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Sauve AA. Sirtuin chemical mechanisms. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2010; 1804:1591-603. [PMID: 20132909 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2010.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2009] [Revised: 01/20/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Sirtuins are ancient proteins widely distributed in all lifeforms of earth. These proteins are universally able to bind NAD(+), and activate it to effect ADP-ribosylation of cellular nucleophiles. The most commonly observed sirtuin reaction is the ADP-ribosylation of acetyllysine, which leads to NAD(+)-dependent deacetylation. Other types of ADP-ribosylation have also been observed, including protein ADP-ribosylation, NAD(+) solvolysis and ADP-ribosyltransfer to 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole, a reaction involved in eubacterial cobalamin biosynthesis. This review broadly surveys the chemistries and chemical mechanisms of these enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Sauve
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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52
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Fahie K, Hu P, Swatkoski S, Cotter RJ, Zhang Y, Wolberger C. Side chain specificity of ADP-ribosylation by a sirtuin. FEBS J 2009; 276:7159-76. [PMID: 19895577 PMCID: PMC2805772 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07427.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous mono-ADP-ribosylation in eukaryotes is involved in regulating protein synthesis, signal transduction, cytoskeletal integrity, and cell proliferation, although few cellular ADP-ribosyltransferases have been identified. The sirtuins constitute a highly conserved family of protein deacetylases, and several family members have also been reported to perform protein ADP-ribosylation. We characterized the ADP-ribosylation reaction of the nuclear sirtuin homolog Trypanosoma brucei SIR2-related protein 1 (TbSIR2RP1) on both acetylated and unacetylated substrates. We demonstrated that an acetylated substrate is not required for ADP-ribosylation to occur, indicating that the reaction performed by TbSIR2RP1 is a genuine enzymatic reaction and not a side reaction of deacetylation. Biochemical and MS data showed that arginine is the major ADP-ribose acceptor for unacetylated substrates, whereas arginine does not appear to be the major ADP-ribose acceptor in reactions with acetylated histone H1.1. We performed combined ab initio quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical molecular dynamics simulations, which indicated that sirtuin ADP-ribosylation at arginine is energetically feasible, and involves a concerted mechanism with a highly dissociative transition state. In comparison with the corresponding nicotinamide cleavage in the deacetylation reaction, the simulations suggest that sirtuin ADP-ribosylation would be several orders slower but less sensitive to nicotinamide inhibition, which is consistent with experimental results. These results suggest that TbSIR2RP1 can perform ADP-ribosylation using two distinct mechanisms, depending on whether or not the substrate is acetylated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamau Fahie
- Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Po Hu
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Stephen Swatkoski
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Robert J. Cotter
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Yingkai Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Cynthia Wolberger
- Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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53
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Greiss S, Gartner A. Sirtuin/Sir2 phylogeny, evolutionary considerations and structural conservation. Mol Cells 2009; 28:407-15. [PMID: 19936627 PMCID: PMC3710699 DOI: 10.1007/s10059-009-0169-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2009] [Accepted: 11/01/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The sirtuins are a protein family named after the first identified member, S. cerevisiae Sir2p. Sirtuins are protein deacetylases whose activity is dependent on NAD(+) as a cosubstrate. They are structurally defined by two central domains that together form a highly conserved catalytic center, which catalyzes the transfer of an acetyl moiety from acetyllysine to NAD(+), yielding nicotinamide, the unique metabolite O-acetyl-ADP-ribose and deacetylated lysine. One or more sirtuins are present in virtually all species from bacteria to mammals. Here we describe a phylogenetic analysis of sirtuins. Based on their phylogenetic relationship, sirtuins can be grouped into over a dozen classes and subclasses. Humans, like most vertebrates, have seven sirtuins: SIRT1-SIRT7. These function in diverse cellular pathways, regulating transcriptional repression, aging, metabolism, DNA damage responses and apoptosis. We show that these seven sirtuins arose early during animal evolution. Conserved residues cluster around the catalytic center of known sirtuin family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Greiss
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Gene Regulation and Expression, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
| | - Anton Gartner
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Gene Regulation and Expression, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom
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54
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Hawse WF, Wolberger C. Structure-based mechanism of ADP-ribosylation by sirtuins. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:33654-61. [PMID: 19801667 PMCID: PMC2785207 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.024521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2009] [Revised: 09/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Sirtuins comprise a family of enzymes found in all organisms, where they play a role in diverse processes including transcriptional silencing, aging, regulation of transcription, and metabolism. The predominant reaction catalyzed by these enzymes is NAD(+)-dependent lysine deacetylation, although some sirtuins exhibit a weaker ADP-ribosyltransferase activity. Although the Sir2 deacetylation mechanism is well established, much less is known about the Sir2 ADP-ribosylation reaction. We have studied the ADP-ribosylation activity of a bacterial sirtuin, Sir2Tm, and show that acetylated peptides containing arginine or lysine 2 residues C-terminal to the acetyl lysine, the +2 position, are preferentially ADP-ribosylated at the +2 residue. A structure of Sir2Tm bound to the acetylated +2 arginine peptide shows how this arginine could enter the active site and react with a deacetylation reaction intermediate to yield an ADP-ribosylated peptide. The new biochemical and structural studies presented here provide mechanistic insights into the Sir2 ADP-ribosylation reaction and will aid in identifying substrates of this reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cynthia Wolberger
- From the Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry and
- the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
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55
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Gu J, Deng JY, Li R, Wei H, Zhang Z, Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Zhang XE. Cloning and characterization of NAD-dependent protein deacetylase (Rv1151c) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2009; 74:743-8. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006297909070062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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56
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In Bacillus subtilis, the sirtuin protein deacetylase, encoded by the srtN gene (formerly yhdZ), and functions encoded by the acuABC genes control the activity of acetyl coenzyme A synthetase. J Bacteriol 2009; 191:1749-55. [PMID: 19136592 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01674-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This report provides in vivo evidence for the posttranslational control of the acetyl coenzyme A (Ac-CoA) synthetase (AcsA) enzyme of Bacillus subtilis by the acuA and acuC gene products. In addition, both in vivo and in vitro data presented support the conclusion that the yhdZ gene of B. subtilis encodes a NAD(+)-dependent protein deacetylase homologous to the yeast Sir2 protein (also known as sirtuin). On the basis of this new information, a change in gene nomenclature, from yhdZ to srtN (for sirtuin), is proposed to reflect the activity associated with the YdhZ protein. In vivo control of B. subtilis AcsA function required the combined activities of AcuC and SrtN. Inactivation of acuC or srtN resulted in slower growth and cell yield under low-acetate conditions than those of the wild-type strain, and the acuC srtN strain grew under low-acetate conditions as poorly as the acsA strain. Our interpretation of the latter result was that both deacetylases (AcuC and SrtN) are needed to maintain AcsA as active (i.e., deacetylated) so the cell can grow with low concentrations of acetate. Growth of an acuA acuC srtN strain on acetate was improved over that of the acuA(+) acuC srtN strain, indicating that the AcuA acetyltransferase enzyme modifies (i.e., inactivates) AcsA in vivo, a result consistent with previously reported in vitro evidence that AcsA is a substrate of AcuA.
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57
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The Leishmania infantum cytosolic SIR2-related protein 1 (LiSIR2RP1) is an NAD+-dependent deacetylase and ADP-ribosyltransferase. Biochem J 2008; 415:377-86. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20080666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Proteins of the SIR2 (Silent Information Regulator 2) family are characterized by a conserved catalytic domain that exerts unique NAD+-dependent deacetylase activity on histones and various other cellular substrates. Previous reports from us have identified a Leishmania infantum gene encoding a cytosolic protein termed LiSIR2RP1 (Leishmania infantum SIR2-related protein 1) that belongs to the SIR2 family. Targeted disruption of one LiSIR2RP1 gene allele led to decreased amastigote virulence, in vitro as well as in vivo. In the present study, attempts were made for the first time to explore and characterize the enzymatic functions of LiSIR2RP1. The LiSIR2RP1 exhibited robust NAD+-dependent deacetylase and ADP-ribosyltransferase activities. Moreover, LiSIR2RP1 is capable of deacetylating tubulin, either in dimers or, when present, in taxol-stabilized microtubules or in promastigote and amastigote extracts. Furthermore, the immunostaining of parasites revealed a partial co-localization of α-tubulin and LiSIR2RP1 with punctate labelling, seen on the periphery of both promastigote and amastigote stages. Isolated parasite cytoskeleton reacted with antibodies showed that part of LiSIR2RP1 is associated to the cytoskeleton network of both promastigote and amastigote forms. Moreover, the Western blot analysis of the soluble and insoluble fractions of the detergent of promastigote and amastigote forms revealed the presence of α-tubulin in the insoluble fraction, and the LiSIR2RP1 distributed in both soluble and insoluble fractions of promastigotes as well as amastigotes. Collectively, the results of the present study demonstrate that LiSIR2RP1 is an NAD+-dependent deacetylase that also exerts an ADP-ribosyltransferase activity. The fact that tubulin could be among the targets of LiSIR2RP1 may have significant implications during the remodelling of the morphology of the parasite and its interaction with the host cell.
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58
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Brosch G, Loidl P, Graessle S. Histone modifications and chromatin dynamics: a focus on filamentous fungi. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2008; 32:409-39. [PMID: 18221488 PMCID: PMC2442719 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2007.00100.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2007] [Revised: 11/13/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The readout of the genetic information of eukaryotic organisms is significantly regulated by modifications of DNA and chromatin proteins. Chromatin alterations induce genome-wide and local changes in gene expression and affect a variety of processes in response to internal and external signals during growth, differentiation, development, in metabolic processes, diseases, and abiotic and biotic stresses. This review aims at summarizing the roles of histone H1 and the acetylation and methylation of histones in filamentous fungi and links this knowledge to the huge body of data from other systems. Filamentous fungi show a wide range of morphologies and have developed a complex network of genes that enables them to use a great variety of substrates. This fact, together with the possibility of simple and quick genetic manipulation, highlights these organisms as model systems for the investigation of gene regulation. However, little is still known about regulation at the chromatin level in filamentous fungi. Understanding the role of chromatin in transcriptional regulation would be of utmost importance with respect to the impact of filamentous fungi in human diseases and agriculture. The synthesis of compounds (antibiotics, immunosuppressants, toxins, and compounds with adverse effects) is also likely to be regulated at the chromatin level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Brosch
- Division of Molecular Biology, Biocenter, Innsbruck Medical University, Fritz-Pregl-Strasse 3, Innsbruck, Austria
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59
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Huang N, Sorci L, Zhang X, Brautigam CA, Li X, Raffaelli N, Magni G, Grishin NV, Osterman AL, Zhang H. Bifunctional NMN adenylyltransferase/ADP-ribose pyrophosphatase: structure and function in bacterial NAD metabolism. Structure 2008; 16:196-209. [PMID: 18275811 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2007.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2007] [Revised: 10/30/2007] [Accepted: 11/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial NadM-Nudix is a bifunctional enzyme containing a nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) adenylyltransferase and an ADP-ribose (ADPR) pyrophosphatase domain. While most members of this enzyme family, such as that from a model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp., are involved primarily in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) salvage/recycling pathways, its close homolog in a category-A biodefense pathogen, Francisella tularensis, likely plays a central role in a recently discovered novel pathway of NAD de novo synthesis. The crystal structures of NadM-Nudix from both species, including their complexes with various ligands and catalytic metal ions, revealed detailed configurations of the substrate binding and catalytic sites in both domains. The structure of the N-terminal NadM domain may be exploited for designing new antitularemia therapeutics. The ADPR binding site in the C-terminal Nudix domain is substantially different from that of Escherichia coli ADPR pyrophosphatase, and is more similar to human NUDT9. The latter observation provided new insights into the ligand binding mode of ADPR-gated Ca2+ channel TRPM2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nian Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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60
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Kowieski TM, Lee S, Denu JM. Acetylation-dependent ADP-ribosylation by Trypanosoma brucei Sir2. J Biol Chem 2007; 283:5317-26. [PMID: 18165239 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m707613200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Sirtuins are a highly conserved family of proteins implicated in diverse cellular processes such as gene silencing, aging, and metabolic regulation. Although many sirtuins catalyze a well characterized protein/histone deacetylation reaction, there are a number of reports that suggest protein ADP-ribosyltransferase activity. Here we explored the mechanisms of ADP-ribosylation using the Trypanosoma brucei Sir2 homologue TbSIR2rp1 as a model for sirtuins that reportedly display both activities. Steady-state kinetic analysis revealed a highly active histone deacetylase (k cat = 0.1 s(-1), with Km values of 42 microm and for NAD+ and 65 microm for acetylated substrate). A series of biochemical assays revealed that TbSIR2rp1 ADP-ribosylation of protein/histone requires an acetylated substrate. The data are consistent with two distinct ADP-ribosylation pathways that involve an acetylated substrate, NAD+ and TbSIR2rp1 as follows: 1) a noncatalytic reaction between the deacetylation product O-acetyl-ADP-ribose (or its hydrolysis product ADP-ribose) and histones, and 2) a more efficient mechanism involving interception of an ADP-ribose-acetylpeptide-enzyme intermediate by a side-chain nucleophile from bound histone. However, the sum of both ADP-ribosylation reactions was approximately 5 orders of magnitude slower than histone deacetylation under identical conditions. The biological implications of these results are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terri M Kowieski
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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61
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Vaquero A, Sternglanz R, Reinberg D. NAD+-dependent deacetylation of H4 lysine 16 by class III HDACs. Oncogene 2007; 26:5505-20. [PMID: 17694090 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1210617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) catalyse the removal of acetyl groups from the N-terminal tails of histones. All known HDACs can be categorized into one of four classes (I-IV). The class III HDAC or silencing information regulator 2 (Sir2) family exhibits characteristics consistent with a distinctive role in regulation of chromatin structure. Accumulating data suggest that these deacetylases acquired new roles as genomic complexity increased, including deacetylation of non-histone proteins and functional diversification in mammals. However, the intrinsic regulation of chromatin structure in species as diverse as yeast and humans, underscores the pressure to conserve core functions of class III HDACs, which are also known as Sirtuins. One of the key factors that might have contributed to this preservation is the intimate relationship between some members of this group of proteins (SirT1, SirT2 and SirT3) and deacetylation of a specific residue in histone H4, lysine 16 (H4K16). Evidence accumulated over the years has uncovered a unique role for H4K16 in chromatin structure throughout eukaryotes. Here, we review the recent findings about the functional relationship between H4K16 and the Sir2 class of deacetylases and how that relationship might impact aging and diseases including cancer and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Vaquero
- Department of Biochemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, NYU School of Medicine-Smilow Research Center, New York, NY 10016, USA
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62
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Abstract
Sirtuins are a conserved family of proteins found in all domains of life. The first known sirtuin, Sir2 (silent information regulator 2) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, from which the family derives its name, regulates ribosomal DNA recombination, gene silencing, DNA repair, chromosomal stability and longevity. Sir2 homologues also modulate lifespan in worms and flies, and may underlie the beneficial effects of caloric restriction, the only regimen that slows aging and extends lifespan of most classes of organism, including mammals. Sirtuins have gained considerable attention for their impact on mammalian physiology, since they may provide novel targets for treating diseases associated with aging and perhaps extend human lifespan. In this review we describe our current understanding of the biological function of the seven mammalian sirtuins, SIRT1-7, and we will also discuss their potential as mediators of caloric restriction and as pharmacological targets to delay and treat human age-related diseases.
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63
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Abstract
Sirtuins are a conserved family of proteins found in all domains of life. The first known sirtuin, Sir2 (silent information regulator 2) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, from which the family derives its name, regulates ribosomal DNA recombination, gene silencing, DNA repair, chromosomal stability and longevity. Sir2 homologues also modulate lifespan in worms and flies, and may underlie the beneficial effects of caloric restriction, the only regimen that slows aging and extends lifespan of most classes of organism, including mammals. Sirtuins have gained considerable attention for their impact on mammalian physiology, since they may provide novel targets for treating diseases associated with aging and perhaps extend human lifespan. In this review we describe our current understanding of the biological function of the seven mammalian sirtuins, SIRT1-7, and we will also discuss their potential as mediators of caloric restriction and as pharmacological targets to delay and treat human age-related diseases.
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64
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Gray MJ, Escalante-Semerena JC. Single-enzyme conversion of FMNH2 to 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole, the lower ligand of B12. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:2921-6. [PMID: 17301238 PMCID: PMC1815282 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0609270104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthesis of 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole (DMB), the lower ligand of coenzyme B(12), has remained elusive. We report in vitro and in vivo evidence that the BluB protein of the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum is necessary and sufficient for catalysis of the O(2)-dependent conversion of FMNH(2) to DMB. The product of the reaction (DMB) was isolated by using reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography, and its identity was established by UV-visible spectroscopy and MS. No metals were detected in homogeneous preparations of BluB, and the enzyme did not affect DMB synthesis from 4,5-dimethylphenylenediamine and ribose-5-phosphate. The effect of the lack of bluB function in R. rubrum was reflected by the impaired ability of a DeltabluB strain to convert Mg-protoporphyrin IX monomethyl ester (MPE) into protochlorophylide, a reaction of the bacteriochlorophyll biosynthetic pathway catalyzed by the MPE-cyclase enzyme present in this bacterium (BchE, EC 1.14.13.81), a predicted coenzyme B(12)-dependent enzyme. The growth defect of the DeltabluB strain observed under anoxic photoheterotrophic conditions was corrected by the addition of DMB or B(12) to the culture medium or by introducing into the strain a plasmid encoding the wild-type allele of bluB. The findings reported here close an important gap in our understanding of the enzymology of the assembly of coenzyme B(12).
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Gray
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1550 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Jorge C. Escalante-Semerena
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1550 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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65
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Abstract
Sirtuins are a family of NAD+-dependent protein deacetylases widely distributed in all phyla of life. Accumulating evidence indicates that sirtuins are important regulators of organism life span. In yeast, these unique enzymes regulate gene silencing by histone deacetylation and via formation of the novel compound 2'-O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. In multicellular organisms, sirtuins deacetylate histones and transcription factors that regulate stress, metabolism, and survival pathways. The chemical mechanism of sirtuins provides novel opportunities for signaling and metabolic regulation of protein deacetylation. The biological, chemical, and structural characteristics of these unusual enzymes are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Sauve
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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66
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Alsford S, Kawahara T, Isamah C, Horn D. A sirtuin in the African trypanosome is involved in both DNA repair and telomeric gene silencing but is not required for antigenic variation. Mol Microbiol 2007; 63:724-36. [PMID: 17214740 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05553.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Silent information regulator 2 (Sir2)-related proteins or sirtuins function as NAD(+)-dependent deacetylases or ADP ribosylases that target a range of substrates, thereby influencing chromatin structure and a diverse range of other biological functions. Genes encoding three Sir2-related proteins (SIR2rp1-3) have been identified in the parasitic trypanosomatids, early branching protozoa with no previously reported transcriptional silencing machinery. Here we show that, in the mammalian-infective bloodstream-stage of the African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, SIR2rp1 localizes to the nucleus while SIR2rp2 and SIR2rp3 are both mitochondrial proteins. The nuclear protein, SIR2rp1, controls DNA repair and repression of RNA polymerase I-mediated expression immediately adjacent to telomeres. Antigenic variation, however, which involves the silencing and Pol I-mediated transcriptional switching of subtelomeric variant surface glycoprotein genes, continues to operate independent of SIR2rp1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Alsford
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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67
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Zayas CL, Escalante-Semerena JC. Reassessment of the late steps of coenzyme B12 synthesis in Salmonella enterica: evidence that dephosphorylation of adenosylcobalamin-5'-phosphate by the CobC phosphatase is the last step of the pathway. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:2210-8. [PMID: 17209023 PMCID: PMC1899380 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01665-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We report that cobC strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium are impaired in the ability to salvage cobyric acid (Cby), a de novo corrin ring biosynthetic intermediate, under aerobic growth conditions. In vivo and in vitro evidence support the conclusion that this new phenotype of cobC strains is due to the inability of serovar Typhimurium to dephosphorylate adenosylcobalamin-5'-phosphate (AdoCbl-5'-P), the product of the condensation of alpha-ribazole-5'-phosphate (alpha-RP) and adenosylcobinamide-GDP by the AdoCbl-5'-P synthase (CobS, EC 2.7.8.26) enzyme. Increased flux through the 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole and cobinamide (Cbi) activation branches of the nucleotide loop assembly pathway in cobC strains restored AdoCbl-5'-P synthesis from Cby in a cobC strain. The rate of the CobS-catalyzed reaction was at least 2 orders of magnitude higher with alpha-RP than with alpha-ribazole as substrate. On the basis of the data reported herein, we conclude that removal of the phosphoryl group from AdoCbl-5'-P is the last step in AdoCbl biosynthesis in serovar Typhimurium and that the reaction is catalyzed by the AdoCbl-5'-P phosphatase (CobC) enzyme. Explanations for the correction of the Cby salvaging phenotype are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen L Zayas
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 144A Enzyme Institute, 1710 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53726-4087, USA
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68
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Abstract
Metabolism encompasses the biochemical basis of life and as such spans all biological disciplines. Many decades of basic research, primarily in microbes, have resulted in extensive characterization of metabolic components and regulatory paradigms. With this basic knowledge in hand and the technologies currently available, it has become feasible to move toward an understanding of microbial metabolism as a system rather than as a collection of component parts. Insight into the system will be generated by continued efforts to rigorously define metabolic components combined with renewed efforts to discover components and connections using in vivo-driven approaches. On the tail of a detailed understanding of components and connections that comprise metabolism will come the ability to generate a comprehensive mathematical model that describes the system. While microbes provide the logical organism for this work, the value of such a model would span biological disciplines. Described herein are approaches that can provide insight into metabolism and caveats of their use. The goal of this review is to emphasize that in silico, in vitro, and in vivo approaches must be used in combination to achieve a full understanding of microbial metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Downs
- Department of Bacteriology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA.
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69
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Haigis MC, Guarente LP. Mammalian sirtuins--emerging roles in physiology, aging, and calorie restriction. Genes Dev 2006; 20:2913-21. [PMID: 17079682 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1467506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 981] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Sir2 is an NAD-dependent deacetylase that connects metabolism with longevity in yeast, worms and flies. Mammals contain seven homologs of yeast Sir2, SIRT1-7. Here, we review recent findings demonstrating the role of these mammalian sirtuins as regulators of physiology, calorie restriction, and aging. The current findings sharpen our understanding of sirtuins as potential pharmacological targets to treat the major diseases of aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia C Haigis
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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70
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North BJ, Sinclair DA. Sirtuins: a conserved key unlocking AceCS activity. Trends Biochem Sci 2006; 32:1-4. [PMID: 17141505 PMCID: PMC2396790 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2006.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2006] [Revised: 10/26/2006] [Accepted: 11/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) synthetase (AceCS), an evolutionarily conserved enzyme that converts acetate to acetyl-CoA, is activated by sirtuin-mediated deacetylation. Two recent studies show that this mechanism of regulation is also crucial for mammalian AceCS activity, indicating that control of metabolism at the step of converting acetate to acetyl-CoA is conserved. These findings highlight a metabolic regulatory network controlled by sirtuins that has implications for the mechanisms of calorie restriction and modulation of mammalian lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J North
- Department of Pathology, Paul F. Glenn Laboratories for the Biological Mechanisms of Aging, Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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71
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Sereno D, Vergnes B, Mathieu-Daude F, Cordeiro da Silva A, Ouaissi A. Looking for putative functions of the Leishmania cytosolic SIR2 deacetylase. Parasitol Res 2006; 100:1-9. [PMID: 17048004 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-006-0280-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2006] [Accepted: 07/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
During the past few years, the silent information regulator SIR2 protein family has attracted great interest due to its implication in an organism's life span extension. They bear diverse subcellular localization and play a role in transcriptional silencing and DNA repair. The biochemical reaction catalysed by these enzymes (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependant deacetylase/adenosine diphosphate-ribosyl transferase) is supposed to be linked to metabolism. Members of this protein family were described in parasitic organisms, but little information is available on potential functions of such enzymes in these organisms. In this article, we review recent information on structure and peculiar functions of SIR2s in eukaryotes, with emphasis on parasitic protozoa, particularly the Trypanosomatidae. Through the enzyme localization and the diverse substrates and by-products of the enzymatic reactions, we approach the potential pathways in which the Leishmania cytosolic SIR2 protein can be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Sereno
- UR008 Pathogénie des Trypanosomatidés, 911 Avenue Agropolis, BP 64501, 34394, Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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72
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Yang H, Lavu S, Sinclair DA. Nampt/PBEF/Visfatin: a regulator of mammalian health and longevity? Exp Gerontol 2006; 41:718-26. [PMID: 16842957 PMCID: PMC3366689 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2006.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2006] [Revised: 05/31/2006] [Accepted: 06/01/2006] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Eukaryotes have evolved elaborate mechanisms to survive periods of adversity. By manipulating genes that control these mechanisms, researchers have found they can generate more stress resistant, longer-lived organisms. One of these is the PNC1 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a master "longevity regulatory gene" that translates a variety of environmental stresses into lifespan extension by activating the sirtuin family of longevity deacetylases. Master longevity genes such as PNC1 are highly adaptive because they allow organisms to respond in a concerted way to adversity and to rapidly evolve life strategies to compensate for a changing environment. Hence, they should be well conserved. We propose that there is a functional equivalent of PNC1 in mammals called Nampt (a.k.a. PBEF/Visfatin), a stress-responsive gene that would coordinately regulate metabolism, cell defenses, and resistance to diseases of aging.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David A. Sinclair
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 617 432 3931; fax: +1 617 432 6225. (D.A. Sinclair)
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73
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Hisahara S, Chiba S, Matsumoto H, Horio Y. Transcriptional regulation of neuronal genes and its effect on neural functions: NAD-dependent histone deacetylase SIRT1 (Sir2alpha). J Pharmacol Sci 2005; 98:200-4. [PMID: 16006743 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.fmj05001x2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Sir2 (silent information regulator 2) is an NAD-dependent deacetylase that is broadly conserved from bacteria to humans. It catalyzes a unique deacetylation reaction using NAD, and specific inhibitors and activators of its activity have been discovered. In yeast, Sir2 deacetylates histones and participates in transcription silencing and the suppression of recombination. Sir2 is also implicated in the regulation of aging, because its increased expression extends the lifespan of yeast and nematodes. Mammalian SIRT1 (Sir2alpha) is a member of the Sir2 family. Recently, SIRT1 was shown to interact with various transcription factors such as p53, forkhead transcription factor (FOXO) family proteins, and MyoD, and to participate in stress tolerance, differentiation, and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Hisahara
- Department of Pharmacology, Sapporo Medical University, School of Medicine, Japan
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74
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Starai VJ, Gardner JG, Escalante-Semerena JC. Residue Leu-641 of Acetyl-CoA synthetase is critical for the acetylation of residue Lys-609 by the Protein acetyltransferase enzyme of Salmonella enterica. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:26200-5. [PMID: 15899897 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m504863200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttranslational regulation of protein function by acetylation is present throughout nature. Regulation of protein function by Sir2 protein (sirtuin) deacetylases is conserved in all domains of life. In the prokaryote Salmonella enterica, the metabolic enzyme acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (Acs) is regulated by a Sir2-dependent protein acetylation/deacetylation system (SDPADS). The recent identification of the acetyltransferase enzyme responsible for the acetylation of Acs defined the SDPADS in prokaryotes. This report identifies one residue in Acs, Leu-641, which is critical for the acetylation of Acs by the protein acetyltransferase enzyme. In vivo and in vitro evidence shows that mutations at Leu-641 prevent the acetylation of Acs by protein acetyltransferase, maintain the Acs enzyme in its active state, and bypass the need for sirtuin deacetylase activity during growth on acetate.
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MESH Headings
- Acetate-CoA Ligase/chemistry
- Acetates/chemistry
- Acetates/pharmacology
- Acetylation
- Acetyltransferases/chemistry
- Acetyltransferases/metabolism
- Alleles
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Arabinose/pharmacology
- Cell Proliferation
- Culture Media/pharmacology
- Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
- Gene Expression Regulation, Bacterial
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic
- Genotype
- Glutathione Transferase/metabolism
- Humans
- In Vitro Techniques
- Leucine/chemistry
- Ligands
- Models, Biological
- Models, Chemical
- Models, Molecular
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutagenesis
- Mutation
- Plasmids/metabolism
- Protein Binding
- Protein Conformation
- Protein Processing, Post-Translational
- Protein Structure, Secondary
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Salmonella enterica/enzymology
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Sirtuins/metabolism
- Substrate Specificity
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent J Starai
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726-4087, USA
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75
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Abstract
The yeast SIR protein complex has been implicated in transcription silencing and suppression of recombination. The Sir complex represses transcription at telomeres, mating-type loci, and ribosomal DNA. Unlike SIR3 and SIR4, the SIR2 gene is highly conserved in organisms ranging from archaea to humans. Interestingly, Sir2 is active as an NAD+-dependent deacetylase, which is broadly conserved from bacteria to higher eukaryotes. In this review, we discuss the role of NAD+, the unusual products of the deacetylation reaction, the Sir2 structure, and the Sir2 chemical inhibitors and activators that were recently identified. We summarize the current knowledge of the Sir2 homologs from different organisms, and finally we discuss the role of Sir2 in caloric restriction and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil Blander
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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76
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Starai VJ, Takahashi H, Boeke JD, Escalante-Semerena JC. A link between transcription and intermediary metabolism: a role for Sir2 in the control of acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase. Curr Opin Microbiol 2004; 7:115-9. [PMID: 15063846 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2004.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The silent information regulator protein (Sir2) and its homologs (collectively known as sirtuins) are NAD+-dependent deacetylase enzymes involved in chromosome stability, gene silencing and cell aging in eukaryotes and archaea. The discovery that sirtuin-dependent protein deacetylation is a NAD+-consuming reaction established a link with the energy generation systems of the cell. This link to metabolism was recently extended to the post-translational control of the activity of short-chain fatty acyl-coenzyme A (adenosine monophosphate-forming) synthetases in bacteria and yeast. The crystal structure of the Sir protein complexed with a peptide of a protein substrate provided insights into how sirtuins interact with their protein substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- V J Starai
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 264 Enzyme Institute, 1710 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53726-4087, USA
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77
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Schmitz G, Downs DM. Reduced transaminase B (IlvE) activity caused by the lack of yjgF is dependent on the status of threonine deaminase (IlvA) in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. J Bacteriol 2004; 186:803-10. [PMID: 14729707 PMCID: PMC321505 DOI: 10.1128/jb.186.3.803-810.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The YjgF/YER057c/UK114 family is a highly conserved class of proteins that is represented in the three domains of life. Thus far, a biochemical function demonstrated for these proteins in vivo or in vitro has yet to be defined. In several organisms, strains lacking a YjgF homolog have a defect in branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis. This study probes the connection between yjgF and isoleucine biosynthesis in Salmonella enterica. In strains lacking yjgF the specific activity of transaminase B, catalyzing the last step in the synthesis of isoleucine, was reduced. In the absence of yjgF, transaminase B activity could be restored by inhibiting threonine deaminase, the first enzymatic step in isoleucine biosynthesis. Strains lacking yjgF showed an increased sensitivity to sulfometruron methyl, a potent inhibitor of acetolactate synthase. Based on work described here and structural reports in the literature, we suggest a working model in which YjgF has a role in protecting the cell from toxic effects of imbalanced ketoacid pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Schmitz
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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78
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Abstract
The silent information regulator (Sir2) family of protein deacetylases (Sirtuins) are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)(+)-dependent enzymes that hydrolyze one molecule of NAD(+) for every lysine residue that is deacetylated. The Sirtuins are phylogenetically conserved in eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and Archeal species. Prokaryotic and Archeal species usually have one or two Sirtuin homologs, whereas eukaryotes typically have multiple versions. The founding member of this protein family is the Sir2 histone deacetylase of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is absolutely required for transcriptional silencing in this organism. Sirtuins in other organisms often have nonhistone substrates and in eukaryotes, are not always localized in the nucleus. The diversity of substrates is reflected in the various biological activities that Sirtuins function, including development, metabolism, apoptosis, and heterochromatin formation. This review emphasizes the great diversity in Sirtuin function and highlights its unusual catalytic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen W Buck
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Health System, Jordan Hall, Box 800733, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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79
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García-Salcedo JA, Gijón P, Nolan DP, Tebabi P, Pays E. A chromosomal SIR2 homologue with both histone NAD-dependent ADP-ribosyltransferase and deacetylase activities is involved in DNA repair in Trypanosoma brucei. EMBO J 2003; 22:5851-62. [PMID: 14592982 PMCID: PMC275410 DOI: 10.1093/emboj/cdg553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
SIR2-like proteins have been implicated in a wide range of cellular events including chromosome silencing, chromosome segregation, DNA recombination and the determination of life span. We report here the molecular and functional characterization of a SIR2-related protein from the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, which we termed TbSIR2RP1. This protein is a chromosome-associated NAD-dependent enzyme which, in contrast to other known proteins of this family, catalyses both ADP-ribosylation and deacetylation of histones, particulary H2A and H2B. Under- or overexpression of TbSIR2RP1 decreased or increased, respectively, cellular resistance to DNA damage. Treatment of trypanosomal nuclei with a DNA alkylating agent resulted in a significant increase in the level of histone ADP-ribosylation and a concomitant increase in chromatin sensitivity to micrococcal nuclease. Both of these responses correlated with the level of TbSIR2RP1 expression. We propose that histone modification by TbSIR2RP1 is involved in DNA repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A García-Salcedo
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Medicine, Free University of Brussels, 12 rue des Professeurs Jeener et Brachet, B-6041 Gosselies, Belgium.
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80
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Bitterman KJ, Medvedik O, Sinclair DA. Longevity regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: linking metabolism, genome stability, and heterochromatin. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2003; 67:376-99, table of contents. [PMID: 12966141 PMCID: PMC193872 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.67.3.376-399.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
When it was first proposed that the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae might serve as a model for human aging in 1959, the suggestion was met with considerable skepticism. Although yeast had proved a valuable model for understanding basic cellular processes in humans, it was difficult to accept that such a simple unicellular organism could provide information about human aging, one of the most complex of biological phenomena. While it is true that causes of aging are likely to be multifarious, there is a growing realization that all eukaryotes possess surprisingly conserved longevity pathways that govern the pace of aging. This realization has come, in part, from studies of S. cerevisiae, which has emerged as a highly informative and respected model for the study of life span regulation. Genomic instability has been identified as a major cause of aging, and over a dozen longevity genes have now been identified that suppress it. Here we present the key discoveries in the yeast-aging field, regarding both the replicative and chronological measures of life span in this organism. We discuss the implications of these findings not only for mammalian longevity but also for other key aspects of cell biology, including cell survival, the relationship between chromatin structure and genome stability, and the effect of internal and external environments on cellular defense pathways. We focus on the regulation of replicative life span, since recent findings have shed considerable light on the mechanisms controlling this process. We also present the specific methods used to study aging and longevity regulation in S. cerevisiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Bitterman
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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81
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Maggio-Hall LA, Escalante-Semerena JC. Alpha-5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole adenine dinucleotide (alpha-DAD), a putative new intermediate of coenzyme B12 biosynthesis in Salmonella typhimurium. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2003; 149:983-990. [PMID: 12686640 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.26040-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The CobT enzyme of Salmonella typhimurium was shown in vitro to have NAD(+)-dependent ADPribosyltransferase activity. The CobT enzyme transferred the ADPribosyl moiety of NAD(+) onto 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole (DMB) yielding a new dinucleotide, namely alpha-5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole adenine dinucleotide (alpha-DAD), whose identity was established by mass spectrometry. The N(1)-(alpha-D-ribosyl)-5,6-dimethylbenzimidazoyl moiety (alpha-ribazole) of alpha-DAD was incorporated into adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl) by cell-free extracts of S. typhimurium, indicating that alpha-DAD served as an intermediate of AdoCbl biosynthesis. The rate of transfer of the ADPribosyl moiety was slower than the rate of transfer of the phosphoribosyl moiety of nicotinate mononucleotide (NaMN) to DMB. The CobT enzyme displayed a low K(m) for NaMN (0.51 mM) relative to the one for NAD(+) (9 mM); nicotinate adenine dinucleotide (NaAD) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) also served as substrates for CobT. In spite of the high K(m) of CobT for NAD(+), the latter is proposed to be a relevant physiological substrate of CobT, given that the intracellular concentrations of NaMN, NMN and NaAD in actively growing S. typhimurium are undetectable. Evidence shows that extracts of S. typhimurium contain an as-yet unidentified dinucleotide pyrophosphatase that can cleave alpha-DAD into alpha-ribazole-5'-P and AMP; alpha-ribazole-5'-P can then enter the AdoCbl biosynthetic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori A Maggio-Hall
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1710 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53726-4087, USA
| | - Jorge C Escalante-Semerena
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1710 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53726-4087, USA
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82
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Starai VJ, Takahashi H, Boeke JD, Escalante-Semerena JC. Short-chain fatty acid activation by acyl-coenzyme A synthetases requires SIR2 protein function in Salmonella enterica and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 2003; 163:545-55. [PMID: 12618394 PMCID: PMC1462443 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/163.2.545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
SIR2 proteins have NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylase activity, but no metabolic role has been assigned to any of these proteins. In Salmonella enterica, SIR2 function was required for activity of the acetyl-CoA synthetase (Acs) enzyme. A greater than two orders of magnitude increase in the specific activity of Acs enzyme synthesized by a sirtuin-deficient strain was measured after treatment with homogeneous S. enterica SIR2 protein. Human SIR2A and yeast SIR2 proteins restored growth of SIR2-deficient S. enterica on acetate and propionate, suggesting that eukaryotic cells may also use SIR2 proteins to control the synthesis of acetyl-CoA by the level of acetylation of acetyl-CoA synthetases. Consistent with this idea, growth of a quintuple sir2 hst1 hst2 hst3 hst4 mutant strain of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae on acetate or propionate was severely impaired. The data suggest that the Hst3 and Hst4 proteins are the most important for allowing growth on these short-chain fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent J Starai
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53726-4087, USA
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83
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Denu JM. Linking chromatin function with metabolic networks: Sir2 family of NAD(+)-dependent deacetylases. Trends Biochem Sci 2003; 28:41-8. [PMID: 12517451 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0004(02)00005-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Chromatin remodeling enzymes rely on coenzymes derived from metabolic pathways, suggesting a tight synchronization among apparently diverse cellular processes. A unique example of this link is the recently described NAD(+)-dependent protein and/or histone deacetylases. The founding member of this family - yeast silent information regulator 2 (ySir2) - is involved in gene silencing, chromosomal stability and ageing. Sir2-like enzymes catalyze a reaction in which the cleavage of NAD(+)and histone and/or protein deacetylation are coupled to the formation of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose, a novel metabolite. The dependence of the reaction on both NAD(+) and the generation of this potential second messenger offers new clues to understanding the function and regulation of nuclear, cytoplasmic and mitochondrial Sir2-like enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Denu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97201, USA.
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84
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Onyango P, Celic I, McCaffery JM, Boeke JD, Feinberg AP. SIRT3, a human SIR2 homologue, is an NAD-dependent deacetylase localized to mitochondria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:13653-8. [PMID: 12374852 PMCID: PMC129731 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.222538099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 428] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The SIR2 (silent information regulator 2) gene family has diverse functions in yeast including gene silencing, DNA repair, cell-cycle progression, and chromosome fidelity in meiosis and aging. Human homologues, termed sirtuins, are highly conserved but are of unknown function. We previously identified a large imprinted gene domain on 11p15.5 and investigated the 11p15.5 sirtuin SIRT3. Although this gene was not imprinted, we found that it is localized to mitochondria, with a mitochondrial targeting signal within a unique N-terminal peptide sequence. The encoded protein was found also to possess NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylase activity. These results suggest a previously unrecognized organelle for sirtuin function and that the role of SIRT3 in mitochondria involves protein deacetylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Onyango
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Department of Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1064 Ross, 720 Rutland Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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85
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Abstract
Members of the evolutionarily conserved silent information regulator 2 (Sir2) protein family are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+))-dependent histone deacetylases. In yeast, the founding Sir2 protein is known to function in transcriptional silencing processes through the deacetylation of histones H3 and H4, thus setting up a repressive chromatin structure. Yeast and Caenorhabditis elegans Sir2 are also involved in regulating the life span of these organisms. Until recently, the function of mammalian Sir2 family members was completely unknown. However, several recent studies have now determined a remarkable function for the human SIRT1 protein, which is the closest human homolog of yeast Sir2. SIRT1 specifically associates with the p53 tumor suppressor protein and deacetylates it, resulting in negative regulation of p53-mediated transcriptional activation. Importantly, p53 deacetylation by SIRT1 also prevents cellular senescence and apoptosis induced by DNA damage and stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Smith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Health System, Jordan Hall, Box 800733, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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86
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Schwer B, North BJ, Frye RA, Ott M, Verdin E. The human silent information regulator (Sir)2 homologue hSIRT3 is a mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent deacetylase. J Cell Biol 2002; 158:647-57. [PMID: 12186850 PMCID: PMC2174009 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200205057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 455] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2002] [Revised: 07/12/2002] [Accepted: 07/15/2002] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The yeast silent information regulator (Sir)2 protein links cellular metabolism and transcriptional silencing through its nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)-dependent histone deacetylase activity. We report that mitochondria from mammalian cells contain intrinsic NAD-dependent deacetylase activity. This activity is inhibited by the NAD hydrolysis product nicotinamide, but not by trichostatin A, consistent with a class III deacetylase. We identify this deacetylase as the nuclear-encoded human Sir2 homologue hSIRT3, and show that hSIRT3 is located within the mitochondrial matrix. Mitochondrial import of hSIRT3 is dependent on an NH2-terminal amphipathic alpha-helix rich in basic residues. hSIRT3 is proteolytically processed in the mitochondrial matrix to a 28-kD product. This processing can be reconstituted in vitro with recombinant mitochondrial matrix processing peptidase (MPP) and is inhibited by mutation of arginines 99 and 100. The unprocessed form of hSIRT3 is enzymatically inactive and becomes fully activated in vitro after cleavage by MPP. These observations demonstrate the existence of a latent class III deacetylase that becomes catalytically activated upon import into the human mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjorn Schwer
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, University of California San Francisco, 365 Vermont Street, San Francisco, CA 94103, USA
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87
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Smith JS, Avalos J, Celic I, Muhammad S, Wolberger C, Boeke JD. SIR2 family of NAD(+)-dependent protein deacetylases. Methods Enzymol 2002; 353:282-300. [PMID: 12078503 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(02)53056-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S Smith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908, USA
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88
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Borra MT, O'Neill FJ, Jackson MD, Marshall B, Verdin E, Foltz KR, Denu JM. Conserved enzymatic production and biological effect of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose by silent information regulator 2-like NAD+-dependent deacetylases. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:12632-41. [PMID: 11812793 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111830200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Silent information regulator 2 (Sir2) family of enzymes has been implicated in many cellular processes that include histone deacetylation, gene silencing, chromosomal stability, and aging. Yeast Sir2 and several homologues have been shown to be NAD(+)-dependent histone/protein deacetylases. Previously, it was demonstrated that the yeast enzymes catalyze a unique reaction mechanism in which the cleavage of NAD(+) and the deacetylation of substrate are coupled with the formation of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose, a novel metabolite. We demonstrate that the production of O-acetyl-ADP-ribose is evolutionarily conserved among Sir2-like enzymes from yeast, Drosophila, and human. Also, endogenous yeast Sir2 complex from telomeres was shown to generate O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. By using a quantitative microinjection assay to examine the possible biological function(s) of this newly discovered metabolite, we demonstrate that O-acetyl-ADP-ribose causes a delay/block in oocyte maturation and results in a delay/block in embryo cell division in blastomeres. This effect was mimicked by injection of low nanomolar levels of active enzyme but not with a catalytically impaired mutant, indicating that the enzymatic activity is essential for the observed effects. In cell-free oocyte extracts, we demonstrate the existence of cellular enzymes that can efficiently utilize O-acetyl-ADP-ribose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margie T Borra
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health and Sciences University, Portland, OR 97201-3098, USA
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89
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Armstrong CM, Kaeberlein M, Imai SI, Guarente L. Mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene SIR2 can have differential effects on in vivo silencing phenotypes and in vitro histone deacetylation activity. Mol Biol Cell 2002; 13:1427-38. [PMID: 11950950 PMCID: PMC102280 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.01-10-0482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2001] [Revised: 12/12/2001] [Accepted: 01/04/2002] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The yeast SIR2 gene and many of its homologs have been identified as NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylases. To get a broader view of the relationship between the histone deacetylase activity of Sir2p and its in vivo functions we have mutated eight highly conserved residues in the core domain of SIR2. These mutations have a range of effects on the ability of Sir2p to deacetylate histones in vitro and to silence genes at the telomeres and HM loci. Interestingly, there is not a direct correlation between the in vitro and in vivo effects in some of these mutations. We also show that the histone deacetylase activity of Sir2p is necessary for the proper localiztion of the SIR complex to the telomeres.
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90
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Sandmeier JJ, Celic I, Boeke JD, Smith JS. Telomeric and rDNA silencing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are dependent on a nuclear NAD(+) salvage pathway. Genetics 2002; 160:877-89. [PMID: 11901108 PMCID: PMC1462005 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/160.3.877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Sir2 protein is an NAD(+)-dependent protein deacetylase that is required for silencing at the silent mating-type loci, telomeres, and the ribosomal DNA (rDNA). Mutations in the NAD(+) salvage gene NPT1 weaken all three forms of silencing and also cause a reduction in the intracellular NAD(+) level. We now show that mutation of a highly conserved histidine residue in Npt1p results in a silencing defect, indicating that Npt1p enzymatic activity is required for silencing. Deletion of another NAD(+) salvage pathway gene called PNC1 caused a less severe silencing defect and did not significantly reduce the intracellular NAD(+) concentration. However, silencing in the absence of PNC1 was completely dependent on the import of nicotinic acid from the growth medium. Deletion of a gene in the de novo NAD(+) synthesis pathway BNA1 resulted in a significant rDNA silencing defect only on medium deficient in nicotinic acid, an NAD(+) precursor. By immunofluorescence microscopy, Myc-tagged Bna1p was localized throughout the whole cell in an asynchronously growing population. In contrast, Myc-tagged Npt1p was highly concentrated in the nucleus in approximately 40% of the cells, indicating that NAD(+) salvage occurs in the nucleus in a significant fraction of cells. We propose a model in which two components of the NAD(+) salvage pathway, Pnc1p and Npt1p, function together in recycling the nuclear nicotinamide generated by Sir2p deacetylase activity back into NAD(+).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Sandmeier
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908, USA.
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91
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Abstract
Transcriptional repression, which plays a crucial role in diverse biological processes, is mediated in part by non-DNA-binding co-repressors. The closely related co-repressor proteins N-CoR and SMRT, although originally identified on the basis of their ability to associate with and confer transcriptional repression through nuclear receptors, have been shown to be recruited to many classes of transcription factor and are in fact components of multiple protein complexes containing histone deacetylase proteins. This association with histone deacetylase activity provides an important component of the mechanism that allows DNA-binding proteins interacting with N-CoR or SMRT to repress transcription of specific target genes. Both N-CoR and SMRT are important targets for cell signaling pathways, which influence their expression levels, subcellular localization and association with other proteins. Recently, the biological importance of these proteins has been revealed by studies of genetically engineered mice and human diseases such as acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) and resistance to thyroid hormone(RTH).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Jepsen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department and School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 920393-0648, USA
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92
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Sauve AA, Celic I, Avalos J, Deng H, Boeke JD, Schramm VL. Chemistry of gene silencing: the mechanism of NAD+-dependent deacetylation reactions. Biochemistry 2001; 40:15456-63. [PMID: 11747420 DOI: 10.1021/bi011858j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Sir2 enzyme family is responsible for a newly classified chemical reaction, NAD(+)-dependent protein deacetylation. New peptide substrates, the reaction mechanism, and the products of the acetyl transfer to NAD(+) are described for SIR2. The final products of SIR2 reactions are the deacetylated peptide and the 2' and 3' regioisomers of O-acetyl ADP ribose (AADPR), formed through an alpha-1'-acetyl ADP ribose intermediate and intramolecular transesterification reactions (2' --> 3'). The regioisomers, their anomeric forms, the interconversion rates, and the reaction equilibria were characterized by NMR, HPLC, 18O exchange, and MS methods. The mechanism of acetyl transfer to NAD(+) includes (1) ADP ribosylation of the peptide acyl oxygen to form a high-energy O-alkyl amidate intermediate, (2) attack of the 2'-OH group on the amidate to form a 1',2'-acyloxonium species, (3) hydrolysis to 2'-AADPR by the attack of water on the carbonyl carbon, and (4) an SIR2-independent transesterification equilibrating the 2'- and 3'-AADPRs. This mechanism is unprecedented in ADP-ribosyl transferase enzymology. The 2'- and 3'-AADPR products are candidate molecules for SIR2-initiated signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Sauve
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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93
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Abstract
Silent or heritably repressed genes constitute the major fraction of genetic information in higher eukaryotic cells. Budding yeast has very little consecutively repressed DNA, but what exists has served as a paradigm for the molecular analysis of heterochromatin. The major structural constituents of repressed chromatin in yeast are the four core histones and three large chromatin factors called Silent information regulators 2, 3 and 4. How these components assemble DNA into a state that is refractory to transcription remains a mystery. Nonetheless, there have been many recent insights into their molecular structures. This review examines the impact of these results on our understanding of silencing function in budding yeast.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Gasser
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Geneva, 30 Quai Ernest-Ansermet, CH-1211, Geneva, Switzerland.
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94
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Fahlen TF, Wilson RL, Boddicker JD, Jones BD. Hha is a negative modulator of transcription of hilA, the Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium invasion gene transcriptional activator. J Bacteriol 2001; 183:6620-9. [PMID: 11673432 PMCID: PMC95493 DOI: 10.1128/jb.183.22.6620-6629.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An early step in the establishment of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium murine infection is the penetration of the intestinal mucosa of the small intestine. The majority of the genes responsible for the Salmonella invasive phenotype are encoded on Salmonella pathogenicity island 1, and their transcription is controlled by the hilA transcriptional activator. The expression of hilA is regulated by environmental signals including oxygen, osmolarity, pH, and growth phase such that the presence of any one suboptimal condition results in repression of hilA expression and the invasive phenotype. We have conducted a search for negative regulators of hilA by introduction of a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium chromosomal DNA gene bank into a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium hilA::Tn5lacZY reporter strain. This screen has identified the hha gene as a regulator that exerts a negative influence on hilA expression. Plasmid-encoded hha significantly reduces hilA::Tn5lacZY chromosomal expression, as well as expression of the invasion genes invF, prgH, and sipC. An hha null mutation results in substantial derepression of both chromosomally encoded and plasmid-encoded hilA::Tn5lacZY expression. Introduction of plasmid-encoded hha into strain SL1344 results in attenuation of invasion using in vitro and in vivo assays. Importantly, purified Hha protein was found to bind to a hilA DNA promoter fragment, suggesting that the regulatory activity of the Hha protein occurs at the hilA promoter. These data add detail to the developing model of the regulation of Salmonella invasion genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- T F Fahlen
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa School of Medicine, Iowa City 52242, USA
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95
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Grozinger CM, Chao ED, Blackwell HE, Moazed D, Schreiber SL. Identification of a class of small molecule inhibitors of the sirtuin family of NAD-dependent deacetylases by phenotypic screening. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:38837-43. [PMID: 11483616 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m106779200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 421] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The yeast transcriptional repressor Sir2p silences gene expression from the telomeric, rDNA, and silent mating-type loci and may play a role in higher order processes such as aging. Sir2p is the founding member of a large family of NAD-dependent deacetylase enzymes, named the sirtuins. These proteins are conserved from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, but most remain uncharacterized, including all seven human sirtuins. A reverse chemical genetic approach would be useful in identifying the biological function of sirtuins in a wide variety of experimental systems, but no cell-permeable small molecule inhibitors of sirtuins have been reported previously. Herein we describe a high throughput, phenotypic screen in cells that led to the discovery of a class of sirtuin inhibitors. All three compounds inhibited yeast Sir2p transcriptional silencing activity in vivo, and yeast Sir2p and human SIRT2 deacetylase activity in vitro. Such specific results demonstrate the utility and robustness of this screening methodology. Structure-activity relationship analysis of the compounds identified a key hydroxy-napthaldehyde moiety that is necessary and sufficient for inhibitory activity. Preliminary studies using one of these compounds suggest that inhibition of sirtuins interferes with body axis formation in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Grozinger
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
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96
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Abstract
The SIR2 protein family comprises a novel class of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD)-dependent protein deacetylases that function in transcriptional silencing, DNA repair, and life-span extension in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Two crystal structures of a SIR2 homolog from Archaeoglobus fulgidus complexed with NAD have been determined at 2.1 A and 2.4 A resolutions. The structures reveal that the protein consists of a large domain having a Rossmann fold and a small domain containing a three-stranded zinc ribbon motif. NAD is bound in a pocket between the two domains. A distinct mode of NAD binding and an unusual configuration of the zinc ribbon motif are observed. The structures also provide important insights into the catalytic mechanism of NAD-dependent protein deacetylation by this family of enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Min
- W. M. Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA
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97
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Affiliation(s)
- R N Dutnall
- Division of Biology, University of California, San Diego, Pacific Hall 0347, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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98
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Abstract
Heritable domains of generalized repression are a common feature of eukaryotic chromosomes and involve the assembly of DNA into a silenced chromatin structure. Sir2, a conserved protein required for silencing in yeast, has recently been shown to couple histone deacetylation to cleavage of a high-energy bond in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and the synthesis of a novel product, O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. The deacetylase activity provides a direct link between Sir2 and the hypoacetylated state of silent chromatin. However, the unusual coupling of deacetylation to cleavage and synthesis of other bonds raises the possibility that deacetylation is not the only crucial function of Sir2.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Moazed
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, 240 Longwood Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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99
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Shore D. The Sir2 protein family: A novel deacetylase for gene silencing and more. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:14030-2. [PMID: 11114164 PMCID: PMC34090 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.011506198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- D Shore
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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100
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Tanner KG, Landry J, Sternglanz R, Denu JM. Silent information regulator 2 family of NAD- dependent histone/protein deacetylases generates a unique product, 1-O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:14178-82. [PMID: 11106374 PMCID: PMC18891 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.250422697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 437] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Conflicting reports have suggested that the silent information regulator 2 (SIR2) protein family employs NAD(+) to ADP-ribosylate histones [Tanny, J. C., Dowd, G. J., Huang, J., Hilz, H. & Moazed, D. (1999) Cell 99, 735-745; Frye, R. A. (1999) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 260, 273-279], deacetylate histones [Landry, J., Sutton, A., Tafrov, S. T., Heller, R. C., Stebbins, J., Pillus, L. & Sternglanz, R. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 5807-5811; Smith, J. S., Brachmann, C. B., Celic, I., Kenna, M. A., Muhammad, S., Starai, V. J., Avalos, J. L., Escalante-Semerena, J. C., Grubmeyer, C., Wolberger, C. & Boeke, J. D. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 6658-6663], or both [Imai, S., Armstrong, C. M., Kaeberlein, M. & Guarente, L. (2000) Nature (London) 403, 795-800]. Uncovering the true enzymatic function of SIR2 is critical to the basic understanding of its cellular function. Therefore, we set out to authenticate the reaction products and to determine the intrinsic catalytic mechanism. We provide direct evidence that the efficient histone/protein deacetylase reaction is tightly coupled to the formation of a previously unidentified acetyl-ADP-ribose product (1-O-acetyl-ADP ribose). One molecule of NAD(+) and one molecule of acetyl-lysine are readily catalyzed to one molecule of deacetylated lysine, nicotinamide, and 1-O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. A unique reaction mechanism involving the attack of enzyme-bound acetate or the direct attack of acetyl-lysine on an oxocarbenium ADP-ribose intermediate is proposed. We suggest that the reported histone/protein ADP-ribosyltransferase activity is a low-efficiency side reaction that can be explained through the partial uncoupling of the intrinsic deacetylation and acetate transfer to ADP-ribose.
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Affiliation(s)
- K G Tanner
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, OR 97201-3098, USA
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