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Bender KW, Blackburn RK, Monaghan J, Derbyshire P, Menke FLH, Zipfel C, Goshe MB, Zielinski RE, Huber SC. Autophosphorylation-based Calcium (Ca 2+) Sensitivity Priming and Ca 2+/Calmodulin Inhibition of Arabidopsis thaliana Ca 2+-dependent Protein Kinase 28 (CPK28). J Biol Chem 2017; 292:3988-4002. [PMID: 28154194 PMCID: PMC5354511 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.763243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant calcium (Ca2+)-dependent protein kinases (CPKs) represent the primary Ca2+-dependent protein kinase activities in plant systems. CPKs are composed of a dual specificity (Ser/Thr and Tyr) kinase domain tethered to a calmodulin-like domain (CLD) via an autoinhibitory junction (J). Although regulation of CPKs by Ca2+ has been extensively studied, the contribution of autophosphorylation in controlling CPK activity is less well understood. Furthermore, whether calmodulin (CaM) contributes to CPK regulation, as is the case for Ca2+/CaM-dependent protein kinases outside the plant lineage, remains an open question. We therefore screened a subset of plant CPKs for CaM binding and found that CPK28 is a high affinity Ca2+/CaM-binding protein. Using synthetic peptides and native gel electrophoresis, we coarsely mapped the CaM-binding domain to a site within the CPK28 J domain that overlaps with the known site of intramolecular interaction between the J domain and the CLD. Peptide kinase activity of fully dephosphorylated CPK28 was Ca2+-responsive and was inhibited by Ca2+/CaM. Using in situ autophosphorylated protein, we expand on the known set of CPK28 autophosphorylation sites, and we demonstrate that, unexpectedly, autophosphorylated CPK28 had enhanced kinase activity at physiological concentrations of Ca2+ compared with the dephosphorylated protein, suggesting that autophosphorylation functions to prime CPK28 for Ca2+ activation and might also allow CPK28 to remain active when Ca2+ levels are low. Furthermore, CPK28 autophosphorylation substantially reduced sensitivity of the kinase to Ca2+/CaM inhibition. Overall, our analyses uncover new complexities in the control of CPK28 and provide mechanistic support for Ca2+ signaling specificity through Ca2+ sensor priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle W Bender
- From the Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801,
| | - R Kevin Blackburn
- the Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | | | - Paul Derbyshire
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Frank L H Menke
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Cyril Zipfel
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Michael B Goshe
- the Department of Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
| | - Raymond E Zielinski
- From the Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801,
| | - Steven C Huber
- From the Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801.,the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Urbana, Illinois 61801
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Abstract
Calcium-dependent protein kinases undergo a rapid biochemical activation in response to an intracellular Ca increase induced by the PRR-dependent perception of a pathogen-related stimulus. Based on SDS gel resolution, the in-gel kinase assay allows the analysis of multiple in vivo protein samples in parallel, combining the advantage of protein separation according to molecular mass with the activity read-out of a protein kinase assay. It thus enables to follow the transient CDPK activation and inactivation in response to in vivo elicitation with a time-wise resolution. In addition, changes of CDPK phosphorylation activity often correlate with slight shifts in the enzyme's apparent molecular mass, indicating posttranslational modifications and a conformational change of the active enzyme compared to its inactive resting form. These band shifts can be detected by a simple immunoblotting to monitor CDPK activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Seybold
- Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Plant Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 12-16, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marie Boudsocq
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université d'Evry Val d'Essonne, Université Paris-Diderot, Sorbonne Paris-Cité, Université Paris-Saclay, Bâtiment 630, 91405, Orsay, France.
| | - Tina Romeis
- Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Plant Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 12-16, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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Abstract
Plants are sessile organisms exposed constantly to potential virulent microbes seeking for full pathogenesis in hosts. Different from animals employing both adaptive and innate immune systems, plants only rely on innate immunity to detect and fight against pathogen invasions. Plant innate immunity is proposed to be a two-tiered immune system including pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity. In PTI, PAMPs, the elicitors derived from microbial pathogens, are perceived by cell surface-localized proteins, known as pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including receptor-like kinases (RLKs) and receptor-like proteins (RLPs). As single-pass transmembrane proteins, RLKs and RLPs contain an extracellular domain (ECD) responsible for ligand binding. Recognitions of signal molecules by PRR-ECDs induce homo- or heterooligomerization of RLKs and RLPs to trigger corresponding intracellular immune responses. RLKs possess a cytoplasmic Ser/Thr kinase domain that is absent in RLPs, implying that protein phosphorylations underlie key mechanism in transducing immunity signalings and that RLPs unlikely mediate signal transduction independently, and recruitment of other patterns, such as RLKs, is required for the function of RLPs in plant immunity. Receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases, resembling RLK structures but lacking the ECD, act as immediate substrates of PRRs, modulating PRR activities and linking PRRs with downstream signaling mediators. In this chapter, we summarize recent discoveries illustrating the molecular machines of major components of PRR complexes in mediating pathogen perception and immunity activation in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- K He
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.
| | - Y Wu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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Chen T, Bi K, He Z, Gao Z, Zhao Y, Fu Y, Cheng J, Xie J, Jiang D. Arabidopsis Mutant bik1 Exhibits Strong Resistance to Plasmodiophora brassicae. Front Physiol 2016; 7:402. [PMID: 27679580 PMCID: PMC5020103 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Botrytis-induced kinase1 (BIK1), a receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase, plays an important role in resistance against pathogens and insects in Arabidopsis thaliana. However, it remains unknown whether BIK1 functions against Plasmodiophora brassicae, an obligate biotrophic protist that attacks cruciferous plants and induces gall formation on roots. Here, we investigated the potential roles of receptors FLS2, BAK1, and BIK1 in the infection of P. brassicae cruciferous plants. Wild-type plants, fls2, and bak1 mutants showed typical symptom on roots, and the galls were filled with large quantities of resting spores, while bik1 mutant plants exhibited strong resistance to P. brassicae. Compared with that of the wild-type plants, the root hair and cortical infection rate of bik1 mutant were significantly reduced by about 40-50%. A considerable portion of bik1 roots failed to form typical galls. Even if some small galls were formed, they were filled with multinucleate secondary plasmodia. The bik1 plants accumulated less reactive oxygen species (ROS) at infected roots than other mutants and wild-type plants. Exogenous salicylic acid (SA) treatment alleviated the clubroot symptoms in wild-type plants, and the expression of the SA signaling marker gene PR1 was significantly increased in bik1. Both sid2 (salicylic acid induction-deficient 2) and npr1-1 [non-expresser of PR genes that regulate systemic acquired resistance (SAR)] mutants showed increased susceptibility to P. brassicae compared with wild-type plants. These results suggest that the resistance of bik1 to P. brassicae is possibly mediated by SA inducible mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Kai Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Zhangchao He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Zhixiao Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Ying Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Yanping Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Jiasen Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Jiatao Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
| | - Daohong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
- The Provincial Key Lab of Plant Pathology of Hubei Province, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan, China
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Couto D, Niebergall R, Liang X, Bücherl CA, Sklenar J, Macho AP, Ntoukakis V, Derbyshire P, Altenbach D, Maclean D, Robatzek S, Uhrig J, Menke F, Zhou JM, Zipfel C. The Arabidopsis Protein Phosphatase PP2C38 Negatively Regulates the Central Immune Kinase BIK1. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005811. [PMID: 27494702 PMCID: PMC4975489 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via cell surface-localized pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), leading to PRR-triggered immunity (PTI). The Arabidopsis cytoplasmic kinase BIK1 is a downstream substrate of several PRR complexes. How plant PTI is negatively regulated is not fully understood. Here, we identify the protein phosphatase PP2C38 as a negative regulator of BIK1 activity and BIK1-mediated immunity. PP2C38 dynamically associates with BIK1, as well as with the PRRs FLS2 and EFR, but not with the co-receptor BAK1. PP2C38 regulates PAMP-induced BIK1 phosphorylation and impairs the phosphorylation of the NADPH oxidase RBOHD by BIK1, leading to reduced oxidative burst and stomatal immunity. Upon PAMP perception, PP2C38 is phosphorylated on serine 77 and dissociates from the FLS2/EFR-BIK1 complexes, enabling full BIK1 activation. Together with our recent work on the control of BIK1 turnover, this study reveals another important regulatory mechanism of this central immune component. Plants use immune receptors at the cell surface to perceive microbial molecules and initiate a broad-spectrum defence response against pathogens. However, the induction and amplitude of immune signalling must be tightly regulated. Immune responses are triggered by ligand binding to a cognate receptor, which is present in dynamic kinase complexes that heavily rely on trans-phosphorylation to initiate signalling. The cytoplasmic kinase BIK1 associates with different immune receptors and plays a central role in the activation of downstream immune signalling. We show here that the Arabidopsis thaliana protein phosphatase PP2C38 negatively regulates immune responses by controlling the phosphorylation and activation status of BIK1. Furthermore, we propose a mechanism that relieves this negative regulation involving PP2C38 phosphorylation and dissociation from BIK1. These findings extend our knowledge on how plant immunity is appropriately regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Couto
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Roda Niebergall
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Xiangxiu Liang
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | | | - Jan Sklenar
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Alberto P. Macho
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Vardis Ntoukakis
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Derbyshire
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Denise Altenbach
- Max-Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Dan Maclean
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Silke Robatzek
- Max-Planck-Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Joachim Uhrig
- Botanical Institute III, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Frank Menke
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Jian-Min Zhou
- Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Cyril Zipfel
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Zhu K, Chen F, Liu J, Chen X, Hewezi T, Cheng ZM(M. Evolution of an intron-poor cluster of the CIPK gene family and expression in response to drought stress in soybean. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28225. [PMID: 27311690 PMCID: PMC4911590 DOI: 10.1038/srep28225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium ion is an intracellular messenger that plays a central role in signal transduction pathways. Calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs) and CBL-interacting protein kinases (CIPKs) signal network have shown different functions in the Ca(2+) signaling process. In this work, we identified the entire soybean (Glycine max) CIPK gene family, which comprised 52 genes and divided into four subgroups (I to IV) based on phylogeny. The gene structural analysis separated these 52 genes into an intron-rich clade and an intron-poor clade. Chromosomal location analysis resulted in the identification of 22 duplicated blocks and six tandem duplication events. Phylogenetic classification of 193 CIPK proteins from representative plant species suggested that the intron-poor clade of CIPKs originated in seed plants. Analysis of global gene expression patterns of soybean CIPK family revealed that most intron-poor soybean CIPK genes are drought-inducible; a finding that was further confirmed using qRT-PCR. Our study provides a foundation for further functional analysis to reveal the roles that CIPKs and more specifically the intron-poor clade play in drought tolerance in soybean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaikai Zhu
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Fei Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Jinyi Liu
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Xinlu Chen
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Tarek Hewezi
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
| | - Zong-Ming (Max) Cheng
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
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Simeunovic A, Mair A, Wurzinger B, Teige M. Know where your clients are: subcellular localization and targets of calcium-dependent protein kinases. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:3855-72. [PMID: 27117335 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are at the forefront of decoding transient Ca(2+) signals into physiological responses. They play a pivotal role in many aspects of plant life starting from pollen tube growth, during plant development, and in stress response to senescence and cell death. At the cellular level, Ca(2+) signals have a distinct, narrow distribution, thus requiring a conjoined localization of the decoders. Accordingly, most CDPKs have a distinct subcellular distribution which enables them to 'sense' the local Ca(2+) concentration and to interact specifically with their targets. Here we present a comprehensive overview of identified CDPK targets and discuss them in the context of kinase-substrate specificity and subcellular distribution of the CDPKs. This is particularly relevant for calcium-mediated phosphorylation where different CDPKs, as well as other kinases, were frequently reported to be involved in the regulation of the same target. However, often these studies were not performed in an in situ context. Thus, considering the specific expression patterns, distinct subcellular distribution, and different Ca(2+) affinities of CDPKs will narrow down the number of potential CDPKs for one given target. A number of aspects still remain unresolved, giving rise to pending questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Simeunovic
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrea Mair
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Bernhard Wurzinger
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Markus Teige
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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Choi WG, Hilleary R, Swanson SJ, Kim SH, Gilroy S. Rapid, Long-Distance Electrical and Calcium Signaling in Plants. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 67:287-307. [PMID: 27023742 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-043015-112130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Plants integrate activities throughout their bodies using long-range signaling systems in which stimuli sensed by just a few cells are translated into mobile signals that can influence the activities in distant tissues. Such signaling can travel at speeds well in excess of millimeters per second and can trigger responses as diverse as changes in transcription and translation levels, posttranslational regulation, alterations in metabolite levels, and even wholesale reprogramming of development. In addition to the use of mobile small molecules and hormones, electrical signals have long been known to propagate throughout the plant. This electrical signaling network has now been linked to waves of Ca(2+) and reactive oxygen species that traverse the plant and trigger systemic responses. Analysis of cell type specificity in signal propagation has revealed the movement of systemic signals through specific cell types, suggesting that a rapid signaling network may be hardwired into the architecture of the plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Gyu Choi
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; , , , ,
| | - Richard Hilleary
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; , , , ,
| | - Sarah J Swanson
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; , , , ,
| | - Su-Hwa Kim
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; , , , ,
| | - Simon Gilroy
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706; , , , ,
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60
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Kadota Y, Shirasu K, Zipfel C. Regulation of the NADPH Oxidase RBOHD During Plant Immunity. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 56:1472-80. [PMID: 25941234 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcv063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 362] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Pathogen recognition induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by NADPH oxidases in both plants and animals. ROS have direct antimicrobial properties, but also serve as signaling molecules to activate further immune outputs. However, ROS production has to be tightly controlled to avoid detrimental effects on host cells, but yet must be produced in the right amount, at the right place and at the right time upon pathogen perception. Plant NADPH oxidases belong to the respiratory burst oxidase homolog (RBOH) family, which contains 10 members in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. The perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) leads to a rapid, specific and strong production of ROS, which is dependent on RBOHD. RBOHD is mainly controlled by Ca(2+) via direct binding to EF-hand motifs and phosphorylation by Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinases. Recent studies have, however, revealed a critical role for a Ca(2+)-independent regulation of RBOHD. The plasma membrane-associated cytoplasmic kinase BIK1 (BOTRYTIS-INDUCED KINASE1), which is a direct substrate of the PRR complex, directly interacts with and phosphorylates RBOHD upon PAMP perception. Impairment of these phosphorylation events completely abolishes the function of RBOHD in immunity. These results suggest that RBOHD activity is tightly controlled by multilayered regulations. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms controlling RBOHD activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Kadota
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Plant Immunity Research Group, Suehiro-cho 1-7-22 Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, 230-0045 Japan
| | - Ken Shirasu
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Plant Immunity Research Group, Suehiro-cho 1-7-22 Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, 230-0045 Japan
| | - Cyril Zipfel
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
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