host defense, in cell proliferation, differentiation, and in regulation of gene expression. Several of these NOX homologs are also expressed within the respiratory tract, where they participate in innate host defense as well as in epithelial and inflammatory cell signaling and gene expression, and fibroblast and smooth muscle cell proliferation, in response to bacterial or viral infection and environmental stress. Inappropriate expression or activation of NOX/DUOX during various lung pathologies suggests their specific involvement in respiratory disease. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding the general functional properties of mammalian NOX enzymes, and their specific importance in respiratory tract physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert van der Vliet
- Department of Pathology, Vermont Lung Center, College of Medicine, University of Vermont, D205 Given Building, 89 Beaumont Ave., Burlington, VT 05405, USA.
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79
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Lou YW, Chen YY, Hsu SF, Chen RK, Lee CL, Khoo KH, Tonks NK, Meng TC. Redox regulation of the protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP1B in cancer cells. FEBS J 2007; 275:69-88. [PMID: 18067579 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.06173.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The oxidation and inactivation of protein tyrosine phosphatases is one mechanism by which reactive oxygen species influence tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent signaling events and exert their biological functions. In the present study, we determined the redox status of endogenous protein tyrosine phosphatases in HepG2 and A431 human cancer cells, in which reactive oxygen species are produced constitutively. We used mass spectrometry to assess the state of oxidation of the catalytic cysteine residue of endogenous PTP1B and show that this residue underwent both reversible and irreversible oxidation to high stoichiometry in response to intrinsic reactive oxygen species production. In addition, our data show that the oxidation of PTP1B is specific to the active site Cys, with the other Cys residues in the protein remaining in a reduced state. Treatment of these cells with diphenyleniodonium, an inhibitor of NADPH oxidases, decreased reactive oxygen species levels. This resulted in inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphatase oxidation, concomitant with decreased tyrosine phosphorylation of cellular proteins and inhibition of anchorage-independent cell growth. Therefore, our data also suggest that the high level of intrinsic reactive oxygen species may contribute to the transformed phenotype of HepG2 and A431 cells via constitutive inactivation of cellular protein tyrosine phosphatases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Wei Lou
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
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80
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Ying J, Clavreul N, Sethuraman M, Adachi T, Cohen RA. Thiol oxidation in signaling and response to stress: detection and quantification of physiological and pathophysiological thiol modifications. Free Radic Biol Med 2007; 43:1099-108. [PMID: 17854705 PMCID: PMC2043132 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2007] [Revised: 07/12/2007] [Accepted: 07/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cysteine thiol modifications are increasingly recognized to occur under both physiological and pathophysiological conditions, making their accurate detection, identification, and quantification of growing importance. Among free cysteines, the bulk of modifications occurs on a subset of cysteines that are more reactive. These exist as thiolate anions at physiological pH because of their surrounding electrostatic environment. Reagents with iodoacetamide-active groups can be used to selectively label these reactive thiols with a high degree of selectivity. Thiol adducts can be detected by the failure to label with iodoacetamide or other reagents; restoration of labeling by specific reducing agents (e.g., ascorbate or glutaredoxin) can be used to detect reversible S-nitroso and S-glutathione adducts. These adducts also may be detected with radiolabels and antibodies. S-Glutathiolation in response to physiological stimuli may be detected in cells and tissues with glutathione ester labeled with biotin. Mass spectrometry can identify thiol modifications with precision, and with isotope-coded affinity tags, used to quantify modification of specific thiols. Combinations of these methods increase sensitivity and specificity, and enable quantification and precise identification of thiol modifications that occur under physiological and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Ying
- Vascular Biology Unit X720, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, 650 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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81
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Weibrecht I, Böhmer SA, Dagnell M, Kappert K, Ostman A, Böhmer FD. Oxidation sensitivity of the catalytic cysteine of the protein-tyrosine phosphatases SHP-1 and SHP-2. Free Radic Biol Med 2007; 43:100-10. [PMID: 17561098 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2006] [Revised: 03/15/2007] [Accepted: 03/29/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Reversible oxidation of the catalytic cysteine of protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) has emerged as a putative mechanism of activity regulation by physiological cell stimulation with growth factors, and by cell treatments with adverse agents such as UV irradiation. We compared SHP-1 and SHP-2, two structurally related cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine phosphatases with different cellular functions and cell-specific expression patterns, for their intrinsic susceptibility to oxidation by H(2)O(2). The extent of oxidation was monitored by detecting the modification of the PTP catalytic cysteine by three different methods, including a modified in-gel PTP assay, alkylation with a biotinylated iodoacetic acid derivative, and an antibody against oxidized PTPs. Dose-response curves for oxidation of the catalytic domains of SHP-1 and SHP-2 were similar. SHP-1 and -2 require relatively high H(2)O(2) concentrations for oxidation (half-maximal oxidation at 0.1-0.5 mM). For SHP-1, the SH2 domains had a significant protective function with respect to oxidation. In EOL-1 cells, SHP oxidation by exogenous H(2)O(2) in general and SHP-2 oxidation in particular was strongly diminished compared to HEK293 cells, at least partially related to a generally lower oxidant sensitivity of the EOL-1 cells. The data suggest that the differential cell functions of SHP-1 and SHP-2 are not related to differences in oxidation sensitivity. The modulating effects of SH2 domains for oxidation of these PTPs are in support of an enhanced oxidation susceptibility of activated SHPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Weibrecht
- Department of Genetics and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, University of Uppsala, SE-75185 Uppsala, Sweden
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82
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Abstract
It is now well established that the members of the PTP (protein tyrosine phosphatase) superfamily play critical roles in fundamental biological processes. Although there has been much progress in defining the function of PTPs, the task of identifying substrates for these enzymes still presents a challenge. Many PTPs have yet to have their physiological substrates identified. The focus of this review will be on the current state of knowledge of PTP substrates and the approaches used to identify them. We propose experimental criteria that should be satisfied in order to rigorously assign PTP substrates as bona fide. Finally, the progress that has been made in defining the biological roles of PTPs through the identification of their substrates will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Tiganis
- *Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Anton M. Bennett
- †Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, U.S.A
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (email )
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83
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Tonks NK. Protein tyrosine phosphatases: from genes, to function, to disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2006; 7:833-46. [PMID: 17057753 DOI: 10.1038/nrm2039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1207] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) superfamily of enzymes functions in a coordinated manner with protein tyrosine kinases to control signalling pathways that underlie a broad spectrum of fundamental physiological processes. In this review, I describe recent breakthroughs in our understanding of the role of the PTPs in the regulation of signal transduction and the aetiology of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas K Tonks
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA.
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84
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Shinozaki Y, Koizumi S, Ohno Y, Nagao T, Inoue K. Extracellular ATP counteracts the ERK1/2-mediated death-promoting signaling cascades in astrocytes. Glia 2006; 54:606-18. [PMID: 16944453 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress is the main cause of neuronal death in pathological conditions. Hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), one of the reactive oxygen species, activates many intracellular signaling cascades including src family and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), some of which are critically involved in the induction of cellular damage. We previously showed that H(2)O(2)-induced cell death in astrocytes and adenosine 5(')-triphosphate (ATP), acting on P2Y(1) receptors, had a protective effect. Here, we examined the H(2)O(2)-induced changes in intracellular signaling cascades that promote cell death in astrocytes, showing the molecular mechanisms by which the activation of P2Y(1) receptors counteracts such signals. Although H(2)O(2) activated three MAPKs including ERK1/2, p38, and JNK, only the activation of ERK1/2 participated in the H(2)O(2)-evoked cell death. H(2)O(2) induced a sustained activation of ERK1/2 mainly in the nucleus region, which was well in accordance with the H(2)O(2)-induced cell death. H(2)O(2) also activated the src tyrosine kinase family, which was an upstream signal for ERK1/2. Activation of P2Y(1) receptors by 2methylthio-ADP (2MeSADP) inhibited the H(2)O(2)-evoked activation of src tyrosine kinase, resulting in the inhibition of the phosphorylated-ERK1/2 accumulation in the nucleus. 2MeSADP enhanced the gene expression and activity of protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP), which was responsible for the inhibition of src tyrosine kinase. Thioredoxin reductase, another cytoprotective gene we previously showed to be upregulated by 2MeSADP, also controlled the activity of PTP. Taken together, ATP, acting on P2Y(1) receptors, upregulates the PTP expression and its activity, which counteracts the H(2)O(2)-promoted death signaling cascades including ERK1/2 and its upstream signal src tyrosine kinase in astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youichi Shinozaki
- Division of Pharmacology, National Institute of Health Sciences, Setagaya, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
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85
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Van Driessche G, Devreese B, Fitch JC, Meyer TE, Cusanovich MA, Van Beeumen JJ. GHP, a new c-type green heme protein from Halochromatium salexigens and other proteobacteria. FEBS J 2006; 273:2801-11. [PMID: 16817906 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05296.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We have isolated a minor soluble green-colored heme protein (GHP) from the purple sulfur bacterium, Halochromatium salexigens, which contains a c-type heme. A similar protein has also been observed in the purple bacteria Allochromatium vinosum and Rhodopseudomonas cryptolactis. This protein has wavelength maxima at 355, 420, and 540 nm and remains unchanged upon addition of sodium dithionite or potassium ferricyanide, indicating either an unusually low or high redox potential, respectively. The amino-acid sequence indicates one heme per peptide chain of 72 residues and reveals weak similarity to the class I cytochromes. The usual sixth heme ligand methionine in these proteins appears to be replaced by a cysteine in GHP. Only one known cytochrome has a cysteine sixth ligand, SoxA (cytochrome c-551) from thiosulfate-oxidizing bacteria, which is low-spin and has a high redox potential because of an un-ionized ligand. The native size of GHP is 34 kDa, its subunit size is 11 kDa, and the net charge is -12, accounting for its very acidic nature. A database search of complete genome sequences reveals six homologs, all hypothetical proteins, from Oceanospirillum sp., Magnetococcus sp., Thiobacillus denitrificans, Dechloromonas aromatica, Thiomicrospira crunogena and Methylobium petroleophilum, with sequence identities of 35-64%. The genetic context is different for each species, although the gene for GHP is transcriptionally linked to several other genes in three out of the six species. These genes, coding for an RNAse, a protease/chaperone, a GTPase, and pterin-4a-carbinolamine dehydratase, appear to be functionally related to stress response and are linked in at least 10 species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalez Van Driessche
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Physiology, Laboratory for Protein Biochemistry and Protein Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
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86
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Kappert K, Sparwel J, Sandin A, Seiler A, Siebolts U, Leppänen O, Rosenkranz S, Ostman A. Antioxidants relieve phosphatase inhibition and reduce PDGF signaling in cultured VSMCs and in restenosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26:2644-51. [PMID: 16990553 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000246777.30819.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Growth factor- and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced activation of VSMCs is involved in vascular disease. This study investigates whether inhibitory oxidation of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) contributes to signaling in VSMCs in vitro and in vivo, and analyzes whether ROS- and growth factor-dependent vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) signaling is blunted by antioxidants that are able to activate oxidized PTPs. METHODS AND RESULTS Signaling induced by H2O2 and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) was analyzed in VSMCs with or without the antioxidants N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) and tempol. Effects of antioxidants on PDGF-stimulated chemotaxis and proliferation were determined. In vivo effects of antioxidants were analyzed in the rat carotid balloon-injury model, by analyzing neointima formation, cell proliferation, PDGF beta-receptor status, and PTP expression and activity. NAC treatment prevented H2O2-induced PTP inhibition, and reduced H2O2- and ligand-induced PDGF beta-receptor phosphorylation, PDGF-induced proliferation, and chemotaxis of VSMCs. Antioxidants inhibited neointima formation and reduced PDGF receptor phosphorylation in the neointima and also increased PTP activity. CONCLUSIONS PTP-inhibition was identified as an intrinsic component of H2O2- and PDGF-induced signaling in cultured VSMCs. The reduction in PDGF beta-receptor phosphorylation in vivo, and the increase in PTP activity, by antioxidants indicate activation of oxidized PTPs as a previously unrecognized mechanism for the antirestenotic effects of antioxidants. The findings thus suggest, in general terms, reactivation of oxidized PTPs as a novel antirestenotic strategy.
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MESH Headings
- Acetylcysteine/pharmacology
- Animals
- Antioxidants/pharmacology
- Cell Movement/drug effects
- Cell Movement/physiology
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Coronary Restenosis/genetics
- Coronary Restenosis/metabolism
- Cyclic N-Oxides/pharmacology
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/physiology
- Hydrogen Peroxide/pharmacology
- Male
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- Platelet-Derived Growth Factor/genetics
- Platelet-Derived Growth Factor/metabolism
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases/genetics
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism
- Receptors, Platelet-Derived Growth Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Platelet-Derived Growth Factor/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- Spin Labels
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Kappert
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden
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87
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Xu Y, Voorhees JJ, Fisher GJ. Epidermal growth factor receptor is a critical mediator of ultraviolet B irradiation-induced signal transduction in immortalized human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 169:823-30. [PMID: 16936259 PMCID: PMC1698809 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.050449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/10/2006] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a critical mediator of several types of epithelial cancers. Skin cancer arising from exposure to ultraviolet B irradiation (UVB) from the sun is a prominent form of human cancer. Recent data indicate that in addition to cognate ligands, EGFR is activated by UVB irradiation. We used pharmacological and genetic approaches to investigate the function of EGFR in mediating UVB-induced signal transduction in human skin keratinocyte HaCaT cells. Pharmacological inhibition of EGFR tyrosine kinase significantly inhibited UVB-mediated induction of ERK, p38, and JNK MAP kinases, and their effectors, transcription factors c-Fos and c-Jun. Inhibition of UVB activation of EGFR also suppressed activation of AKT-, PKC-, and PKA-dependent signal transduction pathways. B82 mouse L cells devoid of EGFR were used to further investigate EGFR dependence of UVB-induced signal transduction. UVB failed to induce ERK, and JNK activation was reduced 60% in B82 cells compared to B82K+ cells, which express EGFR. In addition, UVB induced both c-Fos and c-Jun proteins in B82K+ cells, whereas neither were induced in B82 cells. Taken together, these data demonstrate that EGFR is required for UVB-mediated induction of multiple signaling pathways that are known to mediate tumor formation in skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiru Xu
- Department of Dermatology, University of Michigan Medical School, Medical Science I, Room 6447, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0609, USA
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88
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Abstract
Tyrosine phosphorylation is an important signalling mechanism in eukaryotic cells. In cancer, oncogenic activation of tyrosine kinases is a common feature, and novel anticancer drugs have been introduced that target these enzymes. Tyrosine phosphorylation is also controlled by protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Recent evidence has shown that PTPs can function as tumour suppressors. In addition, some PTPs, including SHP2, positively regulate the signalling of growth-factor receptors, and can be oncogenic. An improved understanding of how these enzymes function and how they are regulated might aid the development of new anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Ostman
- Cancer Center Karolinska, Department of Pathology and Oncology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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89
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Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a well-documented component of living cells. It plays important roles in host defense and oxidative biosynthetic reactions. In addition there is growing evidence that at low levels, H2O2 also functions as a signaling agent, particularly in higher organisms. This review evaluates the evidence that H2O2 functions as a signaling agent in higher organisms in light of the known biology and biochemistry of H2O2. All aerobic organisms studied to date from prokaryotes to humans appear to tightly regulate their intracellular H2O2 concentrations at relatively similar levels. Multiple biochemical strategies for rapidly reacting with these low endogenous levels of H2O2 have been elucidated from the study of peroxidases and catalases. Well-defined biochemical pathways involved in the response to exogenous H2O2 have been described in both prokaryotes and yeast. In animals and plants, regulated enzymatic systems for generating H2O2 have been described. In addition oxidation-dependent steps in signal transduction pathways are being uncovered, and evidence is accumulating regarding the nature of the specific reactive oxygen species involved in each of these pathways. Application of physiologic levels of H2O2 to mammalian cells has been shown to stimulate biological responses and to activate specific biochemical pathways in these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Stone
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA.
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90
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Canton M, Skyschally A, Menabò R, Boengler K, Gres P, Schulz R, Haude M, Erbel R, Di Lisa F, Heusch G. Oxidative modification of tropomyosin and myocardial dysfunction following coronary microembolization. Eur Heart J 2006; 27:875-81. [PMID: 16434410 DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehi751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS We addressed a potential mechanism of myocardial dysfunction following coronary microembolization at the level of myofibrillar proteins. METHODS AND RESULTS Anaesthetized pigs underwent intracoronary infusion of microspheres. After 6 h, the microembolized areas (MEA) had decreased systolic wall thickening to 38 +/- 7% of baseline and a 2.62 +/- 0.40-fold increase in the formation of disulphide cross-bridges (DCB) in tropomyosin relative to that in remote areas. The impairment in contractile function correlated inversely with DCB formation (r = -0.68; P = 0.015) and was associated with increased TNF-alpha content. DCB formation was reflected by increased tropomyosin immunoreactivity and abolished in vitro by dithiothreitol. Ascorbic acid prevented contractile dysfunction as well as increased DCB and TNF-alpha. In anaesthetized dogs, 8 h after intracoronary microspheres infusion, contractile function was reduced to 8+/-10% of baseline and DCB in MEA was 1.48+/-0.12 higher than that in remote areas. In conscious dogs, 6 days after intracoronary microspheres infusion, myocardial function had returned to baseline and DCB was no longer different between remote and MEA. Again contractile function correlated inversely with DCB formation (r = -0.83; P = 0.005). CONCLUSION Myofibrillar protein oxidation may represent a mechanistic link between inflammation and contractile dysfunction following coronary microembolization.
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91
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Catarzi S, Biagioni C, Giannoni E, Favilli F, Marcucci T, Iantomasi T, Vincenzini MT. Redox regulation of platelet-derived-growth-factor-receptor: Role of NADPH-oxidase and c-Src tyrosine kinase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2005; 1745:166-75. [PMID: 16129124 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2005.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2004] [Revised: 03/04/2005] [Accepted: 03/04/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This study identifies some early events contributing to the redox regulation of platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFr) activation and its signalling in NIH3T3 fibroblasts. We demonstrate for the first time that the redox regulation of PDGFr tyrosine autophosphorylation and its signalling are related to NADPH oxidase activity through protein kinase C (PKC) and phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) activation and H2O2 production. This event is also essential for complete PDGF-induced activation of c-Src kinase by Tyr416 phosphorylation, and the involvement of c-Src kinase on H2O2-induced PDGFr tyrosine phosphorylation is demonstrated, suggesting a role of this kinase on the redox regulation of PDGFr activation. Finally, it has been determined that not only PI3K activity, but also PKC activity, are related to NADPH oxidase activation due to PDGF stimulation in NIH3T3 cells, as it occurs in non-phagocyte cells. Therefore, we suggest a redox circuit whereby, upon PDGF stimulation, PKC, PI3K and NADPH oxidase activity contribute to complete c-Src kinase activation, thus promoting maximal phosphorylation and activation of PDGFr tyrosine phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Catarzi
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, University of Florence, viale Morgagni 50, 50134, Florence, Italy
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92
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Ledirac N, Antherieu S, d'Uby AD, Caron JC, Rahmani R. Effects of Organochlorine Insecticides on MAP Kinase Pathways in Human HaCaT Keratinocytes: Key Role of Reactive Oxygen Species. Toxicol Sci 2005; 86:444-52. [PMID: 15888667 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfi192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Organochlorine pesticides (OCs) are reported as potential carcinogens in humans. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of four OCs (dieldrin, endosulfan, heptachlor, and lindane) on mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades and more specifically to identify the mechanism underlying OC-induced ERK1/2 activation. Organochlorine pesticides increased phosphorylated Raf, MEK1/2, ERK1/2, and c-Jun in human HaCaT cells, but they had no effect on p38 MAPK activation. Moreover, blockade of Raf, MEK1/2, or PKC activation with geldanamycin, U0126, or calphostin C inhibited ERK1/2 phosphorylation, demonstrating a PKC-Raf-MEK1/2 pathway. We also showed that these insecticides induced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Pre-treatment with the antioxidant molecule N-acetyl cysteine sharply decreased the level of phospho-ERK1/2 and had no effect on Raf and MEK1/2 activation, suggesting a Raf-independent mechanism. This study indicates that OCs strongly activate the ERK1/2 pathway, and it identifies a critical role of ROS in OC-induced ERK activation, probably by stabilizing its phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Ledirac
- Laboratoire de Toxicologie Cellulaire et Moléculaire, Centre de Recherche INRA, 400 route des Chappes, 06903 Sophia-Antipolis, France.
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93
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Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been implicated as mediators of cell-signaling responses, particularly in pathways involving protein tyrosine phosphorylation. One mechanism by which ROS are thought to exert their effects is through the reversible regulation of cysteine-based phosphatases (CBPs). The CBPs, which include protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), dual-specificity phosphatases, low-molecular-weight PTPs, and the lipid phosphatase PTEN, all contain a nucleophilic catalytic cysteine within a conserved motif that enables these enzymes to dephosphorylate phosphoproteins or phospholipids. In addition to enabling phosphatase activity, the nucleophilic catalytic cysteines of CBPs are also highly susceptible to oxidation, a property that permits redox regulation of this enzyme family. In this review, we discuss the evidence implicating ROS as mediators of CBP activity within signaling pathways and discuss how specificity of ROS-dependent signaling involving CBPs may be achieved. We also discuss the molecular mechanisms that facilitate the stabilization of a reversibly oxidized form of the catalytic cysteine. These mechanisms include the formation of disulfide bonds or the formation of a sulfenamide bond, a novel mechanism that was identified for PTP1B. Formation of either type of covalent bond may be accompanied by dramatic structural rearrangements that can affect downstream signaling events and allow for multitiered enzyme regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Salmeen
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Stanford University Medical School, Stanford, CA, USA
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94
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Groen A, Lemeer S, van der Wijk T, Overvoorde J, Heck AJR, Ostman A, Barford D, Slijper M, den Hertog J. Differential Oxidation of Protein-tyrosine Phosphatases. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:10298-304. [PMID: 15623519 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m412424200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidation is emerging as an important regulatory mechanism of protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Here we report that PTPs are differentially oxidized, and we provide evidence for the underlying mechanism. The membrane-proximal RPTPalpha-D1 was catalytically active but not readily oxidized as assessed by immunoprobing with an antibody that recognized oxidized catalytic site cysteines in PTPs (oxPTPs). In contrast, the membrane-distal RPTPalpha-D2, a poor PTP, was readily oxidized. Oxidized catalytic site cysteines in PTP immunoprobing and mass spectrometry demonstrated that mutation of two residues in the Tyr(P) loop and the WPD loop that reverse catalytic activity of RPTPalpha-D1 and RPTPalpha-D2 also reversed oxidizability, suggesting that oxidizability and catalytic activity are coupled. However, catalytically active PTP1B and LAR-D1 were readily oxidized. Oxidizability was strongly dependent on pH, indicating that the microenvironment of the catalytic cysteine has an important role. Crystal structures of PTP domains demonstrated that the orientation of the absolutely conserved PTP loop arginine correlates with oxidizability of PTPs, and consistently, RPTPmu-D1, with a similar conformation as RPTPalpha-D1, was not readily oxidized. In conclusion, PTPs are differentially oxidized at physiological pH and H(2)O(2) concentrations, and the PTP loop arginine is an important determinant for susceptibility to oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnoud Groen
- Hubrecht Laboratory, Netherlands Institute for Developmental Biology, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
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95
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Shelton MD, Chock PB, Mieyal JJ. Glutaredoxin: role in reversible protein s-glutathionylation and regulation of redox signal transduction and protein translocation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:348-66. [PMID: 15706083 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2005.7.348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Reversible posttranslational modifications on specific amino acid residues can efficiently regulate protein functions. O-Phosphorylation is the prototype and analogue to the rapidly emerging mechanism of regulation known as S-glutathionylation. The latter is being recognized as a potentially widespread form of modulation of the activities of redox-sensitive thiol proteins, especially those involved in signal transduction pathways and translocation. The abundance of reduced glutathione in cells and the ready conversion of sulfenic acids and S-nitroso derivatives to S-glutathione mixed disulfides support the notion that reversible S-glutathionylation is likely to be the preponderant mode of redox signal transduction. The glutaredoxin enzyme has served as a focal point and important tool for evolution of this regulatory mechanism because of its characterization as a specific and efficient catalyst of protein-SSG de-glutathionylation (akin to phosphatases). Identification of specific mechanisms and enzyme(s) that catalyze formation of protein-SSG intermediates, however, is largely unknown and represents a prime objective for furthering understanding of this evolving mechanism of cellular regulation. Several proteomic approaches, including the use of cysteine-reactive fluorescent and radiolabel probes, have been developed to detect arrays of proteins whose cysteine residues are modified in response to oxidants, thus identifying them as potential interconvertible proteins to be regulated by redox signaling (glutathionylation). Specific criteria were used to evaluate current data on cellular regulation via S-glutathionylation. Among many proteins under consideration, actin, protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B, and Ras stand out as the best current examples for establishing this regulatory mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa D Shelton
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 2109 Adelbert Road, Cleveland, OH 44106-4965, USA
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96
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den Hertog J, Groen A, van der Wijk T. Redox regulation of protein-tyrosine phosphatases. Arch Biochem Biophys 2005; 434:11-5. [PMID: 15629103 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2004.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2004] [Revised: 05/12/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) form a large family of signaling proteins with essential functions in embryonic development and adult physiology. The PTPs are characterized by an absolutely conserved catalytic site cysteine with a low pK(a) due to its microenvironment, making it vulnerable to oxidation. PTPs are differentially oxidized and inactivated in vitro and in living cells. Many cellular stimuli induce a shift in the cellular redox state towards oxidation and evidence is accumulating that at least part of the cellular responses to these stimuli are due to specific, transient inactivation of PTPs, indicating that PTPs are important sensors of the cellular redox state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen den Hertog
- Hubrecht Laboratory, Netherlands Institute for Developmental Biology, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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97
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Lacasa D, Boute N, Issad T. Interaction of the Insulin Receptor with the Receptor-Like Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases PTPα and PTPϵ in Living Cells. Mol Pharmacol 2005; 67:1206-13. [PMID: 15630078 DOI: 10.1124/mol.104.009514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The interactions between the insulin receptor and the two highly homologous receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPase) PTPalpha and PTPepsilon were studied in living cells by using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer. In human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing the insulin receptor fused to luciferase and substrate-trapping mutants of PTPalpha or PTPepsilon fused to the fluorescent protein Topaz, insulin induces an increase in resonance energy transfer that could be followed in real time in living cells. Insulin effect could be detected at very early time points and was maximal less than 2 min after insulin addition. Bioluminescence resonance energy-transfer saturation experiments indicate that insulin does not stimulate the recruitment of protein tyrosine phosphatase molecules to the insulin receptor but rather induces conformational changes within preassociated insulin receptor/protein tyrosine phosphatase complexes. Physical preassociation of the insulin receptor with these protein tyrosine phosphatases at the plasma membrane, in the absence of insulin, was also demonstrated by chemical cross-linking with a non-cell-permeable agent. These data provide the first evidence that PTPalpha and PTPepsilon associate with the insulin receptor in the basal state and suggest that these protein tyrosine phosphatases may constitute important negative regulators of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity by acting rapidly at the plasma membrane level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danièle Lacasa
- Department of Cell Biology, Institut Cochin, CNRS/UMR 8104, INSERM U567, Université Paris V, 22 Rue Méchain, 75014 Paris, France
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98
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Levinthal DJ, Defranco DB. Reversible oxidation of ERK-directed protein phosphatases drives oxidative toxicity in neurons. J Biol Chem 2004; 280:5875-83. [PMID: 15579467 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m410771200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress links diverse neuropathological conditions that include stroke, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease and has been modeled in vitro with various paradigms that lead to neuronal cell death following the increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species. For example, immortalized neurons and immature primary cortical neurons undergo cell death in response to depletion of the antioxidant glutathione, which can be elicited by administration of glutamate at high concentrations. We have demonstrated previously that this glutamate-induced oxidative toxicity requires activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase member ERK1/2, but the mechanisms by which this activation takes place in oxidatively stressed neurons are still not fully known. In this study, we demonstrate that during oxidative stress, ERK-directed phosphatases of both the serine/threonine- and tyrosine-directed classes are selectively and reversibly inhibited via a mechanism that is dependent upon the oxidation of cysteine thiols. Furthermore, the impact of ERK-directed phosphatases on ERK1/2 activation and oxidative toxicity in neurons was tested in a neuronal cell line and in primary cortical cultures. Overexpression of the highly ERK-specific phosphatase MKP3 and its catalytic mutant, MKP3 C293S, were neuroprotective in transiently transfected HT22 cells and primary neurons. The neuroprotective effect of the MKP3 C293S mutant, which enhances ERK1/2 phosphorylation but blocks its nuclear translocation, demonstrates the necessity for active ERK1/2 nuclear localization for oxidative toxicity in neurons. Together, these data implicate the inhibition of endogenous ERK-directed phosphatases as a mechanism that leads to aberrant ERK1/2 activation and nuclear accumulation during oxidative toxicity in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Levinthal
- Center for Neuroscience and Department of Pharmacology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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99
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van der Wijk T, Overvoorde J, den Hertog J. H2O2-induced Intermolecular Disulfide Bond Formation between Receptor Protein-tyrosine Phosphatases. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:44355-61. [PMID: 15294898 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m407483200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase alpha (RPTPalpha) belongs to the subfamily of receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatases that are characterized by two catalytic domains of which only the membrane-proximal one (D1) exhibits appreciable catalytic activity. The C-terminal catalytic domain (D2) regulates RPTPalpha catalytic activity by controlling rotational coupling within RPTPalpha dimers. RPTPalpha-D2 changes conformation and thereby rotational coupling within RPTPalpha dimers in response to changes in the cellular redox state. Here we report a decrease in motility of RPTPalpha from cells treated with H2O2 on non-reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gels to a position that corresponds to RPTPalpha dimers, indicating intermolecular disulfide bond formation. Using mutants of all individual cysteines in RPTPalpha and constructs encoding the individual protein-tyrosine phosphatase domains, we located the intermolecular disulfide bond to the catalytic Cys-723 in D2. Disulfide bond formation and dimer stabilization showed similar levels of concentration and time dependence. However, treatment of lysates with dithiothreitol abolished intermolecular disulfide bonds but not stable dimer formation. Intermolecular disulfide bond formation and rotational coupling were also found using a chimera of the extracellular domain of RPTPalpha fused to the transmembrane and intracellular domain of the leukocyte common antigen-related protein (LAR). These results suggest that H2O2 treatment leads to oxidation of the catalytic Cys in D2, which then rapidly forms a disulfide bond with the D2 catalytic Cys of the dyad-related monomer, rendering an inactive RPTP dimer. Recovery from oxidative stress first leads to the reduction of the disulfide bond followed by a slower refolding of the protein to the active conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thea van der Wijk
- Hubrecht Laboratory, Netherlands Institute for Developmental Biology, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
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100
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Meng TC, Buckley DA, Galic S, Tiganis T, Tonks NK. Regulation of insulin signaling through reversible oxidation of the protein-tyrosine phosphatases TC45 and PTP1B. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:37716-25. [PMID: 15192089 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m404606200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Many studies have illustrated that the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is important for optimal tyrosine phosphorylation and signaling in response to diverse stimuli. Protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), which are important regulators of signal transduction, are exquisitely sensitive to inhibition after generation of ROS, and reversible oxidation is becoming recognized as a general physiological mechanism for regulation of PTP function. Thus, production of ROS facilitates a tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent cellular signaling response by transiently inactivating those PTPs that normally suppress the signal. In this study, we have explored the importance of reversible PTP oxidation in the signaling response to insulin. Using a modified ingel PTP assay, we show that stimulation of cells with insulin resulted in the rapid and transient oxidation and inhibition of two distinct PTPs, which we have identified as PTP1B and TC45, the 45-kDa spliced variant of the T cell protein-tyrosine phosphatase. We investigated further the role of TC45 as a regulator of insulin signaling by combining RNA interference and the use of substrate-trapping mutants. We have shown that TC45 is an inhibitor of insulin signaling, recognizing the beta-subunit of the insulin receptor as a substrate. The data also suggest that this strategy, using ligand-induced oxidation to tag specific PTPs and using interference RNA and substrate-trapping mutants to illustrate their role as regulators of particular signal transduction pathways, may be applied broadly across the PTP family to explore function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Ching Meng
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
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