51
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Belting L, Hömberg N, Przewoznik M, Brenner C, Riedel T, Flatley A, Polić B, Busch DH, Röcken M, Mocikat R. Critical role of the NKG2D receptor for NK cell-mediated control and immune escape of B-cell lymphoma. Eur J Immunol 2015; 45:2593-601. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201445375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lena Belting
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie; Helmholtz-Zentrum München; München Germany
| | - Nadine Hömberg
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie; Helmholtz-Zentrum München; München Germany
| | | | - Christoph Brenner
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie; Helmholtz-Zentrum München; München Germany
| | - Tanja Riedel
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie; Helmholtz-Zentrum München; München Germany
| | - Andrew Flatley
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie; Helmholtz-Zentrum München; München Germany
| | - Bojan Polić
- Department of Histology and Embryology; Faculty of Medicine; University of Rijeka; Rijeka Croatia
| | - Dirk H. Busch
- Institut für Medizinische Mikrobiologie; Immunologie und Hygiene; Technische Universität München; München Germany
| | - Martin Röcken
- Universitäts-Hautklinik, Eberhard-Karls-Universität; Tübingen Germany
| | - Ralph Mocikat
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie; Helmholtz-Zentrum München; München Germany
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52
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Simmons JK, Hildreth BE, Supsavhad W, Elshafae SM, Hassan BB, Dirksen WP, Toribio RE, Rosol TJ. Animal Models of Bone Metastasis. Vet Pathol 2015; 52:827-41. [PMID: 26021553 DOI: 10.1177/0300985815586223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Bone is one of the most common sites of cancer metastasis in humans and is a significant source of morbidity and mortality. Bone metastases are considered incurable and result in pain, pathologic fracture, and decreased quality of life. Animal models of skeletal metastases are essential to improve the understanding of the molecular pathways of cancer metastasis and growth in bone and to develop new therapies to inhibit and prevent bone metastases. The ideal animal model should be clinically relevant, reproducible, and representative of human disease. Currently, an ideal model does not exist; however, understanding the strengths and weaknesses of the available models will lead to proper study design and successful cancer research. This review provides an overview of the current in vivo animal models used in the study of skeletal metastases or local tumor invasion into bone and focuses on mammary and prostate cancer, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, and miscellaneous tumors that metastasize to bone.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Simmons
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - B E Hildreth
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - W Supsavhad
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - S M Elshafae
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - B B Hassan
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - W P Dirksen
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - R E Toribio
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - T J Rosol
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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53
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Ford CA, Petrova S, Pound JD, Voss JJLP, Melville L, Paterson M, Farnworth SL, Gallimore AM, Cuff S, Wheadon H, Dobbin E, Ogden CA, Dumitriu IE, Dunbar DR, Murray PG, Ruckerl D, Allen JE, Hume DA, van Rooijen N, Goodlad JR, Freeman TC, Gregory CD. Oncogenic properties of apoptotic tumor cells in aggressive B cell lymphoma. Curr Biol 2015; 25:577-88. [PMID: 25702581 PMCID: PMC4353688 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background Cells undergoing apoptosis are known to modulate their tissue microenvironments. By acting on phagocytes, notably macrophages, apoptotic cells inhibit immunological and inflammatory responses and promote trophic signaling pathways. Paradoxically, because of their potential to cause death of tumor cells and thereby militate against malignant disease progression, both apoptosis and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are often associated with poor prognosis in cancer. We hypothesized that, in progression of malignant disease, constitutive loss of a fraction of the tumor cell population through apoptosis could yield tumor-promoting effects. Results Here, we demonstrate that apoptotic tumor cells promote coordinated tumor growth, angiogenesis, and accumulation of TAMs in aggressive B cell lymphomas. Through unbiased “in situ transcriptomics” analysis—gene expression profiling of laser-captured TAMs to establish their activation signature in situ—we show that these cells are activated to signal via multiple tumor-promoting reparatory, trophic, angiogenic, tissue remodeling, and anti-inflammatory pathways. Our results also suggest that apoptotic lymphoma cells help drive this signature. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, upon induction of apoptosis, lymphoma cells not only activate expression of the tumor-promoting matrix metalloproteinases MMP2 and MMP12 in macrophages but also express and process these MMPs directly. Finally, using a model of malignant melanoma, we show that the oncogenic potential of apoptotic tumor cells extends beyond lymphoma. Conclusions In addition to its profound tumor-suppressive role, apoptosis can potentiate cancer progression. These results have important implications for understanding the fundamental biology of cell death, its roles in malignant disease, and the broader consequences of apoptosis-inducing anti-cancer therapy. Apoptotic lymphoma cells promote tumor growth, angiogenesis, and TAM accumulation Unbiased “in situ transcriptomics” analysis shows TAMs promote pro-tumor pathways Apoptotic tumor cells express and process matrix remodeling proteins The oncogenic potential of apoptotic tumor cells extends beyond lymphoma
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Affiliation(s)
- Catriona A Ford
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Sofia Petrova
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - John D Pound
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Jorine J L P Voss
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Lynsey Melville
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Margaret Paterson
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Sarah L Farnworth
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Awen M Gallimore
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Simone Cuff
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Helen Wheadon
- Paul O'Gorman Leukaemia Research Centre, Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Gartnavel General Hospital, Glasgow G12 0XB, UK
| | - Edwina Dobbin
- University of Edinburgh Departments of Haematology and Pathology, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
| | - Carol Anne Ogden
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Ingrid E Dumitriu
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Donald R Dunbar
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK; Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Paul G Murray
- Cancer Research United Kingdom (CRUK) Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Dominik Ruckerl
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Judith E Allen
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - David A Hume
- The Roslin Institute, R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Nico van Rooijen
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Free University Medical Centre, P.O. Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - John R Goodlad
- University of Edinburgh Departments of Haematology and Pathology, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, UK
| | - Tom C Freeman
- The Roslin Institute, R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Christopher D Gregory
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK.
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Abstract
Persistent infection by EBV is explained by the germinal center model (GCM) which provides a satisfying and currently the only explanation for EBVs disparate biology. Since the GCM touches on every aspect of the virus, this chapter will serve as an introduction to the subsequent chapters. EBV is B lymphotropic, and its biology closely follows that of normal mature B lymphocytes. The virus persists quiescently in resting memory B cells for the lifetime of the host in a non-pathogenic state that is also invisible to the immune response. To access this compartment, the virus infects naïve B cells in the lymphoepithelium of the tonsils and activates these cells using the growth transcription program. These cells migrate to the GC where they switch to a more limited transcription program, the default program, which helps rescue them into the memory compartment where the virus persists. For egress, the infected memory cells return to the lymphoepithelium where they occasionally differentiate into plasma cells activating viral replication. The released virus can either infect more naïve B cells or be amplified in the epithelium for shedding. This cycle of infection and the quiescent state in memory B cells allow for lifetime persistence at a very low level that is remarkably stable over time. Mathematically, this is a stable fixed point where the mechanisms regulating persistence drive the state back to equilibrium when perturbed. This is the GCM of EBV persistence. Other possible sites and mechanisms of persistence will also be discussed.
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Chen Y, Williams V, Filippova M, Filippov V, Duerksen-Hughes P. Viral carcinogenesis: factors inducing DNA damage and virus integration. Cancers (Basel) 2014; 6:2155-86. [PMID: 25340830 PMCID: PMC4276961 DOI: 10.3390/cancers6042155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are the causative agents of 10%-15% of human cancers worldwide. The most common outcome for virus-induced reprogramming is genomic instability, including accumulation of mutations, aberrations and DNA damage. Although each virus has its own specific mechanism for promoting carcinogenesis, the majority of DNA oncogenic viruses encode oncogenes that transform infected cells, frequently by targeting p53 and pRB. In addition, integration of viral DNA into the human genome can also play an important role in promoting tumor development for several viruses, including HBV and HPV. Because viral integration requires the breakage of both the viral and the host DNA, the integration rate is believed to be linked to the levels of DNA damage. DNA damage can be caused by both endogenous and exogenous factors, including inflammation induced by either the virus itself or by co-infections with other agents, environmental agents and other factors. Typically, cancer develops years to decades following the initial infection. A better understanding of virus-mediated carcinogenesis, the networking of pathways involved in transformation and the relevant risk factors, particularly in those cases where tumorigenesis proceeds by way of virus integration, will help to suggest prophylactic and therapeutic strategies to reduce the risk of virus-mediated cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Chen
- Department of Basic Science, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
| | - Vonetta Williams
- Department of Basic Science, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
| | - Maria Filippova
- Department of Basic Science, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
| | - Valery Filippov
- Department of Basic Science, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
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56
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Sewastianik T, Prochorec-Sobieszek M, Chapuy B, Juszczyński P. MYC deregulation in lymphoid tumors: molecular mechanisms, clinical consequences and therapeutic implications. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2014; 1846:457-67. [PMID: 25199984 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
MYC is one of the most frequently deregulated oncogenes in human malignancies. It encodes a leucine zipper transcription factor that modulates a broad spectrum of cellular genes responsible for enhancing cell proliferation, cellular metabolism, growth, angiogenesis, metastasis, genomic instability, stem cell self-renewal and reduced differentiation. MYC functions predominantly as an amplifier of expression of already active genes, potentiating the pre-existing transcriptional program, although it can also repress certain transcriptional targets. In mouse models, MYC induces lymphomas, but requires cooperation with other lesions, including inactivation of the p53 pathway, structural alterations of BCL2 family members, or increased PI3K activity. In human B-cell tumors, MYC rearrangements involving the 8q24 region and immunoglobulin heavy or light genes are a hallmark of Burkitt lymphoma (BL), but can also occur in other lymphoid malignancies, that include diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), B-cell lymphoma, unclassifiable, with features intermediate between DLBCL and Burkitt lymphoma (BCLU), plasma cell myeloma (PCM), mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) and plasmablastic lymphoma. For non-BL lymphoid malignancies, MYC fusions represent secondary genetic events and exist in the context of complex karyotypes. Regardless of the mechanism deregulating MYC, lymphomas over-expressing MYC are addicted to this oncogene, highlighting the potential clinical utility of MYC targeting strategies. Several promising approaches for pharmaceutical intervention have been suggested which are now in preclinical or clinical development. Herein, we therefore review the molecular pathogenetic mechanisms associated with MYC deregulation in human B-cell lymphomas and their implications for therapies targeting MYC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Sewastianik
- Institute of Hematology and Transfusion Medicine, Department of Diagnostic Hematology, Indiry Gandhi Str. 14, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Prochorec-Sobieszek
- Institute of Hematology and Transfusion Medicine, Department of Diagnostic Hematology, Indiry Gandhi Str. 14, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Bjoern Chapuy
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Department of Medical Oncology, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Przemysław Juszczyński
- Institute of Hematology and Transfusion Medicine, Department of Diagnostic Hematology, Indiry Gandhi Str. 14, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland.
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BET and HDAC inhibitors induce similar genes and biological effects and synergize to kill in Myc-induced murine lymphoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E2721-30. [PMID: 24979794 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1406722111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) domain family of proteins binds to acetylated lysines on histones and regulates gene transcription. Recently, BET inhibitors (BETi) have been developed that show promise as potent anticancer drugs against various solid and hematological malignancies. Here we show that the structurally novel and orally bioavailable BET inhibitor RVX2135 inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of lymphoma cells arising in Myc-transgenic mice in vitro and in vivo. We find that BET inhibition exhibits broad transcriptional effects in Myc-transgenic lymphoma cells affecting many transcription factor networks. By examining the genes induced by BETi, which have largely been ignored to date, we discovered that these were similar to those induced by histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi). HDACi also induced cell-cycle arrest and cell death of Myc-induced murine lymphoma cells and synergized with BETi. Our data suggest that BETi sensitize Myc-overexpressing lymphoma cells partly by inducing HDAC-silenced genes, and suggest synergistic and therapeutic combinations by targeting the genetic link between BETi and HDACi.
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58
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Hömberg N, Adam C, Riedel T, Brenner C, Flatley A, Röcken M, Mocikat R. CD40-independent natural killer-cell help promotes dendritic cell vaccine-induced T-cell immunity against endogenous B-cell lymphoma. Int J Cancer 2014; 135:2825-33. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Hömberg
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt; München Germany
| | - Christian Adam
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt; München Germany
| | - Tanja Riedel
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt; München Germany
| | - Christoph Brenner
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt; München Germany
| | - Andrew Flatley
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt; München Germany
| | - Martin Röcken
- Universitäts-Hautklinik, Eberhard-Karls-Universität; Tübingen Germany
| | - Ralph Mocikat
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Gesundheit und Umwelt; München Germany
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59
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Naujoks M, Weiß J, Riedel T, Hömberg N, Przewoznik M, Noessner E, Röcken M, Mocikat R. Alterations of costimulatory molecules and instructive cytokines expressed by dendritic cells in the microenvironment of an endogenous mouse lymphoma. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2014; 63:491-9. [PMID: 24638151 PMCID: PMC11029135 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-014-1538-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Costimulatory surface molecules and instructive cytokines expressed by dendritic cells (DCs) determine the outcome of an immune response. In malignant disease, DCs are often functionally compromised. In most tumors studied so far, the deficient induction of effective T cell responses has been associated with a blockade of DC maturation, but little has been known on DCs infiltrating malignant B cell lymphoma. Here, we investigated for the first time the phenotypic and functional status of DCs in B cell lymphoma, and we analyzed the network of DCs, tumor cells, natural killer (NK) cells and cytokines present in the tumor micromilieu. Therefor, we used an endogenous myc-transgenic mouse lymphoma model, because transplanted tumor cells foster an IFN-γ-driven Th1 antitumor response rather than an immunosuppressive environment, which is observed in autochthonous neoplasias. Lymphoma-infiltrating DCs showed a mature phenotype and a Th2-inducing cytokine pattern. This situation is in contrast to most human malignancies and mouse models described. Cellular contacts between DCs and tumor cells, which involved CD62L on the lymphoma, caused upregulation of costimulatory molecules, whereas IL-10 primarily derived from lymphoma cells induced an IL-12/IL-10 shift in DCs. Thus, alteration of costimulatory molecules and instructive cytokines was mediated by distinct mechanisms. Normal NK cells were able to additionally modulate DC maturation but this effect was absent in the lymphoma environment where IFN-γ production by NK cells was severely impaired. These data are relevant for establishing novel immunotherapeutic approaches against B cell lymphoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcella Naujoks
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Jakob Weiß
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Tanja Riedel
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Nadine Hömberg
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Margarethe Przewoznik
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Elfriede Noessner
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Röcken
- Department of Dermatology, Eberhard-Karls-Universität, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ralph Mocikat
- Institut für Molekulare Immunologie, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Marchioninistr. 25, 81377 Munich, Germany
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60
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Abstract
In this issue of Blood, Fish et al uncover how Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) enhances MYC-driven B-cell lymphoma by crossing EBV Em-EBV latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) transgenic mice with immunoglobulin-l (Igl)-MYC transgenic mice.
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61
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Lehmann FM, Maurberger A, Feicht S, Helm F, Ladinig C, Kieback E, Uckert W, Kammertöns T, Kremmer E, Mautner J, Gerbitz A, Bornkamm GW. Targeting high-grade B cell lymphoma with CD19-specific T cells. Int J Cancer 2014; 135:1153-64. [PMID: 24500882 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.28760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive T cell therapy is an important additional treatment option for malignant diseases resistant to chemotherapy. Using a murine high-grade B cell lymphoma model, we have addressed the question whether the B cell differentiation antigen CD19 can act as rejection antigen. CD19(-/-) mice inoculated with CD19(+) B cell lymphoma cells showed higher survival rates than WT mice and were protected against additional tumor challenge. T cell depletion prior to tumor transfer completely abolished the protective response. By heterotypic vaccination of CD19(-/-) mice against murine CD19, survival after tumor challenge was significantly increased. To define protective epitopes within the CD19 molecule, T cells collected from mice that had survived the tumor transfer were analyzed for IFNγ secretion in response to CD19-derived peptides. The majority of mice exhibited a CD4(+) T cell response to CD19 peptide 27, which was the most dominant epitope after CD19 vaccination. A peptide 27-specific CD4(+) T cell line protected CD19(-/-) mice against challenge with CD19(+) lymphoma and also cured a significant proportion of WT mice from recurrent disease in a model of minimal residual disease after chemotherapy. In conclusion, our data highlight CD19-specific CD4(+) T cells for adoptive T cell therapy of B cell lymphomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank M Lehmann
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology and Tumor Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany
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62
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Molecular pathology of lymphoma. Mol Oncol 2013. [DOI: 10.1017/cbo9781139046947.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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63
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Chopra M, Kraus S, Schwinn S, Ritz M, Mattenheimer K, Mottok A, Rosenwald A, Einsele H, Beilhack A. Non-invasive bioluminescence imaging to monitor the immunological control of a plasmablastic lymphoma-like B cell neoplasia after hematopoietic cell transplantation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81320. [PMID: 24349055 PMCID: PMC3865349 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
To promote cancer research and to develop innovative therapies, refined pre-clinical mouse tumor models that mimic the actual disease in humans are of dire need. A number of neoplasms along the B cell lineage are commonly initiated by a translocation recombining c-myc with the immunoglobulin heavy-chain gene locus. The translocation is modeled in the C.129S1-Ighatm1(Myc)Janz/J mouse which has been previously engineered to express c-myc under the control of the endogenous IgH promoter. This transgenic mouse exhibits B cell hyperplasia and develops diverse B cell tumors. We have isolated tumor cells from the spleen of a C.129S1-Ighatm1(Myc)Janz/J mouse that spontaneously developed a plasmablastic lymphoma-like disease. These cells were cultured, transduced to express eGFP and firefly luciferase, and gave rise to a highly aggressive, transplantable B cell lymphoma cell line, termed IM380. This model bears several advantages over other models as it is genetically induced and mimics the translocation that is detectable in a number of human B cell lymphomas. The growth of the tumor cells, their dissemination, and response to treatment within immunocompetent hosts can be imaged non-invasively in vivo due to their expression of firefly luciferase. IM380 cells are radioresistant in vivo and mice with established tumors can be allogeneically transplanted to analyze graft-versus-tumor effects of transplanted T cells. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation of tumor-bearing mice results in prolonged survival. These traits make the IM380 model very valuable for the study of B cell lymphoma pathophysiology and for the development of innovative cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Chopra
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sabrina Kraus
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Stefanie Schwinn
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Miriam Ritz
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Katharina Mattenheimer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anja Mottok
- Institute of Pathology, Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Hermann Einsele
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Beilhack
- Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Center for Interdisciplinary Clinical Research, Würzburg University, Würzburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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64
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Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 2A enhances MYC-driven cell cycle progression in a mouse model of B lymphoma. Blood 2013; 123:530-40. [PMID: 24174629 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2013-07-517649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated expression of MYC is a shared property of many human cancers. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has been associated with lymphoid malignancies, yet collaborative roles between MYC and EBV in lymphomagenesis are unclear. EBV latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) functions as a B-cell receptor (BCR) mimic known to provide survival signals to infected B cells. Co-expression of human MYC and LMP2A in mice (LMP2A/λ-MYC) accelerates B lymphoma onset compared with mice expressing human MYC alone (λ-MYC mice). Here we show a novel role of LMP2A in potentiating MYC to promote G1-S transition and hyperproliferation by downregulating cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27(kip1) in a proteasome-dependent manner. Expressing a gain-of-function S10A mutant of p27(kip1) has minor effect on tumor latency. However, pretumor B cells from λ-MYC mice expressing homozygous S10A mutant show a significant decrease in the percentage of S-phase cells. Interestingly, LMP2A is able to counteract the antiproliferative effect of the S10A mutant to promote S-phase entry. Finally, we show that LMP2A expression correlates with higher levels of MYC expression and suppression of p27(kip1) before lymphoma onset. Our study demonstrates a novel function of EBV LMP2A in maximizing MYC expression, resulting in hyperproliferation and cellular transformation into cancer cells in vivo.
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Abstract
Over-expression of the proto-oncogene c-MYC is frequently observed in a variety of tumors and is a hallmark of Burkitt´s lymphoma. The fact that many tumors are oncogene-addicted to c-MYC, renders c-MYC a powerful target for anti-tumor therapy. Using a xenogenic vaccination strategy by immunizing C57BL/6 mice with human c-MYC protein or non-homologous peptides, we show that the human c-MYC protein, despite its high homology between mouse and man, contains several immunogenic epitopes presented in the context of murine H2b haplotype. We identified an MHC class II-restricted CD4+ T-cell epitope and therein an MHC class I-restricted CD8+ T-cell epitope (SSPQGSPEPL) that, after prime/boost immunization, protected up to 25% of mice against a lethal lymphoma challenge. Lymphoma-rejecting animals contained MHC multimer-binding CD8+ cell within the peripheral blood and displayed in vivo cytolytic activity with specificity for SSPQGSPEPL. Taken together these data suggest that oncogenic c-MYC can be targeted with specific T-cells.
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A novel CXCL10-based GPI-anchored fusion protein as adjuvant in NK-based tumor therapy. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72749. [PMID: 24023642 PMCID: PMC3758322 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cellular therapy is a promising therapeutic strategy for malignant diseases. The efficacy of this therapy can be limited by poor infiltration of the tumor by immune effector cells. In particular, NK cell infiltration is often reduced relative to T cells. A novel class of fusion proteins was designed to enhance the recruitment of specific leukocyte subsets based on their expression of a given chemokine receptor. The proteins are composed of an N-terminal chemokine head, the mucin domain taken from the membrane-anchored chemokine CX3CL1, and a C-terminal glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) membrane anchor replacing the normal transmembrane domain allowing integration of the proteins into cell membranes when injected into a solid tumor. The mucin domain in conjunction with the chemokine head acts to specifically recruit leukocytes expressing the corresponding chemokine receptor. Methodology/Principal Findings A fusion protein comprising a CXCL10 chemokine head (CXCL10-mucin-GPI) was used for proof of concept for this approach and expressed constitutively in Chinese Hamster Ovary cells. FPLC was used to purify proteins. The recombinant proteins efficiently integrated into cell membranes in a process dependent upon the GPI anchor and were able to activate the CXCR3 receptor on lymphocytes. Endothelial cells incubated with CXCL10-mucin-GPI efficiently recruited NK cells in vitro under conditions of physiologic flow, which was shown to be dependent on the presence of the mucin domain. Experiments conducted in vivo using established tumors in mice suggested a positive effect of CXCL10-mucin-GPI on the recruitment of NK cells. Conclusions The results suggest enhanced recruitment of NK cells by CXCL10-mucin-GPI. This class of fusion proteins represents a novel adjuvant in cellular immunotherapy. The underlying concept of a chemokine head fused to the mucin domain and a GPI anchor signal sequence may be expanded into a broader family of reagents that will allow targeted recruitment of cells in various settings.
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Jin HY, Oda H, Lai M, Skalsky RL, Bethel K, Shepherd J, Kang SG, Liu WH, Sabouri-Ghomi M, Cullen BR, Rajewsky K, Xiao C. MicroRNA-17~92 plays a causative role in lymphomagenesis by coordinating multiple oncogenic pathways. EMBO J 2013; 32:2377-91. [PMID: 23921550 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2013.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been broadly implicated in cancer, but their exact function and mechanism in carcinogenesis remain poorly understood. Elevated miR-17~92 expression is frequently found in human cancers, mainly due to gene amplification and Myc-mediated transcriptional upregulation. Here we show that B cell-specific miR-17~92 transgenic mice developed lymphomas with high penetrance and that, conversely, Myc-driven lymphomagenesis stringently requires two intact alleles of miR-17~92. We experimentally identified miR-17~92 target genes by PAR-CLIP and validated select target genes in miR-17~92 transgenic mice. These analyses demonstrate that miR-17~92 drives lymphomagenesis by suppressing the expression of multiple negative regulators of the PI3K and NFκB pathways and by inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Accordingly, miR-17~92-driven lymphoma cells exhibited constitutive activation of the PI3K and NFκB pathways and chemical inhibition of either pathway reduced tumour size and prolonged the survival of lymphoma-bearing mice. These findings establish miR-17~92 as a powerful cancer driver that coordinates the activation of multiple oncogenic pathways, and demonstrate for the first time that chemical inhibition of miRNA downstream pathways has therapeutic value in treating cancers caused by miRNA dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Yong Jin
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Shi M, Gan YJ, Davis TO, Scott RS. Downregulation of the polyamine regulator spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase by Epstein-Barr virus in a Burkitt's lymphoma cell line. Virus Res 2013; 177:11-21. [PMID: 23891576 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Transition of Akata Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) from a malignant to nonmalignant phenotype upon loss of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is evidence for a viral contribution to tumorigenesis despite the tight restriction of EBV gene expression in BL. Examination of global cellular gene expression in Akata subclones that retained or lost EBV identified spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase (SAT1), an inducible enzyme whose catabolism of polyamines affects both apoptosis and cell growth, as one of a limited number of cellular genes downregulated by EBV. Re-infection of the EBV-negative Akata clone reduced SAT1 mRNA to a level comparable with the parental EBV-positive Akata. EBV-positive Akata cells demonstrated decreased SAT1 enzyme activity concomitant with altered intracellular polyamine constituents. Reduction of SAT1 in EBV-positive BL was a transcriptional effect. Forced expression of the viral BCL2 homologue, BHRF1, in an EBV-negative Akata clone reduced SAT1 mRNA. Thus, EBV repression of polyamine catabolism becomes a complementary alteration to dysregulated c-myc enhancement of polyamine synthesis in BL and favorable to BL lymphomagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxia Shi
- Center for Tumor and Molecular Virology and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA 71130, USA
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Srinivasan SV, Dominguez-Sola D, Wang LC, Hyrien O, Gautier J. Cdc45 is a critical effector of myc-dependent DNA replication stress. Cell Rep 2013; 3:1629-39. [PMID: 23643534 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2013.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
c-Myc oncogenic activity is thought to be mediated in part by its ability to generate DNA replication stress and subsequent genomic instability when deregulated. Previous studies have demonstrated a nontranscriptional role for c-Myc in regulating DNA replication. Here, we analyze the mechanisms by which c-Myc deregulation generates DNA replication stress. We find that overexpression of c-Myc alters the spatiotemporal program of replication initiation by increasing the density of early-replicating origins. We further show that c-Myc deregulation results in elevated replication-fork stalling or collapse and subsequent DNA damage. Notably, these phenotypes are independent of RNA transcription. Finally, we demonstrate that overexpression of Cdc45 recapitulates all c-Myc-induced replication and damage phenotypes and that Cdc45 and GINS function downstream of Myc.
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Kelly GL, Stylianou J, Rasaiyaah J, Wei W, Thomas W, Croom-Carter D, Kohler C, Spang R, Woodman C, Kellam P, Rickinson AB, Bell AI. Different patterns of Epstein-Barr virus latency in endemic Burkitt lymphoma (BL) lead to distinct variants within the BL-associated gene expression signature. J Virol 2013; 87:2882-94. [PMID: 23269792 PMCID: PMC3571367 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03003-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is present in all cases of endemic Burkitt lymphoma (BL) but in few European/North American sporadic BLs. Gene expression arrays of sporadic tumors have defined a consensus BL profile within which tumors are classifiable as "molecular BL" (mBL). Where endemic BLs fall relative to this profile remains unclear, since they not only carry EBV but also display one of two different forms of virus latency. Here, we use early-passage BL cell lines from different tumors, and BL subclones from a single tumor, to compare EBV-negative cells with EBV-positive cells displaying either classical latency I EBV infection (where EBNA1 is the only EBV antigen expressed from the wild-type EBV genome) or Wp-restricted latency (where an EBNA2 gene-deleted virus genome broadens antigen expression to include the EBNA3A, -3B, and -3C proteins and BHRF1). Expression arrays show that both types of endemic BL fall within the mBL classification. However, while EBV-negative and latency I BLs show overlapping profiles, Wp-restricted BLs form a distinct subgroup, characterized by a detectable downregulation of the germinal center (GC)-associated marker Bcl6 and upregulation of genes marking early plasmacytoid differentiation, notably IRF4 and BLIMP1. Importantly, these same changes can be induced in EBV-negative or latency I BL cells by infection with an EBNA2-knockout virus. Thus, we infer that the distinct gene profile of Wp-restricted BLs does not reflect differences in the identity of the tumor progenitor cell per se but differences imposed on a common progenitor by broadened EBV gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma L. Kelly
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Julianna Stylianou
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Jane Rasaiyaah
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Wenbin Wei
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Wendy Thomas
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Deborah Croom-Carter
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Kohler
- Institute of Functional Genomics, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Rainer Spang
- Institute of Functional Genomics, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ciaran Woodman
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Kellam
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Alan B. Rickinson
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew I. Bell
- School of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Sander S, Rajewsky K. Burkitt lymphomagenesis linked to MYC plus PI3K in germinal center B cells. Oncotarget 2013; 3:1066-7. [PMID: 23164662 PMCID: PMC3717963 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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A20 controls macrophage to elicit potent cytotoxic CD4(+) T cell response. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48930. [PMID: 23145026 PMCID: PMC3492139 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that CD4(+) T cells possess cytotoxic potential for tumor eradication and perforin/granzyme-mediated cytotoxicity functions as one of the important mechanisms for CD4(+) T cell-triggered cell killing. However, the critical issue is how the cytotoxic CD4(+) T cells are developed. During the course of our work that aims at promoting immunostimulation of APCs by inhibition of negative regulators, we found that A20-silenced Mф drastically induced granzyme B expression in CD4(+) T cells. As a consequence, the granzyme-highly expressing CD4(+) T cells exhibited a strong cytotoxic activity that restricted tumor development. We found that A20-silenced Mф activated cytotoxic CD4(+) T cells by MHC class-II restricted mechanism and the activation was largely dependent on enhanced production of IFN-γ.
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73
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Havelange V, Ameye G, Théate I, Callet-Bauchu E, Mugneret F, Michaux L, Dastugue N, Penther D, Barin C, Collonge-Rame MA, Baranger L, Terré C, Nadal N, Lippert E, Laï JL, Cabrol C, Tigaud I, Herens C, Hagemeijer A, Raphael M, Libouton JM, Poirel HA. Patterns of genomic aberrations suggest that Burkitt lymphomas with complex karyotype are distinct from other aggressive B-cell lymphomas withMYCrearrangement. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2012; 52:81-92. [DOI: 10.1002/gcc.22008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2011] [Revised: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
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Sander S, Calado DP, Srinivasan L, Köchert K, Zhang B, Rosolowski M, Rodig SJ, Holzmann K, Stilgenbauer S, Siebert R, Bullinger L, Rajewsky K. Synergy between PI3K signaling and MYC in Burkitt lymphomagenesis. Cancer Cell 2012; 22:167-79. [PMID: 22897848 PMCID: PMC3432451 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2012] [Revised: 05/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In Burkitt lymphoma (BL), a germinal center B-cell-derived tumor, the pro-apoptotic properties of c-MYC must be counterbalanced. Predicting that survival signals would be delivered by phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), a major survival determinant in mature B cells, we indeed found that combining constitutive c-MYC expression and PI3K activity in germinal center B cells of the mouse led to BL-like tumors, which fully phenocopy human BL with regard to histology, surface and other markers, and gene expression profile. The tumors also accumulate tertiary mutational events, some of which are recurrent in the human disease. These results and our finding of recurrent PI3K pathway activation in human BL indicate that deregulated c-MYC and PI3K activity cooperate in BL pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Sander
- Program of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, and Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin-Buch 13092, Germany
| | - Dinis P. Calado
- Program of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, and Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin-Buch 13092, Germany
| | - Lakshmi Srinivasan
- Program of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, and Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Karl Köchert
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin-Buch 13092, Germany
| | - Baochun Zhang
- Program of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, and Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Maciej Rosolowski
- Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Epidemiology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig 04107, Germany
| | - Scott J. Rodig
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Stephan Stilgenbauer
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm 89081, Germany
| | - Reiner Siebert
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein Campus Kiel/Christian-Albrechts University Kiel, Kiel 24105, Germany
| | - Lars Bullinger
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm 89081, Germany
| | - Klaus Rajewsky
- Program of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children’s Hospital, and Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin-Buch 13092, Germany
- Correspondence:
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Lehmann FM, Feicht S, Helm F, Maurberger A, Ladinig C, Zimber-Strobl U, Kühn R, Mautner J, Gerbitz A, Bornkamm GW. Humanized c-Myc mouse. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42021. [PMID: 22860051 PMCID: PMC3409231 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A given tumor is usually dependent on the oncogene that is activated in the respective tumor entity. This phenomenon called oncogene addiction provides the rationale for attempts to target oncogene products in a therapeutic manner, be it by small molecules, by small interfering RNAs (siRNA) or by antigen-specific T cells. As the proto-oncogene product is required also for the function of normal cells, this raises the question whether there is a therapeutic window between the adverse effects of specific inhibitors or T cells to normal tissue that may limit their application, and their beneficial tumor-specific therapeutic action. To address this crucial question, suitable mouse strains need to be developed, that enable expression of the human proto-oncogene not only in tumor but also in normal cells. The aim of this work is to provide such a mouse strain for the human proto-oncogene product c-MYC. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We generated C57BL/6-derived embryonic stem cells that are transgenic for a humanized c-Myc gene and established a mouse strain (hc-Myc) that expresses human c-MYC instead of the murine ortholog. These transgenic animals harbor the humanized c-Myc gene integrated into the endogenous murine c-Myc locus. Despite the lack of the endogenous murine c-Myc gene, homozygous mice show a normal phenotype indicating that human c-MYC can replace its murine ortholog. CONCLUSIONS The newly established hc-Myc mouse strain provides a model system to study in detail the adverse effects of therapies that target the human c-MYC protein. To mimic the clinical situation, hc-Myc mice may be cross-bred to mice that develop tumors due to overexpression of human c-MYC. With these double transgenic mice it will be possible to study simultaneously the therapeutic efficiency and adverse side effects of MYC-specific therapies in the same mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank M. Lehmann
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology and Tumor Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Samantha Feicht
- Department of Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Helm
- Department of Immunology, Charité Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna Maurberger
- Department of Hematology/Oncology, University of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Camilla Ladinig
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology and Tumor Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Ralf Kühn
- Institute of Developmental Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Josef Mautner
- Department of Pediatrics, Technical University (TU) Munich and Clinical Cooperation Group Pediatric Tumor Immunology, TU Munich and Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Armin Gerbitz
- Department of Hematology/Oncology, University of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Georg W. Bornkamm
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology and Tumor Genetics, Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Qi CF, Kim YS, Xiang S, Abdullaev Z, Torrey TA, Janz S, Kovalchuk AL, Sun J, Chen D, Cho WC, Gu W, Morse HC. Characterization of ARF-BP1/HUWE1 interactions with CTCF, MYC, ARF and p53 in MYC-driven B cell neoplasms. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:6204-6219. [PMID: 22754359 PMCID: PMC3382761 DOI: 10.3390/ijms13056204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Revised: 04/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcriptional activation of MYC is a hallmark of many B cell lineage neoplasms. MYC provides a constitutive proliferative signal but can also initiate ARF-dependent activation of p53 and apoptosis. The E3 ubiquitin ligase, ARF-BP1, encoded by HUWE1, modulates the activity of both the MYC and the ARF-p53 signaling pathways, prompting us to determine if it is involved in the pathogenesis of MYC-driven B cell lymphomas. ARF-BP1 was expressed at high levels in cell lines from lymphomas with either wild type or mutated p53 but not in ARF-deficient cells. Downregulation of ARF-BP1 resulted in elevated steady state levels of p53, growth arrest and apoptosis. Co-immunoprecipitation studies identified a multiprotein complex comprised of ARF-BP1, ARF, p53, MYC and the multifunctional DNA-binding factor, CTCF, which is involved in the transcriptional regulation of MYC, p53 and ARF. ARF-BP1 bound and ubiquitylated CTCF leading to its proteasomal degradation. ARF-BP1 and CTCF thus appear to be key cofactors linking the MYC proliferative and p53-ARF apoptotic pathways. In addition, ARF-BP1 could be a therapeutic target for MYC-driven B lineage neoplasms, even if p53 is inactive, with inhibition reducing the transcriptional activity of MYC for its target genes and stabilizing the apoptosis-promoting activities of p53.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Feng Qi
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA; E-Mails: (Y.-S.K.); (S.X.); (Z.A.); (A.L.K.); (J.S.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (C.-F.Q.); (H.C.M.); Tel.: +1-301-402-2698 (C.-F.Q.); +1-301-496-6379 (H.C.M.); Fax: +1-301-402-0077 (H.C.M.; C.-F.Q.)
| | - Yong-Soo Kim
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA; E-Mails: (Y.-S.K.); (S.X.); (Z.A.); (A.L.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Shao Xiang
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA; E-Mails: (Y.-S.K.); (S.X.); (Z.A.); (A.L.K.); (J.S.)
- Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Ziedulla Abdullaev
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA; E-Mails: (Y.-S.K.); (S.X.); (Z.A.); (A.L.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Ted A. Torrey
- Comparative Medicine Branch, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Siegfried Janz
- Department of Pathology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Alexander L. Kovalchuk
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA; E-Mails: (Y.-S.K.); (S.X.); (Z.A.); (A.L.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Jiafang Sun
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA; E-Mails: (Y.-S.K.); (S.X.); (Z.A.); (A.L.K.); (J.S.)
| | - Delin Chen
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, and Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; E-Mails: (D.C.); (W.G.)
| | - William C. Cho
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, China; E-Mail:
| | - Wei Gu
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, and Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; E-Mails: (D.C.); (W.G.)
| | - Herbert C. Morse
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA; E-Mails: (Y.-S.K.); (S.X.); (Z.A.); (A.L.K.); (J.S.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (C.-F.Q.); (H.C.M.); Tel.: +1-301-402-2698 (C.-F.Q.); +1-301-496-6379 (H.C.M.); Fax: +1-301-402-0077 (H.C.M.; C.-F.Q.)
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Dargart JL, Fish K, Gordon LI, Longnecker R, Cen O. Dasatinib therapy results in decreased B cell proliferation, splenomegaly, and tumor growth in a murine model of lymphoma expressing Myc and Epstein-Barr virus LMP2A. Antiviral Res 2012; 95:49-56. [PMID: 22609829 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2012] [Revised: 05/03/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and latency has been associated with malignant diseases including nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma, and immune deficiency associated lymphoproliferative diseases. EBV-encoded latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) recruits Lyn and Syk kinases via its SH2-domain binding motifs, and modifies their signaling pathways. LMP2A transgenic mice develop hyperproliferative bone marrow B cells and immature peripheral B cells through modulation of Lyn kinase signaling. LMP2A/λ-MYC double transgenic mice develop splenomegaly and cervical lymphomas starting at 8 weeks of age. We reasoned that targeting Lyn in LMP2A-expressing B cells with dasatinib would provide a therapeutic option for EBV-associated malignancies. Here, we show that dasatinib inhibits B cell colony formation by LMP2A transgenic bone marrow cells, and reverses splenomegaly and tumor growth in both a pre-tumor and a syngeneic tumor transfer model of EBV-associated Burkitt lymphoma. Our data support the idea that dasatinib may prove to be an effective therapeutic molecule for the treatment of EBV-associated malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Dargart
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Ward 6-245, Chicago, IL, USA
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78
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Scotto L, Kruithof-de Julio M, Paoluzzi L, Kalac M, Marchi E, Buitrago JB, Amengual J, Shen MM, O'Connor OA. Development and Characterization of a Novel CD19CherryLuciferase (CD19CL) Transgenic Mouse for the Preclinical Study of B-Cell Lymphomas. Clin Cancer Res 2012; 18:3803-11. [DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-2588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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79
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Molina-Privado I, Jiménez-P R, Montes-Moreno S, Chiodo Y, Rodríguez-Martínez M, Sánchez-Verde L, Iglesias T, Piris MA, Campanero MR. E2F4 plays a key role in Burkitt lymphoma tumorigenesis. Leukemia 2012; 26:2277-85. [PMID: 22475873 DOI: 10.1038/leu.2012.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Sporadic Burkitt lymphoma (sBL) is a rapidly growing B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma whose treatment requires highly aggressive therapies that often result severely toxic. Identification of proteins whose expression or function is deregulated in sBL and play a role in its formation could facilitate development of less toxic therapies. We have previously shown that E2F1 expression is deregulated in sBL. We have now investigated the mechanisms underlying E2F1 deregulation and found that the E2F sites in its promoter fail to repress its transcriptional activity in BL cells and that the transcriptional repressor E2F4 barely interacts with these sites. We also have found that E2F4 protein levels, but not those of its mRNA, are reduced in sBL cell lines relative to immortal B-cell lines. E2F4 protein expression is also decreased in 24 of 26 sBL tumor samples from patients compared with control tissues. Our data demonstrate that enforced E2F4 expression in BL cells not only diminishes E2F1 levels, but also reduces selectively the tumorigenic properties and proliferation of BL cells, while increasing their accumulation in G(2)/M. Our results therefore point to E2F4 as a target for developing novel and less toxic treatments for sBL.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Molina-Privado
- Department of Cancer Biology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols, CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
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80
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Gerbitz A, Sukumar M, Helm F, Wilke A, Friese C, Fahrenwaldt C, Lehmann FM, Loddenkemper C, Kammertoens T, Mautner J, Schmitt CA, Blankenstein T, Bornkamm GW. Stromal interferon-γ signaling and cross-presentation are required to eliminate antigen-loss variants of B cell lymphomas in mice. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34552. [PMID: 22479645 PMCID: PMC3316708 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To study mechanisms of T cell-mediated rejection of B cell lymphomas, we developed a murine lymphoma model wherein three potential rejection antigens, human c-MYC, chicken ovalbumin (OVA), and GFP are expressed. After transfer into wild-type mice 60–70% of systemically growing lymphomas expressing all three antigens were rejected; lymphomas expressing only human c-MYC protein were not rejected. OVA expressing lymphomas were infiltrated by T cells, showed MHC class I and II upregulation, and lost antigen expression, indicating immune escape. In contrast to wild-type recipients, 80–100% of STAT1-, IFN-γ-, or IFN-γ receptor-deficient recipients died of lymphoma, indicating that host IFN-γ signaling is critical for rejection. Lymphomas arising in IFN-γ- and IFN-γ-receptor-deficient mice had invariably lost antigen expression, suggesting that poor overall survival of these recipients was due to inefficient elimination of antigen-negative lymphoma variants. Antigen-dependent eradication of lymphoma cells in wild-type animals was dependent on cross-presentation of antigen by cells of the tumor stroma. These findings provide first evidence for an important role of the tumor stroma in T cell-mediated control of hematologic neoplasias and highlight the importance of incorporating stroma-targeting strategies into future immunotherapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Gerbitz
- Department of Immunology, Charité Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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81
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Mouse genetics suggests cell-context dependency for Myc-regulated metabolic enzymes during tumorigenesis. PLoS Genet 2012; 8:e1002573. [PMID: 22438825 PMCID: PMC3305401 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
c-Myc (hereafter called Myc) belongs to a family of transcription factors that regulates cell growth, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Myc initiates the transcription of a large cast of genes involved in cell growth by stimulating metabolism and protein synthesis. Some of these, like those involved in glycolysis, may be part of the Warburg effect, which is defined as increased glucose uptake and lactate production in the presence of adequate oxygen supply. In this study, we have taken a mouse-genetics approach to challenge the role of select Myc-regulated metabolic enzymes in tumorigenesis in vivo. By breeding λ-Myc transgenic mice, Apc(Min) mice, and p53 knockout mice with mouse models carrying inactivating alleles of Lactate dehydrogenase A (Ldha), 3-Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (Phgdh) and Serine hydroxymethyltransferase 1 (Shmt1), we obtained offspring that were monitored for tumor development. Very surprisingly, we found that these genes are dispensable for tumorigenesis in these genetic settings. However, experiments in fibroblasts and colon carcinoma cells expressing oncogenic Ras show that these cells are sensitive to Ldha knockdown. Our genetic models reveal cell context dependency and a remarkable ability of tumor cells to adapt to alterations in critical metabolic pathways. Thus, to achieve clinical success, it will be of importance to correctly stratify patients and to find synthetic lethal combinations of inhibitors targeting metabolic enzymes.
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82
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Murine models of B-cell lymphomas: promising tools for designing cancer therapies. Adv Hematol 2012; 2012:701704. [PMID: 22400032 PMCID: PMC3287022 DOI: 10.1155/2012/701704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Accepted: 10/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human B-cell lymphomas, the fourth most common hematologic malignancy, are currently the subject of extensive research. The limited accessibility of biopsies, the heterogeneity among patients, and the subtypes of lymphomas have necessitated the development of animal models to decipher immune escape mechanisms and design new therapies. Here, we summarize the cell lines and murine models used to study lymphomagenesis, the lymphoma microenvironment, and the efficacy of new therapies. These data allow us to understand the role of the immune system in the fight against tumors. Exploring the advantages and limitations of immunocompetent versus immunodeficient models improves our understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of tumor genesis and development as well as the fundamental processes governing the interaction of tumors and their host tissues. We posit that these basic preclinical investigations will open up new and promising approaches to designing better therapies.
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83
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Forshell LP, Li Y, Forshell TZP, Rudelius M, Nilsson L, Keller U, Nilsson J. The direct Myc target Pim3 cooperates with other Pim kinases in supporting viability of Myc-induced B-cell lymphomas. Oncotarget 2011; 2:448-60. [PMID: 21646687 PMCID: PMC3248204 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The Pim kinases are weak oncogenes. However, when co-expressed with a strong oncogene, such as c-Myc, Pim kinases potentiate the oncogenic effect resulting in an acceleration of tumorigenesis. In this study we show that the least studied Pim kinase, Pim-3, is encoded by a gene directly regulated by c-Myc via binding to one of the conserved E-boxes within the Pim3 gene. Accordingly, lymphomas arising in Myc-transgenic mice and Burkitt lymphoma cell lines exhibit elevated levels of Pim-3. Interestingly, inhibition of Pim kinases by a novel pan-Pim kinase inhibitor, Pimi, in Myc-induced lymphoma results in cell death that appears independent of caspases. The data indicate that Pim kinase inhibition could be a viable treatment strategy in certain human lymphomas that rely on Pim-3 kinase expression.
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84
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A shared gene expression signature in mouse models of EBV-associated and non-EBV-associated Burkitt lymphoma. Blood 2011; 118:6849-59. [PMID: 22039254 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2011-02-338434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The link between EBV infection and Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is strong, but the mechanism underlying that link has been elusive. We have developed a mouse model for EBV-associated BL in which LMP2A, an EBV latency protein, and MYC are expressed in B cells. Our model has demonstrated the ability of LMP2A to accelerate tumor onset, increase spleen size, and bypass p53 inactivation. Here we describe the results of total gene expression analysis of tumor and pretumor B cells from our transgenic mouse model. Although we see many phenotypic differences and changes in gene expression in pretumor B cells, the transcriptional profiles of tumor cells from LMP2A/λ-MYC and λ-MYC mice are strikingly similar, with fewer than 20 genes differentially expressed. We evaluated the functional significance of one of the most interesting differentially expressed genes, Egr1, and found that it was not required for acceleration of tumor onset by LMP2A. Our studies demonstrate the remarkable ability of LMP2A to affect the pretumor B-cell phenotype and tumorigenesis without substantially altering gene expression in tumor cells.
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85
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Schrader A, Bentink S, Spang R, Lenze D, Hummel M, Kuo M, Arrand JR, Murray PG, Trümper L, Kube D, Vockerodt M. High Myc activity is an independent negative prognostic factor for diffuse large B cell lymphomas. Int J Cancer 2011; 131:E348-61. [PMID: 21913186 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.26423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Gene expression profiling has recently enabled the reclassification of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphomas (aNHL) into distinct subgroups. In Burkitt lymphoma (BL) aberrant c-Myc activity results from IG-MYC translocations. However, MYC aberrations are not limited to BLs and then have a negative prognostic impact. In this study, we investigated to which extent aberrant c-Myc activity plays a functional role in other aNHL and whether it is independent from MYC translocations. Based on a combined microarray analysis of human germinal center (GC) B cells transfected with c-Myc and 220 aNHLs cases, we developed a "c-Myc index." This index measures the extent to which lymphomas express c-Myc responsive genes. It comprises genes that are affected in a variety of tumors compared to normal tissue. This supports the view that aberrant c-Myc expression in GC B cells triggers a tumor-like expression pattern. As expected, the "c-Myc index" is very high in molecular Burkitt lymphoma (mBL), but more importantly also high within other aNHL. It constitutes a negative prognostic marker independent of established risk factors and of the presence of a MYC translocation. Our data provide new insights into the role of c-Myc activity in different lymphomas and raises the question of treatment changes for those patients under risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Schrader
- Department of Haematology and Oncology, University Medical Centre of the Georg-August University Göttingen, Germany
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86
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Höglund A, Nilsson LM, Muralidharan SV, Hasvold LA, Merta P, Rudelius M, Nikolova V, Keller U, Nilsson JA. Therapeutic implications for the induced levels of Chk1 in Myc-expressing cancer cells. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17:7067-79. [PMID: 21933891 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-1198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The transcription factor c-Myc (or "Myc") is a master regulator of pathways driving cell growth and proliferation. MYC is deregulated in many human cancers, making its downstream target genes attractive candidates for drug development. We report the unexpected finding that B-cell lymphomas from mice and patients exhibit a striking correlation between high levels of Myc and checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN By in vitro cell biology studies as well as preclinical studies using a genetically engineered mouse model, we evaluated the role of Chk1 in Myc-overexpressing cells. RESULTS We show that Myc indirectly induces Chek1 transcript and protein expression, independently of DNA damage response proteins such as ATM and p53. Importantly, we show that inhibition of Chk1, by either RNA interference or a novel highly selective small molecule inhibitor, results in caspase-dependent apoptosis that affects Myc-overexpressing cells in both in vitro and in vivo mouse models of B-cell lymphoma. CONCLUSION Our data suggest that Chk1 inhibitors should be further evaluated as potential drugs against Myc-driven malignancies such as certain B-cell lymphoma/leukemia, neuroblastoma, and some breast and lung cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Höglund
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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87
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Malagon F, Gonzalez-Angulo J, Carrasco E, Robert L. Etiopathogenesis of Burkitt's lymphoma: a lesson from a BL-like in CD1 mouse immune to Plasmodium yoelii yoelii. Infect Agent Cancer 2011; 6:10. [PMID: 21740585 PMCID: PMC3156727 DOI: 10.1186/1750-9378-6-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 07/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction There is a jaw cancer that develops in children five to eight years old in holoendemic malaria regions of Africa, associated to malaria and Epstein Barr virus infections (EBV). This malignancy is known as endemic Burkitt's lymphoma, and histopatologically is characterized by a starry sky appearance. To date, no histopathologic expression of Burkitt's lymphoma has been reported in non-genetically manipulated experimental animals. The purpose of the study is to describe the case of a mouse immune to Plasmodium yoelii yoelii (Pyy) that developed a Burkitt's lymphoma-like neoplasm after repeated malaria infections. Results Immune mouse 10 (IM-10) developed neoplasms at eight months of age, after receiving three Pyy inoculations. At autopsy eight subcutaneous tumors were found of which the right iliac fosse tumor perforated the abdominal wall and invaded the colon. The histopathologic study showed that all neoplasms were malignant lymphomas of large non-cleaved cells also compatible with variants or previous states of development of a Burkitt's lymphoma-like. The thymus, however, showed a typical starry sky Burkitt's lymphoma-like neoplasm. Conclusions Neoplasm development in CD1 mouse is associated to both, immunity against malaria and continuous antigenic stimulation with living parasites. It is the first observation of a histopathologically expressed Human Burkitt's lymphoma-like neoplasm in a non-genetically manipulated mouse. Chronic immune response associated to neoplasms development could probably be not an exclusive expression of malaria-host interaction but, it could be a pattern that can bee applied also to other agent-host interactions such as host-bacteria, fungus, virus and other parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filiberto Malagon
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Laboratorio de Malariologia Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Cd. Universitaria, México, D.F., México
| | - Jorge Gonzalez-Angulo
- Facultad de Estudios Profesionales, Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Iztacala, Edo. de México, México
| | - Elba Carrasco
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Laboratorio de Malariologia Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Cd. Universitaria, México, D.F., México
| | - Lilia Robert
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Laboratorio de Malariologia Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Cd. Universitaria, México, D.F., México
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88
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Cen O, Longnecker R. Rapamycin reverses splenomegaly and inhibits tumor development in a transgenic model of Epstein-Barr virus-related Burkitt's lymphoma. Mol Cancer Ther 2011; 10:679-86. [PMID: 21282357 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-10-0833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and latency has been associated with malignancies, including nasopharyngeal carcinoma and Burkitt's lymphoma. EBV encoded latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) is expressed in most EBV-associated malignancies and as such provides a therapeutic target. Burkitt's lymphoma is a hematopoietic cancer associated with the translocation of c-MYC to one of the immunoglobulin gene promoters leading to abnormally high expression of MYC and development of lymphoma. Our laboratory has developed a murine model of EBV-associated Burkitt's lymphoma by crossing LMP2A transgenic mice with MYC transgenic mice. Since LMP2A has been shown to activate the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, we tested the therapeutic efficacy of mTOR inhibitor rapamycin on the tumors and splenomegaly in these double transgenic mice (Tg6/λ-MYC). We found that rapamycin reversed splenomegaly in Tg6/λ-MYC mice prior to tumor formation by targeting B cells. In a tumor transfer model, we also found that rapamycin significantly decreased tumor growth, splenomegaly, and metastasis of tumor cells in the bone marrow of tumor recipients. Our data show that rapamycin may be a valuable candidate for the development of a treatment modality for EBV-positive lymphomas, such as Burkitt's lymphoma, and more importantly, provides a basis to develop inhibitors that specifically target viral gene function in tumor cells that depend on LMP2A signaling for survival and/or growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osman Cen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 E. Chicago Avenue, Ward 6-241, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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89
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Walker CW, Van Beneden RJ, Muttray AF, Böttger SA, Kelley ML, Tucker AE, Thomas WK. p53 Superfamily proteins in marine bivalve cancer and stress biology. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY 2011; 59:1-36. [PMID: 21724017 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385536-7.00001-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The human p53 tumour suppressor protein is inactivated in many cancers and is also a major player in apoptotic responses to cellular stress. The p53 protein and the two other members of this protein family (p63, p73) are encoded by distinct genes and their functions have been extensively documented for humans and some other vertebrates. The structure and relative expression levels for members of the p53 superfamily have also been reported for most major invertebrate taxa. The functions of homologous proteins have been investigated for only a few invertebrates (specifically, p53 in flies, nematodes and recently a sea anemone). These studies of classical model organisms all suggest that the gene family originally evolved to mediate apoptosis of damaged germ cells or to protect germ cells from genotoxic stress. Here, we have correlated data from a number of molluscan and other invertebrate sequencing projects to provide a framework for understanding p53 signalling pathways in marine bivalve cancer and stress biology. These data suggest that (a) the two identified p53 and p63/73-like proteins in soft shell clam (Mya arenaria), blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Northern European squid (Loligo forbesi) have identical core sequences and may be splice variants of a single gene, while some molluscs and most other invertebrates have two or more distinct genes expressing different p53 family members; (b) transcriptional activation domains (TADs) in bivalve p53 and p63/73-like protein sequences are 67-69% conserved with human p53, while those in ecdysozoan, cnidarian, placozoan and choanozoan eukaryotes are ≤33% conserved; (c) the Mdm2 binding site in the transcriptional activation domain is 100% conserved in all sequenced bivalve p53 proteins (e.g. Mya, Mytilus, Crassostrea and Spisula) but is not present in other non-deuterostome invertebrates; (d) an Mdm2 homologue has been cloned for Mytilus trossulus; (e) homologues for both human p53 upstream regulatory and transcriptional target genes exist in molluscan genomes (missing are ARF, CIP1 and BH3 only proteins) and (f) p53 is demonstrably involved in bivalve haemocyte and germinoma cancers. We usually do not know enough about the molecular biology of marine invertebrates to address molecular mechanisms that characterize particular diseases. Understanding the molecular basis of naturally occurring diseases in marine bivalves is a virtually unexplored aspect of toxicoproteomics and genomics and related drug discovery. Additionally, increases in coastal development and concomitant increases in aquatic pollutants have driven interest in developing models appropriate for evaluating potential hazardous compounds or conditions found in the aquatic environment. Data reviewed in this study are coupled with recent developments in our understanding the molecular biology of the marine bivalve p53 superfamily. Taken together, they suggest that both structurally and functionally, bivalve p53 family proteins are the most highly conserved members of this gene superfamily so far identified outside of higher vertebrates and invertebrate chordates. Marine bivalves provide some of the most relevant and best understood models currently available for experimental studies by biomedical and marine environmental researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles W Walker
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA
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90
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CXCL12 Mediates Immunosuppression in the Lymphoma Microenvironment after Allogeneic Transplantation of Hematopoietic Cells. Cancer Res 2010; 70:10170-81. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-1943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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91
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Mandal PK, Schneider M, Kölle P, Kuhlencordt P, Förster H, Beck H, Bornkamm GW, Conrad M. Loss of thioredoxin reductase 1 renders tumors highly susceptible to pharmacologic glutathione deprivation. Cancer Res 2010; 70:9505-14. [PMID: 21045148 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-1509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Tumor cells generate substantial amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS), engendering the need to maintain high levels of antioxidants such as thioredoxin (Trx)- and glutathione (GSH)-dependent enzymes. Exacerbating oxidative stress by specifically inhibiting these types of ROS-scavenging enzymes has emerged as a promising chemotherapeutic strategy to kill tumor cells. However, potential redundancies among the various antioxidant systems may constrain this simple approach. Trx1 and thioredoxin reductase 1 (Txnrd1) are upregulated in numerous cancers, and Txnrd1 has been reported to be indispensable for tumorigenesis. However, we report here that genetic ablation of Txnrd1 has no apparent effect on tumor cell behavior based on similar proliferative, clonogenic, and tumorigenic potential. This finding reflects widespread redundancies between the Trx- and GSH-dependent systems based on evidence of a bypass to Txnrd1 deficiency by compensatory upregulation of GSH-metabolizing enzymes. Because the survival and growth of Txnrd1-deficient tumors were strictly dependent on a functional GSH system, Txnrd1-/- tumors were highly susceptible to experimental GSH depletion in vitro and in vivo. Thus, our findings establish for the first time that a concomitant inhibition of the two major antioxidant systems is highly effective in killing tumor, highlighting a promising strategy to combat cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pankaj Kumar Mandal
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology and Tumor Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany.
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92
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Eef1a2 promotes cell growth, inhibits apoptosis and activates JAK/STAT and AKT signaling in mouse plasmacytomas. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10755. [PMID: 20505761 PMCID: PMC2873962 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2009] [Accepted: 04/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The canonical function of EEF1A2, normally expressed only in muscle, brain, and heart, is in translational elongation, but recent studies suggest a non-canonical function as a proto-oncogene that is overexpressed in a variety of solid tumors including breast and ovary. Transcriptional profiling of a spectrum of primary mouse B cell lineage neoplasms showed that transcripts encoding EEF1A2 were uniquely overexpressed in plasmacytomas (PCT), tumors of mature plasma cells. Cases of human multiple myeloma expressed significantly higher levels of EEF1A2 transcripts than normal bone marrow plasma cells. High-level expression was also a feature of a subset of cell lines developed from mouse PCT and from the human MM. Methodology/Principal Findings Heightened expression of EEF1A2 was not associated with increased copy number or coding sequence mutations. shRNA-mediated knockdown of Eef1a2 transcripts and protein was associated with growth inhibition due to delayed G1-S progression, and effects on apoptosis that were seen only under serum-starved conditions. Transcriptional profiles and western blot analyses of knockdown cells revealed impaired JAK/STAT and PI3K/AKT signaling suggesting their contributions to EEF1A2-mediated effects on PCT induction or progression. Conclusions/Significance EEF1A2 may play contribute to the induction or progression of some PCT and a small percentage of MM. Eef1a2 could also prove to be a useful new marker for a subset of MM and, ultimately, a possible target for therapy.
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93
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Abstract
Up to 70% of all human malignancies show elevated expression of MYC. MYC is a pleiotropic transcription factor involved in many aspects of cellular development and physiology. Besides direct regulation of target genes involved in proliferation and growth MYC is implicated in controlling the complex networks of microRNAs and apoptosis mediators. The mode of MYC deregulation varies between different tumor entities. In most types of cancer high MYC levels are secondary to alterations in cell signalling pathways, leading to enhanced proliferation of the transformed cells. In some haematological malignancies, like Burkitt lymphoma (BL) and subsets of diffuse large B-cell lymphomas, elevated MYC levels are a direct consequence of genomic aberrations involving the MYC locus. BL is considered the prime example for MYC-induced lymphomagenesis. In comparison to other haematological malignancies it has the highest MYC-expression and is often connected to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. Over the past five decades BL has provided an invaluable tool for the entire discipline of oncology, helping to decipher many aspects of tumor biology. This review summarizes recent advances in the research on MYC-induced lymphomagenesis, focusing on the regulation of microRNAs and apoptosis, and possible contributions of EBV for lymphoma development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay Klapproth
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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94
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Bieging KT, Swanson-Mungerson M, Amick AC, Longnecker R. Epstein-Barr virus in Burkitt's lymphoma: a role for latent membrane protein 2A. Cell Cycle 2010; 9:901-8. [PMID: 20160479 DOI: 10.4161/cc.9.5.10840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) is characterized by translocation of the MYC gene to an immunoglobulin locus. Transgenic mouse models have been used to study the molecular changes that are necessary to bypass tumor suppression in the presence of translocated MYC. Inactivation of the p53 pathway is a major step to tumor formation in mouse models that is also seen in human disease. Human BL is often highly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). The EBV latency protein latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A) is known to promote B cell survival by affecting levels of pro-survival factors. Using LMP2A transgenic mouse models, we have identified a novel mechanism that permits lymphomagenesis in the presence of an intact p53 pathway. This work uncovers a contribution of EBV to molecular events that have documented importance in BL pathogenesis, and may underlie the poorly understood link between EBV and BL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn T Bieging
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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Brenner CD, King S, Przewoznik M, Wolters I, Adam C, Bornkamm GW, Busch DH, Röcken M, Mocikat R. Requirements for control of B-cell lymphoma by NK cells. Eur J Immunol 2010; 40:494-504. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.200939937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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96
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Epstein-Barr virus-encoded Bcl-2 homologue functions as a survival factor in Wp-restricted Burkitt lymphoma cell line P3HR-1. J Virol 2009; 84:2893-901. [PMID: 20042495 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01616-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is etiologically associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). EBV-positive BL tumors display two latent forms of infection. One is referred to as latency I infection, in which EBV expresses the virus genome maintenance protein EBNA1 as the only viral protein. The other is referred to as Wp-restricted latency and was recently identified in a subset of BL tumors. In these tumors, EBV expresses EBNA1, EBNA3A, EBNA3B, EBNA3C, a truncated form of EBNA-LP, and the viral Bcl-2 homologue BHRF1, all of which are driven by the BamHI W promoter (Wp). To investigate the role of EBV in Wp-restricted BL, we conditionally expressed a dominant-negative EBNA1 (dnEBNA1) mutant which interrupts the virus genome maintenance function of EBNA1 in the P3HR-1 BL cell line. Induction of dnEBNA1 expression caused loss of the EBV genome and resulted in apoptosis of P3HR-1 cells in the absence of exogenous apoptosis inducers, indicating that P3HR-1 cells cannot survive without EBV. Stable transfection of the BHRF1 gene into P3HR-1 cells rescued the cells from the apoptosis induced by dnEBNA1 expression, whereas stable transfection of truncated EBNA-LP, EBNA3A, or EBNA3C did not. Moreover, knockdown of BHRF1 expression in P3HR-1 cells resulted in increased cell death. These results indicate that EBV is essential for the survival of P3HR-1 cells and that BHRF1 functions as a survival factor. Our finding implies a critical contribution of BHRF1 to the pathogenesis of Wp-restricted BLs.
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97
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c-Myc overexpression promotes a germinal center-like program in Burkitt's lymphoma. Oncogene 2009; 29:888-97. [PMID: 19881537 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2009.377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The germinal center (GC) reaction has a pivotal function in human B-cell lymphomagenesis. Genetic aberrations occurring during somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination deregulate key factors controlling B-cell physiology and proliferation. Several human lymphoma entities are characterized by a constitutive GC phenotype and ongoing somatic hypermutation, but the molecular basis for this phenomenon is only partly understood. We have investigated the reasons for a constitutive GC-like program in Burkitt's lymphoma cells. Here, overexpression of c-Myc leads to a centroblast phenotype, promotes high constitutive expression of the key GC factors Bcl-6, E2A and activation-induced cytidine deaminase and contributes to proliferation and somatic hypermutation. Our findings elucidate how the activity of a pivotal transcription factor may freeze B-cell lymphoma cells in a constitutive GC-like state that is even maintained at an extrafollicular location.
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Epstein-Barr virus LMP2A bypasses p53 inactivation in a MYC model of lymphomagenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:17945-50. [PMID: 19815507 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0907994106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Although Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is linked to Burkitt's lymphoma (BL), the role of the virus in lymphomagenesis is unclear. LMP2A, encoded by EBV, can be detected in BL biopsies and has prosurvival functions. We generated mice expressing MYC and LMP2A in B cells. LMP2A/lambda-MYC mice show greatly accelerated tumor onset. Similar to previous work, we found p53 mutations in lambda-MYC tumors; however, we detected no mutations in the rapidly arising LMP2A/lambda-MYC tumors. We further demonstrate that the p53 pathway is functionally intact in LMP2A/lambda-MYC tumors, which have increased levels of PUMA and sensitivity to p53 activation by Nutlin. This work shows that LMP2A can permit tumorigenesis in the presence of an intact p53 pathway, identifying an important contribution of EBV to BL.
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Allday MJ. How does Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) complement the activation of Myc in the pathogenesis of Burkitt's lymphoma? Semin Cancer Biol 2009; 19:366-76. [PMID: 19635566 PMCID: PMC3770905 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2009.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2009] [Accepted: 07/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A defining characteristic of the aggressive B cell tumour Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) is a reciprocal chromosomal translocation that activates the Myc oncogene by juxtaposing it to one of the immunoglobulin gene loci. The consequences of activating Myc include cell growth and proliferation that can lead to lymphomagenesis; however, as part of a fail-safe mechanism that has evolved in metazoans to reduce the likelihood of neoplastic disease, activated oncogenes such as Myc may also induce cell death by apoptosis and/or an irreversible block to proliferation called senescence. For lymphoma to develop it is necessary that these latter processes are repressed. More than 95% of a subset of BL – known as endemic (e)BL because they are largely restricted to regions of equatorial Africa and similar geographical regions – carry latent Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) in the form of nuclear extra-chromosomal episomes. Although EBV is not generally regarded as a driving force of BL cell proliferation, it plays an important role in the pathogenesis of eBL. Latency-associated EBV gene products can inhibit a variety of pathways that lead to apoptosis and senescence; therefore EBV probably counteracts the proliferation-restricting activities of deregulated Myc and so facilitates the development of BL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin J Allday
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
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Epstein-Barr virus and its role in the pathogenesis of Burkitt's lymphoma: an unresolved issue. Semin Cancer Biol 2009; 19:351-65. [PMID: 19619654 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2009.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2009] [Accepted: 07/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
For several reasons Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) has become a paradigm in cancer research: for its particular geographical distribution, the presence of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in the cases in high incidence areas, and for the activation of the proto-oncogene c-myc by chromosomal translocation in one of the immunoglobulin gene loci. As c-MYC activates both, proliferation and apoptosis, at least two events have to cooperate in lymphomagenesis: activation of c-MYC and a shift in the balance from apoptosis towards survival. Antigenic and/or polyclonal stimulation of the B cell receptor, genetic instability imposed by activation induced deaminase (AID), as well as the viral gene products EBNA1 and several small non-coding non-polyadenylated RNAs are the main factors suspected to play an important role in the pathogenesis of BL. Despite intensive research, the role of the virus has remained largely elusive in the past decades, but the discovery of two viral microRNA clusters that are expressed in EBV associated tumors including BL has raised new hopes and expectations that EBV is going to reveal its mystery. This review focuses on the interplay between cellular and viral factors and puts special emphasis on mouse models and experimental cell culture systems that address these points.
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