Regulated nucleocytoplasmic transport of protein kinase D in response to G protein-coupled receptor activation

Protein kinase D directly phosphorylates histone deacetylase 5 via a random sequential kinetic mechanism

Class II histone deacetylases (HDACs) are signal-responsive repressors of gene transcription. In the heart, class II HDAC5 suppresses expression of genes that govern stress-induced cardiomyocyte growth. Signaling via pro-growth G protein coupled receptors triggers phosphorylation of HDAC5 on two serine residues (Ser(259) and Ser(498)), resulting in nuclear export of HDAC5 and de-repression downstream target genes. Although prior studies established a role for protein kinase D (PKD) in the regulation of HDAC5 phosphorylation, it remained unclear whether PKD functions directly or indirectly to control the phosphorylation status of this transcriptional repressor. Here, we demonstrate that PKD catalyzes direct phosphoryl-group transfer to Ser(498) of HDAC5. Each of the three PKD family members, PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3, is capable of phosphorylating HDAC5 (K(m) for substrate=2.07, 3.12, and 1.43microM, respectively), although PKD2 exhibits highest catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)=6.77min(-1)microM(-1)). Kinetic studies revealed that the three PKD isozymes phosphorylate HDAC5 through a random sequential mechanism, and that ATP has no effect on association of kinase with peptide substrate. In addition, we demonstrate that ADP competitively inhibits phosphorylation of HDAC5 (K(i)=8.50, 17.54, and 11.98microM for PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3, respectively). These findings define PKD as an HDAC kinase and thus suggest key roles for PKD family members in the control of chromatin structure and gene expression.

The C-terminal tail of protein kinase D2 and protein kinase D3 regulates their intracellular distribution

We generated a set of GFP-tagged chimeras between protein kinase D2 (PKD2) and protein kinase D3 (PKD3) to examine in live cells the contribution of their C-terminal region to their intracellular localization. We found that the catalytic domain of PKD2 and PKD3 can localize to the nucleus when expressed without other kinase domains. However, when the C-terminal tail of PKD2 was added to its catalytic domain, the nuclear localization of the resulting protein was inhibited. In contrast, the nuclear localization of the CD of PKD3 was not inhibited by its C-terminal tail. Furthermore, the exchange of the C-terminal tail of PKD2 and PKD3 in the full-length proteins was sufficient to exchange their intracellular localization. Collectively, these data demonstrate that the short C-terminal tail of these kinases plays a critical role in determining their cytoplasmic/nuclear localization.

The nuclear import of protein kinase D3 requires its catalytic activity

The protein kinase D (PKD) family consists of three serine/threonine protein kinases termed PKD, PKD2, and PKD3, which are similar in overall structure and primary amino acid sequence. However, each isozyme displays a distinctive intracellular localization. Taking advantage of the structural homology and opposite nuclear localization of PKD2 and PKD3, we generated an extensive set of chimeric proteins between both isozymes to determine which PKD3 domain(s) mediates its nuclear localization. We found that the C-terminal region of PKD3, which contains its catalytic domain, is necessary but not sufficient for its nuclear localization. Real time imaging of a photoactivatable green fluorescent protein fused to PKD3 revealed that point mutations that render PKD3 catalytically inactive completely prevented its nuclear import despite its interaction with importin alpha and beta. We also found that activation loop phosphorylation of PKD3 did not require its nuclear localization, and it was not sufficient to promote the nuclear import of PKD3. These results identify a novel function for the kinase activity of PKD3 in promoting its nuclear entry and suggest that the catalytic activity of PKD3 may regulate its nuclear import through autophosphorylation and/or interaction with another protein(s).

Activation of protein kinase D3 by signaling through Rac and the alpha subunits of the heterotrimeric G proteins G12 and G13

PKD is the founding member of a novel protein kinase family that also includes PKD2 and PKD3. PKD has been the focus of most studies up to date, but little is known about the mechanisms that mediate PKD3 activation. Here, we show that addition of aluminum fluoride to COS-7 cells cotransfected with PKD3 and Galpha13 or Galpha12 induced PKD3 activation, which was associated with a transient plasma membrane translocation of cytosolic PKD3. Treatment with Clostridium difficile toxin B blocked PKD3 activation induced by either bombesin or by aluminum fluoride-stimulated Galpha12/13 but did not affect Galphaq-induced PKD3 activation. Furthermore, PKD3 immunoprecipitated from cells cotransfected with a constitutively active Rac (RacV12) exhibited a marked increase in PKD3 basal catalytic activity. In contrast, cotransfection with active Rho (RhoQ63L), Cdc42 (Cdc42Q61L), or Ras (RasV12) did not promote PKD3 activation. Expression of either COOH-terminal dominant-negative fragment of Galpha13 or dominant negative Rac (Rac N17) attenuated bombesin-induced PKD3 activation. Treatment with protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors prevented the increase in PKD3 activity induced by RacV12 and aluminum fluoride-stimulated Galpha12/13. The catalytic activation of PKD3 in response to RacV12, alpha12/13 signaling or bombesin correlated with Ser-731/Ser-735 phosphorylation in the activation loop of this enzyme. Our results indicate that Galpha12/13 and Rac are important components in the signal transduction pathways that mediate bombesin receptor-induced PKD3 activation.

Role of the regulatory domain of protein kinase D2 in phorbol ester binding, catalytic activity, and nucleocytoplasmic shuttling

Protein kinase D2 (PKD2) belongs to the PKD family of serine/threonine kinases that is activated by phorbol esters and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Its C-terminal regulatory domain comprises two cysteine-rich domains (C1a/C1b) followed by a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain. Here, we examined the role of the regulatory domain in PKD2 phorbol ester binding, catalytic activity, and subcellular localization: The PH domain is a negative regulator of kinase activity. C1a/C1b, in particular C1b, is required for phorbol ester binding and gastrin-stimulated PKD2 activation, but it has no inhibitory effect on the catalytic activity. Gastrin triggers nuclear accumulation of PKD2 in living AGS-B cancer cells. C1a/C1b, not the PH domain, plays a complex role in the regulation of nucleocytoplasmic shuttling: We identified a nuclear localization sequence in the linker region between C1a and C1b and a nuclear export signal in the C1a domain. In conclusion, our results define the critical components of the PKD2 regulatory domain controlling phorbol ester binding, catalytic activity, and nucleocytoplasmic shuttling and reveal marked differences to the regulatory properties of this domain in PKD1. These findings could explain functional differences between PKD isoforms and point to a functional role of PKD2 in the nucleus upon activation by GPCRs.

Regulation of protein kinase D during differentiation and proliferation of primary mouse keratinocytes

Diseased skin often exhibits a deregulated program of the keratinocyte maturation necessary for epidermal stratification and function. Protein kinase D (PKD), a serine/threonine kinase, is expressed in proliferating keratinocytes, and PKD activation occurs in response to mitogen stimulation in other cell types. We have proposed that PKD functions as a pro-proliferative and/or anti-differentiative signal in keratinocytes and hypothesized that differentiation inducers will downmodulate PKD to allow differentiation to proceed. Thus, changes in PKD levels, autophosphorylation, and activity were analyzed upon stimulation of differentiation and proliferation in primary mouse keratinocytes. Elevated extracellular calcium and acute 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) treatments induced differentiation and triggered a downmodulation of PKD levels, autophosphorylation at serine 916, and activity. Chronic TPA treatment stimulated proliferation and resulted in a recovery of PKD levels, autophosphorylation, and activity. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated PKD localization predominantly in the proliferative basal layer of mouse epidermis. Co-expression studies revealed a pro-proliferative, anti-differentiative effect of PKD on keratinocyte maturation as monitored by increased and decreased promoter activities of keratin 5, a proliferative marker, and involucrin, a differentiative marker, respectively. This work describes the inverse regulation of PKD during keratinocyte differentiation and proliferation and the pro-proliferative/anti-differentiative effects of PKD co-expression on keratinocyte maturation.

Phosphorylation of histone deacetylase 7 by protein kinase D mediates T cell receptor-induced Nur77 expression and apoptosis

The molecular basis of thymocyte negative selection, a crucial mechanism in establishing central tolerance, is not yet resolved. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) have emerged as key transcriptional regulators in several major developmental programs. Recently, we showed that the class IIa member, HDAC7, regulates negative selection by repressing expression of Nur77, an orphan nuclear receptor involved in antigen-induced apoptosis of thymocytes. Engagement of the T cell receptor (TCR) alleviates this repression through phosphorylation-dependent nuclear exclusion of HDAC7. However, the identity of the TCR-activated kinase that phosphorylates and inactivates HDAC7 was still unknown. Here, we demonstrate that TCR-induced nuclear export of HDAC7 and Nur77 expression is mediated by activation of protein kinase D (PKD). Indeed, active PKD stimulates HDAC7 nuclear export and Nur77 expression. In contrast, inhibition of PKD prevents TCR-mediated nuclear exclusion of HDAC7 and associated Nur77 activation. Furthermore, we show that HDAC7 is an interaction partner and a substrate for PKD. We identify four serine residues in the NH₂ terminus of HDAC7 as targets for PKD. More importantly, a mutant of HDAC7 specifically deficient in phosphorylation by PKD, inhibits TCR-mediated apoptosis of T cell hybridomas. These findings indicate that PKD is likely to play a key role in the signaling pathways controlling negative selection.

G protein-coupled receptor-mediated phosphorylation of the activation loop of protein kinase D: dependence on plasma membrane translocation and protein kinase Cepsilon

Protein kinase D (PKD) is a serine/threonine protein kinase activated by G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists through an incompletely characterized mechanism that includes its reversible plasma membrane translocation and activation loop phosphorylation via a protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent pathway. To gain a better understanding of the mechanism regulating the activation of PKD in response to GPCR stimulation, we investigated the role of its rapid plasma membrane translocation on its activation loop phosphorylation and identified the endogenous PKC isozyme that mediates that event in vivo. We had found that the activation loop of a PKD mutant, with reduced affinity for diacylglycerol and phorbol esters, was only phosphorylated upon its plasma membrane association. We also found that the activation loop phosphorylation and rapid plasma membrane dissociation of PKD were inhibited either by preventing the plasma membrane translocation of PKCepsilon, through abolition of its interaction with receptor for activated C kinase, or by suppressing the expression of PKCepsilon via specific small interfering RNAs. Thus, this study demonstrates that the plasma membrane translocation of PKD, in response to GPCR stimulation, is necessary for the PKCepsilon-mediated phosphorylation of the activation loop of PKD and that this event requires the translocation of both kinases to the plasma membrane. Based on these and previous results, we propose a model of GPCR-mediated PKD regulation that integrates its changes in distribution, catalytic activity, and multisite phosphorylation.

Oxidative Stress Induces Protein Kinase C-mediated Activation Loop Phosphorylation and Nuclear Redistribution of Protein Kinase D

Oxidative stress induced by cell treatments with H(2)O(2) activates protein kinase D (PKD) via a protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent signal transduction pathway (Waldron, R. T., and Rozengurt, E. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 17114-17121). Here we show that oxidative stress induces PKC-dependent activation loop Ser(744) and Ser(748) phosphorylation to mediate dose- and time-dependent activation of PKD, both endogenously expressed in Swiss 3T3 cells and stably overexpressed in Swiss 3T3-GFP.PKD cells. Although oxidative stress induced PKD activation loop phosphorylation and activation with identical kinetics, both were dose-dependently blocked by preincubation of cells with selective inhibitors of PKC (GF109203X and Gö6983) or c-Src (PP2). Inhibition of Src tyrosine kinase activity eliminated oxidative stress-induced direct PKD tyrosine phosphorylation, but only partially attenuated activation loop phosphorylation and activation. Mutation of a putative tyrosine phosphorylation site on PKD, Tyr(469) to phenylalanine, had no effect on its activation by oxidative stress in transfected COS-7 cells. Similarly, a mutant with Tyr(469) replaced by aspartic acid had increased basal activity but was also further activated by oxidative stress. Thus, PKD tyrosine phosphorylation at this site neither produced full activation by itself nor was required for oxidative stress-induced activation mediated by activation loop phosphorylation. In addition to PKD activation, activation loop phosphorylation in response to oxidative stress also redistributed activated PKD to cell nuclei, as revealed by PKD indirect immunofluorescence, imaging of a PKD-green fluorescent protein fusion construct (GFP-PKD), and analysis of nuclear pellets. Cell preincubation with Gö6983 strongly diminished H(2)O(2)-induced nuclear relocalization of GFP-PKD. Taken together, these results indicate that PKC-mediated PKD Ser(744) and Ser(748) phosphorylation induced by oxidative stress integrates PKD activation with redistribution to the nucleus.

Hepatocyte resistance to oxidative stress is dependent on protein kinase C-mediated down-regulation of c-Jun/AP-1

The prevention of injury from reactive oxygen species is critical for cellular resistance to many death stimuli. Resistance to death from the superoxide generator menadione in the hepatocyte cell line RALA255-10G is dependent on down-regulation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/AP-1 signaling pathway by extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2). Because protein kinase C (PKC) regulates both oxidant stress and JNK signaling, the ability of PKC to modulate hepatocyte death from menadione through effects on AP-1 was examined. PKC inhibition with Ro-31-8425 or bisindolylmaleimide I sensitized this cell line to death from menadione. Menadione treatment led to activation of PKCmicro, or protein kinase D (PKD), but not PKCalpha/beta, PKCzeta/lambda, or PKCdelta/. Menadione induced phosphorylation of PKD at Ser-744/748, but not Ser-916, and translocation of PKD to the nucleus. PKC inhibition blocked menadione-induced phosphorylation of PKD, and expression of a constitutively active PKD prevented death from Ro-31-8425/menadione. PKC inhibition led to a sustained overactivation of JNK and c-Jun in response to menadione as determined by in vitro kinase assay and immunoblotting for the phosphorylated forms of both proteins. Cell death from PKC inhibition and menadione treatment resulted from c-Jun activation, since death was blocked by adenoviral expression of the c-Jun dominant negative TAM67. PKC and ERK1/2 independently down-regulated JNK/c-Jun, since inhibition of either kinase failed to affect activation of the other kinase, and simultaneous inhibition of both pathways caused additive JNK/c-Jun activation and cell death. Resistance to death from superoxide therefore requires both PKC/PKD and ERK1/2 activation in order to down-regulate proapoptotic JNK/c-Jun signaling.

Protein kinase D potentiates DNA synthesis induced by Gq-coupled receptors by increasing the duration of ERK signaling in swiss 3T3 cells

Protein kinase D (PKD) potentiates cellular DNA synthesis in response to G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists but the mechanism(s) involved has not been elucidated. Here, we examined whether PKD overexpression in Swiss 3T3 cells regulates the activation/inactivation kinetics of the extracellular-regulated protein kinase (ERK) in response to the mitogenic GPCR agonists bombesin and vasopressin. Addition of bombesin or vasopressin to Swiss 3T3 cells overexpressing PKD induced a striking increase in the duration of MEK/ERK/RSK activation as compared with cultures of either control Swiss 3T3 cells or Swiss 3T3 cells expressing a kinase-inactive PKD mutant. In contrast, the duration of ERK activation in response to epidermal growth factor, which acts via protein kinase C/PKD-independent pathways, was not increased. Furthermore, bombesin or vasopressin promoted a striking increase in phosphorylation (at Ser-374) and accumulation of c-Fos (the c-fos proto-oncogene product) in Swiss 3T3 cells overexpressing wild-type (but not kinase-inactive) PKD. Inhibition of the sustained phase of ERK/RSK activation abrogated the increase in c-Fos accumulation and DNA synthesis induced by bombesin or vasopressin in PKD-overexpressing cells. Our results demonstrate that PKD selectively potentiates mitogenesis induced by bombesin or vasopressin in Swiss 3T3 cells by increasing the duration of MEK/ERK/RSK signaling.

A novel interaction between protein kinase D and TNF receptor-associated factor molecules regulates B cell receptor-CD40 synergy

Signaling by Ag to the B cell Ag receptor (BCR) is enhanced by several cooperating signals, including several provided by B-T cell interactions. One of these, CD40, provides critical signals for B cell differentiation, isotype switching, and B cell memory. The molecular mechanisms by which BCR and CD40 signals synergize are not well understood. Although the BCR and CD40 share certain signaling pathways, we hypothesized that unique signals provided by each could provide mutual enhancement of their signaling pathways. The BCR, but not CD40, activates protein kinase D (PKD), while CD40, but not the BCR, employs the TNFR-associated factor (TRAF) adapter proteins in signaling. In this study, we show that genetic or pharmacologic inhibition of BCR-mediated PKD activation in B lymphocytes abrogated the synergy between the CD40 and the BCR, as measured by activation of Ig and cytokine secretion. Interestingly, the role of PKD was dependent upon the association of CD40 with TRAF2, and was inhibited by the binding of TRAF3, revealing a novel functional link between these two classes of signaling molecules.

Intracellular Location and Cell Context-Dependent Function of Protein Kinase D

Protein kinase D (PKD) is an antigen receptor-activated serine kinase localized at either the plasma membrane or the cytosol of lymphocytes. To probe PKD function at these different locations, transgenesis was used to target active PKD either to the membrane or cytosol of pre-T cells. In recombinase gene null pre-T cells, membrane and cytosolic active PKD both induced differentiation reminiscent of beta selection: downregulation of CD25 and upregulation of CD2 and CD5. Active PKDs also induced pre-T cell proliferation, although this response was not universal to all thymocyte subsets. There were two striking differences between the actions of the differentially localized PKDs. Membrane but not cytosolic PKD could induce expression of CD8 and CD4 in recombinase null mice; cytosolic but not membrane PKD suppressed Vbeta to DJbeta rearrangements of the TCRbeta chain locus in wild-type T cells. PKD function is thus determined by its intracellular location and cell context.

Vasopressin-induced intracellular redistribution of protein kinase D in intestinal epithelial cells

The spatio-temporal changes of signaling molecules in response to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) stimulation is a poorly understood process in intestinal epithelial cells. Here we investigate the dynamic mechanisms associated with GPCR signaling in living rat intestinal epithelial cells by characterizing the intracellular translocation of protein kinase D (PKD), a serine/threonine protein kinase involved in mitogenic signaling in intestinal epithelial cells. Analysis of the intracellular steady-state distribution of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged PKD indicated that in non-stimulated IEC-18 cells, GFP-PKD is predominantly cytoplasmic. However, cell stimulation with the GPCR agonist vasopressin induces a rapid translocation of GFP-PKD from the cytosol to the plasma membrane that is accompanied by its activation via protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated process and posterior plasma membrane dissociation. Subsequently, active PKD is imported into the nuclei where it transiently accumulates before being exported into the cytosol by a mechanism that requires a competent Crm1 nuclear export pathway. These findings provide evidence for a mechanism by which PKC coordinates in intestinal epithelial cells the translocation and activation of PKD in response to vasopressin-induced GPCR activation.

Protein kinase D: a family affair

The protein kinase D family of enzymes consists of three isoforms: PKD1/PKCmu PKD2 and PKD3/PKCnu. They all share a similar architecture with regulatory sub-domains that play specific roles in the activation, translocation and function of the enzymes. The PKD enzymes have recently been implicated in very diverse cellular functions, including Golgi organization and plasma membrane directed transport, metastasis, immune responses, apoptosis and cell proliferation.

Protein kinase C nu/protein kinase D3 nuclear localization, catalytic activation, and intracellular redistribution in response to G protein-coupled receptor agonists

The protein kinase D (PKD) family consists of three serine/threonine kinases: PKC micro/PKD, PKD2, and PKCnu/PKD3. Whereas PKD has been the focus of most studies, virtually nothing is known about the effect of G protein-coupled receptor agonists (GPCR) on the regulatory properties and intracellular distribution of PKD3. Consequently, we examined the mechanism that mediates its activation and intracellular distribution. GPCR agonists induced a rapid activation of PKD3 by a protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent pathway that leads to the phosphorylation of the activation loop of PKD3. Comparison of the steady-state distribution of endogenous or tagged PKD3 versus PKD and PKD2 in unstimulated cells indicated that whereas PKD and PKD2 are predominantly cytoplasmic, PKD3 is present both in the nucleus and cytoplasm. This distribution of PKD3 results from its continuous shuttling between both compartments by a mechanism that requires a nuclear import receptor and a competent CRM1-nuclear export pathway. Cell stimulation with the GPCR agonist neurotensin induced a rapid and reversible plasma membrane translocation of PKD3 that is PKC-dependent. Interestingly, the nuclear accumulation of PKD3 can be dramatically enhanced in response to its activation. Thus, this study demonstrates that the intracellular distribution of PKD isoenzymes are distinct, and suggests that their signaling properties are regulated by differential localization.

Mechanism of persistent protein kinase D1 translocation and activation

The specificity of many signal transduction pathways relies on the spatiotemporal features of each signaling step. G protein-coupled receptor-mediated activation of protein kinases leads to diverse cellular effects. Upon receptor activation, PKD1 and several C-type protein kinases (PKCs), translocate to the plasma membrane and become catalytically active. Here we show that, unlike PKCs, PKD1 remains active at the membrane for hours. The two DAG binding C1 domains of PKD1 have distinct functional roles in targeting and maintaining PKD1 at the plasma membrane. C1A achieves fast, maximal, and reversible translocation, while C1B translocates partially, but persistently, to the plasma membrane. The persistent localization requires the C1B domain of PKD1, which binds Galphaq. We incorporate the kinetics of PKD1 translocation into a three-state model that suggests how PKD1 binding to DAG and Galphaq uniquely encodes frequency-dependent PKD1 signaling.

Intracellular redistribution of protein kinase D2 in response to G-protein-coupled receptor agonists

The protein kinase D (PKD) family consists of three serine/threonine protein kinases: PKC mu/PKD, PKD2, and PKC nu/PKD3. While PKD has been the focus of most studies to date, no information is available on the intracellular distribution of PKD2. Consequently, we examined the mechanism that regulates its intracellular distribution in human pancreatic carcinoma Panc-1 cells. Analysis of the intracellular steady-state distribution of fluorescent-tagged PKD2 in unstimulated cells indicated that this kinase is predominantly cytoplasmic. Cell stimulation with the G protein-coupled receptor agonist neurotensin induced a rapid and reversible plasma membrane translocation of PKD2 by a mechanism that requires PKC activity. In contrast to the other PKD isoenzymes, PKD2 activation did not induce its redistribution from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. Thus, this study demonstrates that the regulation of the distribution of PKD2 is distinct from other PKD isoenzymes, and suggests that the differential spatio-temporal localization of these signaling molecules regulates their specific signaling properties.

Protein kinase C phosphorylates protein kinase D activation loop Ser744 and Ser748 and releases autoinhibition by the pleckstrin homology domain

Persistent activation of protein kinase D (PKD) via protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated signal transduction is accompanied by phosphorylation at Ser(744) and Ser(748) located in the catalytic domain activation loop, but whether PKC isoforms directly phosphorylate these residues, induce PKD autophosphorylation, or recruit intermediate upstream kinase(s) is unclear. Here, we explore the mechanism whereby PKC activates PKD in response to cellular stimuli. We first assessed in vitro PKC-PKD transphosphorylation and PKD activation. A PKD738-753 activation loop peptide was well phosphorylated by immunoprecipitated PKC isoforms, consistent with similarities between the loop and their known substrate specificities. A similar peptide with glutamic acid replacing Ser(748) was preferentially phosphorylated by PKCepsilon, suggesting that PKD containing phosphate at Ser(748) is rapidly targeted by this isoform at Ser(744). When incubated in the presence of phosphatidylserine, phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate and ATP, intact PKD slowly autophosphorylated in the activation loop but only at Ser(748). In contrast, addition of purified PKCepsilon to the incubation mixture induced rapid Ser(744) and Ser(748) phosphorylation, concomitant with persistent 2-3-fold increases in PKD activity, measured using reimmunoprecipitated PKD to phosphorylate an exogenous peptide, syntide-2. We also further examined pleckstrin homology domain-mediated PKD regulation to determine its relationship with activation loop phosphorylation. The high constitutive activity of the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain deletion mutant PKD-deltaPH was not abrogated by mutation of Ser(744) and Ser(748) to alanines, suggesting that one function of activation loop phosphorylation in the PKD activation mechanism is to relieve autoinhibition by the PH domain. These studies provide evidence of a direct PKCepsilon-PKD phosphorylation cascade and provide additional insight into the activation mechanism.

Move over protein kinase C, you've got company: alternative cellular effectors of diacylglycerol and phorbol esters

Diacylglycerol is an essential second messenger in mammalian cells. The most prominent intracellular targets of diacylglycerol and of the functionally analogous phorbol esters belong to the protein kinase C (PKC) family. However, at least five alternative types of high-affinity diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester receptor are known: chimaerins, protein kinase D, RasGRPs, Munc13s and DAG kinase gamma. Recent evidence indicates that these have functional roles in diacylglycerol second messenger signalling in vivo and that several cellular processes depend on these targets rather than protein kinase C isozymes. These findings contradict the still prevalent view according to which all diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester effects are caused by the activation of protein kinase C isozymes. RasGRP1 (in Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signalling) and Munc13-1 (in neurotransmitter secretion) are examples of non-PKC diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester receptors that mediate diacylglycerol and phorbol-ester effects originally thought to be caused by PKC isozymes. In the future, pharmacological studies on PKC must be complemented with alternative experimental approaches to allow the separation of PKC-mediated effects from those caused by alternative targets of the diacylglycerol second messenger pathway. The examples of RasGRP1 and Munc13-1 show that detailed genetic analyses of C(1)-domain-containing non-PKC diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester receptors in mammals are ideally suited to achieve this goal.

Protein kinase D: an intracellular traffic regulator on the move

Recent research has identified protein kinase D (PKD, also called PKCmu) as a serine/threonine kinase with potentially important roles in growth factor signaling as well as in stress-induced signaling. Moreover, PKD has emerged as an important regulator of plasma membrane enzymes and receptors, in some cases mediating cross-talk between different signaling systems. The recent discovery of two additional kinases belonging to the PKD family and the plethora of proteins that interact with PKD point to a multifaceted regulation and a multifunctional role for these enzymes, with functions in processes as diverse as cell proliferation, apoptosis, immune cell regulation, tumor cell invasion and regulation of Golgi vesicle fission.