Oxysterol activators of liver X receptor and 9-cis-retinoic acid promote sequential steps in the synthesis and secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from human monocytes

RhoA and p38 MAPK mediate apoptosis induced by cellular cholesterol depletion

Cholesterol is essential for cell viability, and homeostasis of cellular cholesterol is crucial to various cell functions. Here we examined the effect of cholesterol depletion on apoptosis and the mechanisms underlying this effect in NIH3T3 cells. We show that chronic cholesterol depletion achieved with lipoprotein-deficient serum (LPDS) and 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-HC) treatment resulted in a significant increase in cellular apoptosis and caspase-3 activation. This effect is not due to a deficiency of nonsterol isoprenoids, intermediate metabolites of the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway, but rather to low cholesterol levels, since addition of cholesterol together with LPDS and 25-HC nearly abolished apoptosis, whereas addition of farnesyl pyrophosphate or geranylgeranyl-pyrophosphate did not reverse the cell viability loss induced by LPDS plus 25-HC treatment. These effects were accompanied by an increase in ERK, JNK and p38 MAPK activity. However, only the inhibition of p38 MAPK with the specific inhibitor SB203580 or the overexpression of a kinase defective MKK6 resulted in a significant decrease in apoptosis and caspase-3 cleavage induced by cholesterol depletion. Furthermore, LPDS plus 25-HC increased RhoA activity, and this effect was reversed by addition of exogenous cholesterol. Finally, overexpression of the dominant negative N19RhoA inhibited p38 MAPK phosphorylation and apoptosis induced by low cholesterol levels. Together, our results demonstrate that cholesterol depletion induces apoptosis through a RhoA- and p38 MAPK-dependent mechanism.

Autoamplification of tumor necrosis factor-alpha: a potential mechanism for the maintenance of elevated tumor necrosis factor-alpha in male but not female obese mice

Although tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is elevated in adipose tissue in obesity and may contribute to the cardiovascular and metabolic risks associated with this condition, the mechanisms leading to elevated TNF-alpha remain elusive. We hypothesized that autoamplification of TNF-alpha contributes to the maintenance of elevated TNF-alpha in obesity. Treatment of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with TNF-alpha, or injection of TNF-alpha into C57BL/6J mice, up-regulated TNF-alpha mRNA in adipocytes and in adipose tissues, respectively. Ob/ob male but not female mice lacking TNF-alpha receptors showed significantly lower levels of adipose TNF-alpha mRNA when compared with TNF-alpha receptor-expressing ob/ob mice. Thus, the lack of endogenous TNF-alpha signaling reduced adipose TNF-alpha mRNA in ob/ob male mice. Additionally, hyperinsulinemia potentiated this TNF-alpha-mediated autoamplification response in adipose tissues and in adipocytes in a synergistic and dose-dependent manner. Studies in which TNF-alpha was injected into lean mice lacking individual TNF-alpha receptors indicated that TNF-alpha autoamplification in adipose tissues was mediated primarily via the p55 TNF-alpha receptor whereas the p75 TNF-alpha receptor appeared to augment this response. Finally, TNF-alpha autoamplification in adipocytes occurred via the protein kinase C signaling pathway and the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB. Thus, TNF-alpha can positively autoregulate its own biosynthesis in adipose tissue, contributing to the maintenance of elevated TNF-alpha in obesity.

Anti-inflammatory nuclear receptor superfamily in multiple sclerosis patients from Sardinia and Sweden

Several nuclear hormone receptors have been associated with inflammatory reactions. Particularly, liver X receptors (LXRs) have recently been identified as key transcriptional regulators of genes involved in lipid homeostasis and inflammation. LXRs are negative regulators of macrophage inflammatory gene expression. Multiple sclerosis (MS), a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system of unknown cause, is characterized by recurrent inflammation involving macrophages and their inflammatory mediators. Sweden belongs to the countries with a high MS incidence. In Italy, the MS incidence is lower, except on the island of Sardinia where the incidence is even higher than in Sweden. Subjects from Sardinia are ethnically more homogeneous, and differ from Swedes also regarding genetic background and environment. We studied mRNA expression of several nuclear hormone receptors in blood mononuclear cells (MNC) from female patients with untreated relapsing-remitting MS from Sassari, Sardinia, and Stockholm, Sweden. Sex- and age-matched healthy controls (HC) were from both areas. mRNA expression was evaluated by quantitative real-time PCR. We found altered mRNA expression of LXRs, estrogen receptors (ERs), and androgen receptor (AR) in MS. mRNA expression of both LXRalpha and LXRbeta is lower in MS from Stockholm but not from Sassari. In particular, LXRalpha mRNA expression was significantly lower in MS from Stockholm as compared with all groups in the study including MS from Sassari. Low levels of ERalpha mRNA are seen in MS from both Stockholm and Sassari. The splice variant ERbetacx showed significantly higher mRNA expression in MS from Sassari and Stockholm as compared with corresponding HC. In particular, ERbetacx mRNA in MS from Sassari was remarkably higher as compared with all other groups in the study. Higher levels of AR mRNA are present in HC from Sassari. The findings indicate that the expression levels of anti-inflammatory nuclear receptor superfamily genes in MS appear to reflect both ethnic and environmental influences.

Placental expression of the nuclear receptors for oxysterols LXR? and LXR? during mouse and human development

Ontogenesis and localization expression of genes encoding for the nuclear receptors for oxysterols (lxralpha and lxrbeta) were investigated in human and mouse placenta during gestation. Both mRNAs were detectable in the placentation throughout the gestation (from 7 days postcoitum and 6th week of gestation in mouse and human, respectively) by Northern blots or RT-PCR experiments. Lxralpha showed a higher accumulation in the mouse yolk sac. In situ hybridization pointed a specific expression of lxralpha in the human amniotic membranes.

Differential effects of 9-cis retinoic acid on expression of CC chemokine receptors in human monocytes

9-cis Retinoic acid (9-CRA) is a lipophilic molecule that binds to the retinoid X receptor (RXR). Although retinoic acid (RA) has been known to regulate neutrophil differentiation, a specific role for 9-CRA in chemokine-mediated cellular processes remains obscure. We investigated the effects of 9-CRA on expression of CC chemokine receptors (CCRs) in human monocytic THP-1 cells and peripheral blood monocytes. RNase protection assay was performed to examine the mRNA levels of CCRs in 9-CRA-treated THP-1 cells. mRNA expression of CCR1 and CCR2 was induced in both a dose and time dependent manner. CCR1 and CCR2 mRNA expression began to increase from 6h after a 100nM 9-CRA treatment and reached a maximal level at 12h. Surface expression of CCRs was monitored by flow cytometry. CCR1 and CCR2 surface expression increased in 9-CRA-treated THP-1 cells, but not in untreated cells. Calcium mobilization and chemotactic activity were determined to examine the effect of 9-CRA on cell movement. The intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and the chemotactic activity increased in 9-CRA-treated cells in response to the CCR1-dependent chemokines Lkn-1, MIP-1alpha, and RANTES, and the CCR2-specific chemokine MCP-1. Increased surface expression of CCR1 and the Ca(2+) influx due to 9-CRA were confirmed in peripheral blood monocytes. Taken together, 9-CRA increases the expression levels of mRNA and protein of both CCR1 and CCR2, and the cell migration ability in THP-1 cells and peripheral blood monocytes, indicating that 9-CRA may regulate inflammatory processes through an increased response to CCR1- and CCR2-dependent chemokines.

RXR-induced TNF-alpha suppression is reversed by morphine in activated U937 cells

Deficiency in vitamin A has been associated with adverse clinical outcomes in drug users with HIV-1 infection. Retinoids have been demonstrated to suppress proinflammatory cytokine production by immune cells in vitro. These effects are induced by ligand-mediated activation of the retinoid receptors--retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoid X receptor (RXR). In these studies, the effects of all-trans-retinoid acid (ATRA, a RAR agonist), 9-cis-retinoic acid (9cis RA; RAR and RXR agonist), LG101305 (RXR agonist), LG100815 (RAR antagonist) and LG101208 (RXR antagonist) on TNF-alpha production by phytohemagglutanin-activated U937 cells and the modulation of these effects by morphine were examined. TNF-alpha production was suppressed in all cultures exposed to retinoid agonist and antagonist agents. For cells exposed to RXR agonists or RAR antagonist, incubation with morphine resulted in the reversal of TNF-alpha suppression and this effect was inhibited by naloxone. These data suggest that interactions between RXR and morphine are involved in the immune effects of retinoids on TNF-alpha production by activated U937 cells. Such information may be important for understanding interactions between drugs of abuse and immune function in individuals with chronic proinflammatory states such as HIV-1 infection.

Putative metabolic effects of the liver X receptor (LXR)

The nuclear receptors liver X receptor (LXR)alpha and LXRbeta are sensors of cholesterol metabolism and lipid biosynthesis. They have recently been found to be regulators of inflammatory cytokines, suppressors of hepatic glucose production, and involved in different cell-signaling pathways. LXRalpha is a target gene of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma, a target of drugs used in treating elevated levels of glucose seen in diabetes. Furthermore, insulin induces LXRalpha in hepatocytes, resulting in increased expression of lipogenic enzymes and suppression of key enzymes in gluconeogenesis, including PEPCK. LXR seems to have an important role in the regulation of glucocorticoid action and a role in the overall energy homeostasis suggested by its putative regulatory effect on leptin and uncoupling protein 1. The physiological roles of LXR indicate that it is an interesting potential target for drug treatment of diabetes.

A proteomic study of resistance to deoxycholate-induced apoptosis

The development of apoptosis resistance appears to be an important factor in colon carcinogenesis. To gain an understanding of the molecular pathways altered during the development of apoptosis resistance, we selected three cell lines for resistance to induction of apoptosis by deoxycholate, an important etiologic agent in colon cancer. We then evaluated gene expression levels for 825 proteins in these resistant lines, compared with a parallel control line not subject to selection. Eighty-two proteins were identified as either over-expressed or under-expressed in at least two of the resistant lines, compared with the control. Thirty-five of the 82 proteins (43%) proved to have a known role in apoptosis. Of these 35 proteins, 21 were over-expressed and 14 were under-expressed. Of those that were over-expressed 18 of 21 (86%) are anti-apoptotic in some circumstances, of those that were under-expressed 11 of 14 (79%) are pro-apoptotic in some circumstances. This finding suggests that apoptosis resistance during selection among cultured cells, and possibly in the colon during progression to cancer, may arise by constitutive over-expression of multiple anti-apoptotic proteins and under-expression of multiple pro-apoptotic proteins. The major functional groups in which altered expression levels were found are post-translational modification (19 proteins), cell structure (cytoskeleton, microtubule, actin, etc.) (17 proteins), regulatory processes (11 proteins) and DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoint mechanisms (10 proteins). Our findings, overall, bear on mechanisms by which apoptosis resistance arises during progression to colon cancer and suggest potential targets for cancer treatment. In addition, assays of normal-appearing mucosa of colon cancer patients, for over- or under-expression of genes found to be altered in our resistant cell lines, may allow identification of early biomarkers of colon cancer risk.

Oxysterol and 9-cis-retinoic acid stimulate the group IIA secretory phospholipase A2 gene in rat smooth-muscle cells

The inflammation that occurs during rheumatoid arthritis or atherosclerosis is characterized by the release of large amounts of sPLA(2) (group IIA secretory phospholipase A(2)). We have shown previously that the sPLA(2) promoter in SMC (smooth-muscle cells) is activated by interleukin-1beta and cAMP-signalling pathways, through the interplay of multiple transcription factors [Antonio, Brouillet, Janvier, Monne, Bereziat, Andreani, and Raymondjean (2002) Biochem. J. 368, 415-424]. In the present study, we have investigated the regulation of sPLA(2) gene expression in rat aortic SMCs by oxysterols. We found that oxysterol ligands that bind to the LXR (liver X receptor), including 25-HC (25-hydroxycholesterol) and 22( R )-HC, cause the accumulation of sPLA(2) mRNA and an increased enzyme activity. Transient transfection experiments demonstrated that the sPLA(2) promoter is synergistically activated by 22( R )-HC in combination with 9- cis -retinoic acid, a ligand for the LXR heterodimeric partner RXR (retinoid X receptor). Promoter activity was also increased in a sterol-responsive fashion when cells were co-transfected with LXRalpha/RXRalpha or LXRbeta/RXRalpha. Mutagenesis studies and gel mobility-shift assays revealed that LXR/RXR heterodimers regulate sPLA(2) transcription directly, by interacting with a degenerated LXRE (LXR response element) at position [-421/-406] of the sPLA(2) promoter. Chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed the in vivo occupancy of LXR on the sPLA(2) promoter. In addition, the orphan nuclear receptor LRH-1 (liver receptor homologue-1) potentiated the sterol-dependent regulation of the sPLA(2) promoter by binding to an identified promoter element (TCAAGGCTG). Finally, we have demonstrated that oxysterols act independent of interleukin-1beta and cAMP pathways to activate the sPLA(2) promoter. In the present study, we have identified a new pathway activating sPLA(2) gene expression in SMCs.

Liver X receptors and the control of cholesterol homeostasis: potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of atherosclerosis

The liver X receptors (LXRalpha and LXRbeta) are nuclear receptor transcription factors that are activated by certain oxysterol derivatives of cholesterol. As such, LXR activity may be up-regulated by cellular lipid loading or dietary cholesterol intake. Intensive research interest in the LXRs has led to the identification of an expanding list of LXR target genes. The identity of these genes, and their response to LXR activation, indicates that the LXRs play an important role in the response to excess cholesterol, and that their activation may protect against tissue cholesterol overload. In this review, we highlight the multiple roles of the LXRs in controlling cholesterol homeostasis via their coordinated effects on cholesterol synthesis, dietary cholesterol absorption, reverse cholesterol transport, and bile acid synthesis and excretion. We discuss the therapeutic interest of developing LXR agonists, in view of their apparent protective effects against atherosclerosis. However, we also draw attention to the possible undesirable side-effects of LXR activation, and thus the potential interest of developing target gene-specific LXR agonists, or agonists that are specific for only one LXR isoform.

Oxidized products of cholesterol: dietary and metabolic origin, and proatherosclerotic effects (review)

Cholesterol oxidation products, termed oxysterols, are increasingly considered of potential interest in the pathogenesis of atherosclerotic lesions. Of dietary or endogenous origin, oxysterols may occur in significant amounts in low density lipoprotein (LDL) particles, especially in hypercholesterolemic subjects. They likely contribute to the uptake of modified LDL by scavenger receptors and some of them finally accumulate in the subintimal space of major arteries; here cholesterol oxides may favor the perpetuation of a chronic inflammatory state, through their ability to trigger irreversible damage of vascular cells with consequent activation of phagocytes. Furthermore, practically all oxysterols of major pathophysiologic interest have been shown to markedly up-regulate expression and synthesis of adhesion molecules, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Cholesterol oxidation thus appears to be an important biochemical pathway through which it exerts toxic, inflammatory and finally atherogenic effects.

Identification of macrophage liver X receptors as inhibitors of atherosclerosis

Recent studies have identified the liver X receptors (LXR alpha and LXR beta) as important regulators of cholesterol metabolism and transport. LXRs control transcription of genes critical to a range of biological functions including regulation of high density lipoprotein cholesterol metabolism, hepatic cholesterol catabolism, and intestinal sterol absorption. Although LXR activity has been proposed to be critical for physiologic lipid metabolism and transport, direct evidence linking LXR signaling pathways to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease has yet to be established. In this study bone marrow transplantations were used to selectively eliminate macrophage LXR expression in the context of murine models of atherosclerosis. Our results demonstrate that LXRs are endogenous inhibitors of atherogenesis. Additionally, elimination of LXR activity in bone marrow-derived cells mimics many aspects of Tangier disease, a human high density lipoprotein deficiency, including aberrant regulation of cholesterol transporter expression, lipid accumulation in macrophages, splenomegaly, and increased atherosclerosis. These results identify LXRs as targets for intervention in cardiovascular disease.