51
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Labib M, Zamay AS, Muharemagic D, Chechik AV, Bell JC, Berezovski MV. Aptamer-based viability impedimetric sensor for viruses. Anal Chem 2012; 84:1813-6. [PMID: 22303883 DOI: 10.1021/ac203412m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The development of aptamer-based viability impedimetric sensor for viruses (AptaVISens-V) is presented. Highly specific DNA aptamers to intact vaccinia virus were selected using cell-SELEX technique and integrated into impedimetric sensors via self-assembly onto a gold microelectrode. Remarkably, this aptasensor is highly selective and can successfully detect viable vaccinia virus particles (down to 60 virions in a microliter) and distinguish them from nonviable viruses in a label-free electrochemical assay format. It also opens a new venue for the development of a variety of viability sensors for detection of many microorganisms and spores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Labib
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ottawa, 10 Marie Curie, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
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52
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Selivanov BA, Belanov EF, Bormotov NI, Balakhnin SM, Serova OA, Svyatchenko VA, Kiselev NN, Kazachinskaya EI, Loktev VB, Tikhonov AY. Tricyclo[3.2.2.0(2,4)]non-8-en-6,7-dicarbonic acid derivatives efficiently inhibits the replication of different orthopoxvirus species. DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES : PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTIONS 2011; 441:424-428. [PMID: 22227697 DOI: 10.1134/s0012496611060135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B A Selivanov
- Novosibirsk Vorozhtsov Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, pr. Akademika Lavrentyeva 9, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
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53
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Abstract
Since the eradication of smallpox, immunological studies of smallpox vaccine (vaccinia virus) have provided great gains in understanding immunology as well as depecting smallpox vaccine-derived immune responses. Despite this wealth of knowledge, two confounding problems remain. First, that surviving smallpox provides an individual with lifelong protective immunity, whereas vaccination may not, and second, that specific molecular correlates of protection against smallpox remain vague. Historical literature on smallpox and contemporary studies of other human infections with orthopoxviruses, such as monkeypox, indicate that vaccination may lower disease risks, but it does not provide complete protection against infection in all individuals. Factors impacting protective immunity include longevity of immunologic memory post-vaccination, challenge dose and differences in the challenge viruses, as well as route of exposure. This article discusses historical information regarding smallpox attack rates during outbreaks and contemporary views on aspects of vaccines and naturally occurring orthopoxvirus outbreaks as related to vaccine-derived immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mary G Reynolds
- Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Division of High Consequence Pathogens & Pathology, Poxvirus & Rabies Branch, Poxivirus Program, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30339, USA
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54
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Alzhanova D, Edwards DM, Hammarlund E, Scholz IG, Horst D, Wagner MJ, Upton C, Wiertz EJ, Slifka MK, Früh K. Cowpox virus inhibits the transporter associated with antigen processing to evade T cell recognition. Cell Host Microbe 2010; 6:433-45. [PMID: 19917498 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2009.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2009] [Revised: 08/14/2009] [Accepted: 09/30/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cowpox virus encodes an extensive array of putative immunomodulatory proteins, likely contributing to its wide host range, which includes zoonotic infections in humans. Unlike Vaccinia virus, cowpox virus prevents stimulation of CD8(+) T cells, a block that correlated with retention of MHC class I in the endoplasmic reticulum by the cowpox virus protein CPXV203. However, deletion of CPXV203 did not restore MHC class I transport or T cell stimulation. Here, we demonstrate the contribution of an additional viral protein, CPXV12, which interferes with MHC class I/peptide complex formation by inhibiting peptide translocation by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). Importantly, human and mouse MHC class I transport and T cell stimulation was restored upon deletion of both CPXV12 and CPXV203, suggesting that these unrelated proteins independently mediate T cell evasion in multiple hosts. CPXV12 is a truncated version of a putative NK cell ligand, indicating that poxviral gene fragments can encode new, unexpected functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Alzhanova
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
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55
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Schatzmayr HG, Costa RVC, Gonçalves MCR, Barreto DF, Batista VH, Silva MEV, Brust LAC, Barth OM. [Human infections caused by vaccinia-like poxviruses in Brazil]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2010; 42:672-6. [PMID: 20209353 DOI: 10.1590/s0037-86822009000600012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2009] [Accepted: 11/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 1999, human infection caused by Orthopoxvirus has been observed in at least eight Brazilian states, with the presence of vesicles that evolve to pustules and crusts, especially on the hands, arms and face, after contact with cows showing comparable lesions on the udder. In addition to the skin lesions, there have been descriptions of patients with axillary ganglionic reactions that are sometimes painful, along with fever, headache, fatigue, dehydration, anorexia, sudoresis, arthralgia and muscle pain. The condition evolves over a three to four-week period. Vulvar lesions and transmission within families have also been described. Molecular studies have shown that the poxviruses identified are genetically related to vaccinia virus samples that were used in vaccination campaigns in the past. Clinical specimens from 80 human infections were studied in the laboratory, and orthopoxvirus infections were confirmed in 68 cases. The lesions observed in these patients are presented and the implications of this zoonosis in Brazil are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann G Schatzmayr
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ.
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56
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Mota BEF, Trindade GS, Diniz TC, da Silva-Nunes M, Braga EM, Urbano-Ferreira M, Rodrigues GOL, Bonjardim CA, Ferreira PCP, Kroon EG. Seroprevalence of orthopoxvirus in an Amazonian rural village, Acre, Brazil. Arch Virol 2010; 155:1139-44. [PMID: 20428903 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-010-0675-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Vaccinia virus strains from the family Poxviridae have been frequently isolated in Brazil and associated with outbreaks of exanthematic disease affecting cows and humans. An ELISA IgG was applied to evaluate the seroprevalence of orthopoxviruses in a community located in a rural settlement in the Amazon region, where no orthopoxvirus outbreaks have yet been reported. An overall seroprevalence of 27.89% was found, and it was 23.38% in the non-vaccinated population (smallpox vaccination). These results strongly suggest that orthopoxviruses circulate in this population, and it is the first finding of seropositivity for orthopoxviruses in a population without any previously reported outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- B E F Mota
- Laboratorio de Virus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil
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57
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Kramski M, Mätz-Rensing K, Stahl-Hennig C, Kaup FJ, Nitsche A, Pauli G, Ellerbrok H. A novel highly reproducible and lethal nonhuman primate model for orthopox virus infection. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10412. [PMID: 20454688 PMCID: PMC2861679 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The intentional re-introduction of Variola virus (VARV), the agent of smallpox, into the human population is of great concern due its bio-terroristic potential. Moreover, zoonotic infections with Cowpox (CPXV) and Monkeypox virus (MPXV) cause severe diseases in humans. Smallpox vaccines presently available can have severe adverse effects that are no longer acceptable. The efficacy and safety of new vaccines and antiviral drugs for use in humans can only be demonstrated in animal models. The existing nonhuman primate models, using VARV and MPXV, need very high viral doses that have to be applied intravenously or intratracheally to induce a lethal infection in macaques. To overcome these drawbacks, the infectivity and pathogenicity of a particular CPXV was evaluated in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus).A CPXV named calpox virus was isolated from a lethal orthopox virus (OPV) outbreak in New World monkeys. We demonstrated that marmosets infected with calpox virus, not only via the intravenous but also the intranasal route, reproducibly develop symptoms resembling smallpox in humans. Infected animals died within 1-3 days after onset of symptoms, even when very low infectious viral doses of 5x10(2) pfu were applied intranasally. Infectious virus was demonstrated in blood, saliva and all organs analyzed.We present the first characterization of a new OPV infection model inducing a disease in common marmosets comparable to smallpox in humans. Intranasal virus inoculation mimicking the natural route of smallpox infection led to reproducible infection. In vivo titration resulted in an MID(50) (minimal monkey infectious dose 50%) of 8.3x10(2) pfu of calpox virus which is approximately 10,000-fold lower than MPXV and VARV doses applied in the macaque models. Therefore, the calpox virus/marmoset model is a suitable nonhuman primate model for the validation of vaccines and antiviral drugs. Furthermore, this model can help study mechanisms of OPV pathogenesis.
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58
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Medeiros-Silva DC, dos Santos Moreira-Silva EA, de Assis Silva Gomes J, da Fonseca FG, Correa-Oliveira R. Clinical signs, diagnosis, and case reports of Vaccinia virus infections. Braz J Infect Dis 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s1413-8670(10)70025-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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59
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Efficacy of ST-246 versus lethal poxvirus challenge in immunodeficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 107:838-43. [PMID: 20080762 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0912134107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The threat of smallpox as a bioweapon and the emerging threat of human monkeypox, among other poxviral diseases, highlight the need for effective poxvirus countermeasures. ST-246, which targets the F13L protein in vaccinia virus and its homologs in other orthopoxvirus species, provides full protection from lethal poxviral disease in numerous animal models and seems to be safe in humans. All previous evaluations of ST-246 efficacy have been in immunocompetent animals. However, the risk of severe poxviral disease is greater in immunodeficient hosts. Here we report on the efficacy of ST-246 in preventing or treating lethal poxviral disease in immunodeficient mice. After lethal challenge with the Western Reserve strain of vaccinia, Nude, SCID, and J(H) knockout mice additionally depleted of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells were not fully protected by ST-246, although survival was significantly extended. However, CD4(+) T cell deficient, CD8(+) T cell deficient, J(H) knockout, and J(H) knockout mice also deficient for CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cells survived lethal challenge when treated with ST-246 starting on the day of challenge. Delaying treatment until 72 h after infection reduced ST-246 efficacy in some models but provided full protection from lethal challenge in most. These findings suggest that ST-246 may be effective in controlling smallpox or other pathogenic orthopoxviruses in some immunodeficient human populations for whom the vaccine is contraindicated.
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60
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Abstract
The specificity of a given virus for a cell type, tissue or species - collectively known as viral tropism - is an important factor in determining the outcome of viral infection in any particular host. Owing to the increased prevalence of zoonotic infections and the threat of emerging and re-emerging pathogens, gaining a better understanding of the factors that determine viral tropism has become particularly important. In this Review, we summarize our current understanding of the central role of antiviral and pro-inflammatory cytokines, particularly the interferons and tumour necrosis factor, in dictating viral tropism and how these cytokine pathways can be exploited therapeutically for cancer treatment and to better counter future threats from emerging zoonotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant McFadden
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Academic Research Building, Room R4-295, Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA.
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61
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The 3'-to-5' exonuclease activity of vaccinia virus DNA polymerase is essential and plays a role in promoting virus genetic recombination. J Virol 2009; 83:4236-50. [PMID: 19224992 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02255-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses are subjected to extraordinarily high levels of genetic recombination during infection, although the enzymes catalyzing these reactions have never been identified. However, it is clear that virus-encoded DNA polymerases play some unknown yet critical role in virus recombination. Using a novel, antiviral-drug-based strategy to dissect recombination and replication reactions, we now show that the 3'-to-5' proofreading exonuclease activity of the viral DNA polymerase plays a key role in promoting recombination reactions. Linear DNA substrates were prepared containing the dCMP analog cidofovir (CDV) incorporated into the 3' ends of the molecules. The drug blocked the formation of concatemeric recombinant molecules in vitro in a process that was catalyzed by the proofreading activity of vaccinia virus DNA polymerase. Recombinant formation was also blocked when CDV-containing recombination substrates were transfected into cells infected with wild-type vaccinia virus. These inhibitory effects could be overcome if CDV-containing substrates were transfected into cells infected with CDV-resistant (CDV(r)) viruses, but only when resistance was linked to an A314T substitution mutation mapping within the 3'-to-5' exonuclease domain of the viral polymerase. Viruses encoding a CDV(r) mutation in the polymerase domain still exhibited a CDV-induced recombination deficiency. The A314T substitution also enhanced the enzyme's capacity to excise CDV molecules from the 3' ends of duplex DNA and to recombine these DNAs in vitro, as judged from experiments using purified mutant DNA polymerase. The 3'-to-5' exonuclease activity appears to be an essential virus function, and our results suggest that this might be because poxviruses use it to promote genetic exchange.
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62
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Trindade GS, Guedes MIC, Drumond BP, Mota BEF, Abrahão JS, Lobato ZIP, Gomes JAS, Corrêa-Oliveira R, Nogueira ML, Kroon EG, da Fonseca FG. Zoonotic vaccinia virus: clinical and immunological characteristics in a naturally infected patient. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48:e37-40. [PMID: 19115976 DOI: 10.1086/595856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccinia virus was used as vaccine to eradicate smallpox. We report a zoonotic case of vaccinia virus infection in a 30-year-old patient who became infected after handling sick dairy cattle. The patient had inflamed lesions and systemic symptoms. Laboratory findings were indicative of down-modulated immune responses to the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giliane S Trindade
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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63
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MacNeill AL, Moldawer LL, Moyer RW. The role of the cowpox virus crmA gene during intratracheal and intradermal infection of C57BL/6 mice. Virology 2008; 384:151-60. [PMID: 19056101 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.10.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2008] [Revised: 09/24/2008] [Accepted: 10/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Intratracheal (i.t.) infection of mice with cowpox virus (CPXV), is lethal at a lower dose than intranasal (i.n.) inoculation. CPXV deleted for cytokine response modifier A (CPXVDeltacrmA) was attenuated compared to CPXV after i.t. inoculation. This attenuation could not be attributed to differences in virus replication, immunomodulators, or cells infiltrating the lungs. Deletion of crmA also caused attenuation during intradermal (i.d.) infection. In contrast to i.t.-inoculated virus, deletion of crmA reduced virus replication at the site of infection. This difference correlated to increased numbers of CD3(+) cells in CPXVDeltacrmA-associated dermal lesions. Thus, crmA is a virulence factor in mice during either pulmonary or dermal cowpox infection; however the influence of crmA is more evident during i.d. inoculation. This suggests that the host immune response differs in the two routes of infection and emphasizes the need to consider the effect of route of infection when examining functions of virulence factors in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L MacNeill
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, IL 61802, USA.
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64
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Rapid evolution of protein kinase PKR alters sensitivity to viral inhibitors. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2008; 16:63-70. [PMID: 19043413 PMCID: PMC3142916 DOI: 10.1038/nsmb.1529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2008] [Accepted: 11/18/2008] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Protein kinase PKR (also known as EIF2AK2) is activated during viral infection and phosphorylates the alpha subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2), leading to inhibition of translation and viral replication. We report fast evolution of the PKR kinase domain in vertebrates, coupled with positive selection of specific sites. Substitution of positively selected residues in human PKR with residues found in related species altered sensitivity to PKR inhibitors from different poxviruses. Species-specific differences in sensitivity to poxviral pseudosubstrate inhibitors were identified between human and mouse PKR, and these differences were traced to positively selected residues near the eIF2alpha binding site. Our findings indicate how an antiviral protein evolved to evade viral inhibition while maintaining its primary function. Moreover, the identified species-specific differences in the susceptibility to viral inhibitors have important implications for studying human infections in nonhuman model systems.
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65
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Parker S, Handley L, Buller RM. Therapeutic and prophylactic drugs to treat orthopoxvirus infections. Future Virol 2008; 3:595-612. [PMID: 19727418 DOI: 10.2217/17460794.3.6.595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
With the global eradication of smallpox in 1979, the causative agent, variola, no longer circulates in human populations. Other human poxvirus infections, such as those caused by vaccinia, cowpox virus and molluscum, are usually relatively benign in immunocompetent individuals. Conversely, monkeypox virus infections cause high levels of mortality and morbidity in Africa and the virus appears to be increasing its host range, virulence and demographic environs. Furthermore, there are concerns that clandestine stocks of variola virus exist. The re-introduction of aerosolized variola (or perhaps monkeypox virus) into human populations would result in high levels of morbidity and mortality. The attractiveness of variola as a bioweapon and, to a certain extent, monkeypox virus is its inherent ability to spread from person-to-person. The threat posed by the intentional release of variola or monkeypox virus, or a monkeypox virus epizoonosis, will require the capacity to rapidly diagnose the disease and to intervene with antivirals, as intervention is likely to take place during the initial diagnosis, approximately 10-15 days postinfection. Preimmunization of 'at-risk populations' with vaccines will likely not be practical, and the therapeutic use of vaccines has been shown to be ineffective after 4 days of infection with variola. However, a combination of vaccine and antivirals for those infected may be an option. Here we describe historical, current and future therapies to treat orthopoxvirus diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Parker
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Saint Louis University Health Sciences Center, St Louis, MO 63104, USA
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66
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The addition of tumor necrosis factor plus beta interferon induces a novel synergistic antiviral state against poxviruses in primary human fibroblasts. J Virol 2008; 83:498-511. [PMID: 18971273 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01376-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and members of the interferon (IFN) family have been shown to independently inhibit the replication of a variety of viruses. In addition, previous reports have shown that treatment with various combinations of these antiviral cytokines induces a synergistic antiviral state that can be significantly more potent than addition of any of these cytokines alone. The mechanism of this cytokine synergy and its effects on global gene expression, however, are not well characterized. Here, we use DNA microarray analysis to demonstrate that treatment of uninfected primary human fibroblasts with TNF plus IFN-beta induces a distinct synergistic state characterized by significant perturbations of several hundred genes which are coinduced by the individual cytokines alone, as well as the induction of more than 850 novel host cell genes. This synergy is mediated directly by the two ligands, not by intermediate secreted factors, and is necessary and sufficient to completely block the productive replication and spread of myxoma virus in human fibroblasts. In contrast, the replication of two other poxviruses, vaccinia virus and tanapox virus, are only partially inhibited in these cells by the synergistic antiviral state, whereas the spread of both of these viruses to neighboring cells was efficiently blocked. Taken together, our data indicate that the combination of TNF and IFN-beta induces a novel synergistic antiviral state that is highly distinct from that induced by either cytokine alone.
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67
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Abstract
As a family of viruses, poxviruses collectively exhibit a broad host range and most of the individual members are capable of replicating in a wide array of cell types from various host species, at least in vitro. At the cellular level, poxvirus tropism is dependent not upon specific cell surface receptors, but rather upon: (1) the ability of the cell to provide intracellular complementing factors needed for productive virus replication, and (2) the ability of the specific virus to successfully manipulate intracellular signaling networks that regulate cellular antiviral processes downstream of virus entry. The large genomic coding capacity of poxviruses enables the virus to express a unique collection of viral proteins that function as host range factors, which specifically target and manipulate host signaling pathways to establish optimal cellular conditions for viral replication. Functionally, the known host range factors from poxviruses have been associated with manipulation of a diverse array of cellular targets, which includes cellular kinases and phosphatases, apoptosis, and various antiviral pathways. To date, only a small number of poxvirus host range genes have been identified and studied, and only a handful of these have been functionally characterized. For this reason, poxvirus host range factors represent a potential gold mine for the discovery of novel pathogen-host protein interactions. This review summarizes our current understanding of the mechanisms by which the known poxvirus host range genes, and their encoded factors, expand tropism through the manipulation of host cell intracellular signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Werden
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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68
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de Souza Trindade G, Li Y, Olson VA, Emerson G, Regnery RL, da Fonseca FG, Kroon EG, Damon I. Real-time PCR assay to identify variants of Vaccinia virus: implications for the diagnosis of bovine vaccinia in Brazil. J Virol Methods 2008; 152:63-71. [PMID: 18602170 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2008.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2008] [Revised: 05/12/2008] [Accepted: 05/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Naturally occurring infections of Vaccinia virus (VACV) have been recognized in Brazil during the past 10 years. Human Brazilian Vaccinia virus (BVV) infections typically occur as a zoonosis transferred from affected dairy cows to their handlers. Outbreaks have caused notable economic losses to the rural community in the region. The origins of BVV are unclear but previous analyses have shown that at least two distinct clades of BVV exist. The aim of this study was to develop a rapid and inexpensive process for identification and differentiation of BVV that should facilitate epidemiological and ecological investigations including the improved diagnosis of Brazilian Orthopoxvirus infections. A SYBR green quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the hemagglutinin gene was developed to identify different populations of BVV, VACV vaccine strains used in Brazil during the smallpox eradication campaign (Vaccinia Lister (VACV-LIS) and New York City Board of Health (VACV-NYCBH)), and currently available vaccines (VACV-NYCBH DRYVAX and VACV-NYCBH Acambis 2000). Three primer combinations (one to amplify many orthopoxviruses including all vaccinia viruses described so far; one to differentiate BVV from vaccine strains (VACV-LIS, VACV-NYCBH DRYVAX and VACV-NYCBH Acambis 2000); and one to differentiate BVV clades) were designed to work at the same annealing temperature and reaction conditions. In addition, these methods were able to detect orthopoxvirus viral DNA in lesion biopsy material without the need for DNA extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giliane de Souza Trindade
- Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne and Enteric Diseases, Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, United States.
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69
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Golden JW, Josleyn MD, Hooper JW. Targeting the vaccinia virus L1 protein to the cell surface enhances production of neutralizing antibodies. Vaccine 2008; 26:3507-15. [PMID: 18485547 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2007] [Revised: 02/22/2008] [Accepted: 04/09/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The current live-orthopoxvirus vaccine is associated with minor to serious adverse affects, and is contraindicated for use in a significant portion of the population. As an alternative vaccine, we have previously shown that a DNA subunit vaccine (4pox) based on four orthopoxvirus immunogens (L1R, B5R, A27L and A33R) can produce protective immunity against lethal orthopoxvirus challenges in mice and nonhuman primates. Because antibodies are critical for protection against secondary orthopoxvirus infections, we are now interested in strategies that will enhance the humoral immune response against vaccine targets. Here, we tested the immunogenicity of an L1R construct to which a tissue plasminogen activator signal sequence was placed in frame with the full-length L1R gene. The tPA-L1R construct produced a more robust neutralizing antibody response in vaccinated mice when the DNA vaccine was administered by gene-gun as a prime/single boost. When the tPA-L1R construct was substituted for the unmodified L1R gene in the 4pox vaccine, given as a prime and single boost, animals were better protected from lethal challenge with vaccinia virus (VACV). These findings indicate that adding a tPA-leader sequence can enhance the immunogenicity of the L1R gene when given as a DNA vaccine. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that a DNA-based vaccine is capable of establishing protection from lethal orthopoxvirus challenges when administered as a prime and single boost without requiring adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W Golden
- Department of Molecular Virology, Virology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, MD 21702, United States
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70
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Drumond BP, Leite JA, da Fonseca FG, Bonjardim CA, Ferreira PCP, Kroon EG. Brazilian Vaccinia virus strains are genetically divergent and differ from the Lister vaccine strain. Microbes Infect 2008; 10:185-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2007.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2007] [Revised: 10/22/2007] [Accepted: 11/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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71
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Manes NP, Estep RD, Mottaz HM, Moore RJ, Clauss TRW, Monroe ME, Du X, Adkins JN, Wong SW, Smith RD. Comparative proteomics of human monkeypox and vaccinia intracellular mature and extracellular enveloped virions. J Proteome Res 2008; 7:960-8. [PMID: 18205298 DOI: 10.1021/pr070432+] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses are among the largest and most complex of the animal viruses. In response to the recent emergence of monkeypox in Africa and the threat of smallpox bioterrorism, two orthopoxviruses with different pathogenic potentials, human monkeypox virus and vaccinia virus, were proteomically compared with the goal of identifying proteins required for pathogenesis. Orthopoxviruses were grown in HeLa cells to two different viral forms (intracellular mature virus and extracellular enveloped virus), purified by sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation, denatured using RapiGest surfactant, and digested with trypsin. Unfractionated samples and strong cation exchange HPLC fractions were analyzed by high-resolution reversed-phase nano-LC-MS/MS, and analyses of the MS/MS spectra using SEQUEST and X! Tandem resulted in the confident identification of hundreds of monkeypox, vaccinia, and copurified host-cell proteins. The unfractionated samples were additionally analyzed by LC-MS using an LTQ-Orbitrap, and the accurate mass and elution time tag approach was used to perform quantitative comparisons. Possible pathophysiological roles of differentially abundant Orthopoxvirus proteins are discussed. Data, processed results, and protocols are available at http://www.proteomicsresource.org/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan P Manes
- Fundamental Science Division and Environmental Molecular Science Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, USA
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72
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Byun M, Wang X, Pak M, Hansen TH, Yokoyama WM. Cowpox virus exploits the endoplasmic reticulum retention pathway to inhibit MHC class I transport to the cell surface. Cell Host Microbe 2007; 2:306-15. [PMID: 18005752 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2007.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2007] [Revised: 08/13/2007] [Accepted: 09/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules assemble with peptides in the ER lumen and are transported via Golgi to the plasma membrane for recognition by T cells. Inhibiting MHC assembly, transport, and surface expression are common viral strategies of evading immune recognition. Cowpox virus, a clinically relevant orthopoxvirus, downregulates MHC class I expression on infected cells. However, the viral protein(s) and mechanisms responsible are unknown. We identify CPXV203 as a cowpox virus protein that associates with fully assembled MHC class I molecules and blocks their transport through the Golgi. A C-terminal KTEL motif in CPXV203 closely resembles the canonical ER retention motif KDEL and is required for CPXV203 function, indicating that a physiologic pathway is exploited to retain MHC class I in the ER. This viral mechanism for MHC class I downregulation may explain virulence differences between clinical isolates of orthopoxviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minji Byun
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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73
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De la Peña M, Kyrieleis OJP, Cusack S. Structural insights into the mechanism and evolution of the vaccinia virus mRNA cap N7 methyl-transferase. EMBO J 2007; 26:4913-25. [PMID: 17989694 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2007] [Accepted: 10/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The vaccinia virus mRNA capping enzyme is a multifunctional heterodimeric protein associated with the viral polymerase that both catalyses the three steps of mRNA capping and regulates gene transcription. The structure of a subcomplex comprising the C-terminal N7-methyl-transferase (MT) domain of the large D1 subunit, the stimulatory D12 subunit and bound S-adenosyl-homocysteine (AdoHcy) has been determined at 2.7 A resolution and reveals several novel features of the poxvirus capping enzyme. The structure shows for the first time the critical role played by the proteolytically sensitive N-terminus of the MT domain in binding the methyl donor and in catalysis. In addition, the poxvirus enzyme has a completely unique mode of binding of the adenosine moiety of AdoHcy, a feature that could be exploited for design of specific anti-poxviral compounds. The structure of the poxvirus-specific D12 subunit suggests that it was originally an RNA cap 2'O-MT that has evolved to a catalytically inactive form that has been retained for D1 stabilisation and MT activity enhancement through an allosteric mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos De la Peña
- Grenoble Outstation, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Grenoble, France
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74
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Kurth A, Nitsche A. Fast and reliable diagnostic methods for the detection of human poxvirus infections. Future Virol 2007. [DOI: 10.2217/17460794.2.5.467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Although the most prominent poxvirus, Variola virus, was successfully eradicated in the last century, several other poxviruses cause zoonotic infections that, in the early stages, resemble Variola virus infections with varying pathogenicity in humans. Over recent decades, numerous diagnostic methods for the detection of poxviruses have been established. As a result of technical progress and the advancement in molecular techniques, only a small selection of these methods meet the demands of being rapid and reliable. This review briefly introduces human poxviruses, summarizes the methods available, discusses their pros and cons and provides recommendations for a ‘fast and reliable diagnostic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Kurth
- Robert Koch Institute, Center for Biological Safety 1, German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Robert Koch Institute, Center for Biological Safety 1, German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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75
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Abstract
Although the World Health Organization (WHO) declared global smallpox eradicated in 1980, concerns over emergent poxvirus infections have increased. Most poxvirus infections are zoonotic; exploring their genetic diversity will illuminate the genetic and evolutionary aspects of poxvirus infections, ecology, and epidemiology. In recent decades, several strains of the orthopoxvirus vaccinia virus (VACV) have been isolated throughout Brazil, including genetically distinct isolates within the same outbreak. To further investigate the diversity and origins of these viruses, we analyzed molecular data from 8 Brazilian VACV isolates and compared several genes involved in virus structure and pathogenicity. Genetic variation among isolates suggests that ancestral Brazilian VACVs existed before the beginning of the WHO smallpox eradication vaccination campaigns and that these viruses continue to circulate.
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76
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Trindade G, Vilela J, Ferreira J, Aguiar P, Leite J, Guedes M, Lobato Z, Madureira M, da Silva M, da Fonseca F, Kroon E, Andrade M. Use of atomic force microscopy as a diagnostic tool to identify orthopoxvirus. J Virol Methods 2007; 141:198-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2006.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2006] [Revised: 12/08/2006] [Accepted: 12/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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77
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Dasgupta A, Hammarlund E, Slifka MK, Früh K. Cowpox virus evades CTL recognition and inhibits the intracellular transport of MHC class I molecules. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:1654-61. [PMID: 17237415 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.3.1654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses evade host immune responses by using a number of strategies, including decoy chemokine receptors, regulation of apoptosis, and evasion of complement-mediated lysis. Different from other poxviral subfamilies, however, orthopoxviruses are not known to evade recognition by CTL. In fact, vaccinia virus (VV) is used as a vaccine against smallpox and a vector for eliciting strong T cell responses to foreign Ags. and both human and mouse T cells are readily stimulated by VV-infected APC in vitro. Surprisingly, however, CD8(+) T cells of mice infected with cowpox virus (CPV) or VV recognized APC infected with VV but not APC infected with CPV. Likewise, CD8(+) T cells from vaccinated human subjects could not be activated by CPV-infected targets and CPV prevented the recognition of VV-infected APC upon coinfection. Because CD8(+) T cells recognize viral peptides presented by MHC class I (MHC I), we examined surface expression, total levels, and intracellular maturation of MHC I in CPV- and VV-infected human and mouse cells. Although total levels of MHC I were unchanged, CPV reduced surface levels and inhibited the intracellular transport of MHC I early during infection. CPV did not prevent peptide loading of MHC I but completely inhibited MHC I exit from the endoplasmic reticulum. Because this inhibition was independent of viral replication, we conclude that an early gene product of CPV abrogates MHC I trafficking, thus rendering CPV-infected cells "invisible" to T cells. The absence of this immune evasion mechanism in VV likely limits virulence without compromising immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anindya Dasgupta
- Oregon Health and Science University, Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
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78
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de Souza Trindade G, Drumond BP, Guedes MIMC, Leite JA, Mota BEF, Campos MA, da Fonseca FG, Nogueira ML, Lobato ZIP, Bonjardim CA, Ferreira PCP, Kroon EG. Zoonotic vaccinia virus infection in Brazil: clinical description and implications for health professionals. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45:1370-2. [PMID: 17287326 PMCID: PMC1865848 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00920-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine vaccinia virus outbreaks have been occurring in different regions of Brazil. We report here the time course of natural human infection by vaccinia virus and describe important clinical and epidemiological aspects of this zoonotic infection. The diagnosis of vaccinia virus infection was based on clinical, serological, and molecular procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giliane de Souza Trindade
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, Caixa Postal 486, CEP 31270-901, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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79
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Fedele CG, Negredo A, Molero F, Sánchez-Seco MP, Tenorio A. Use of internally controlled real-time genome amplification for detection of variola virus and other orthopoxviruses infecting humans. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44:4464-70. [PMID: 17065259 PMCID: PMC1698395 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00276-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Smallpox, once a devastating disease caused by Variola virus, a member of the Orthopoxvirus genus, was eradicated in 1980. However, the importance of variola virus infections has been stressed widely in the last few years, particularly following recent social events in the world. Today, variola virus is considered to be one of the most significant agents with potential use as a biological weapon. In this study we developed an internally controlled real-time PCR assay for rapid detection and simultaneous differentiation of variola virus from other orthopoxviruses. The assay is based on TaqMan 3'-minor groove binder (MGB) chemistry and uses generic primers, designed in highly conserved genomic regions of the crmB gene, and three TaqMan MGB probes designed to identify orthopoxviruses, variola virus, and an internal control. The results obtained suggest that the assay is rapid, sensitive, specific, and suitable for the generic detection of orthopoxviruses and the identification of variola virus and avoids false-negative results in a single reaction tube.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Fedele
- Alerts and Emergencies Unit, National Center of Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ctra. Pozuelo Majadahonda Km 2, 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
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80
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Tulman ER, Delhon G, Afonso CL, Lu Z, Zsak L, Sandybaev NT, Kerembekova UZ, Zaitsev VL, Kutish GF, Rock DL. Genome of horsepox virus. J Virol 2006; 80:9244-58. [PMID: 16940536 PMCID: PMC1563943 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00945-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we present the genomic sequence of horsepox virus (HSPV) isolate MNR-76, an orthopoxvirus (OPV) isolated in 1976 from diseased Mongolian horses. The 212-kbp genome contained 7.5-kbp inverted terminal repeats and lacked extensive terminal tandem repetition. HSPV contained 236 open reading frames (ORFs) with similarity to those in other OPVs, with those in the central 100-kbp region most conserved relative to other OPVs. Phylogenetic analysis of the conserved region indicated that HSPV is closely related to sequenced isolates of vaccinia virus (VACV) and rabbitpox virus, clearly grouping together these VACV-like viruses. Fifty-four HSPV ORFs likely represented fragments of 25 orthologous OPV genes, including in the central region the only known fragmented form of an OPV ribonucleotide reductase large subunit gene. In terminal genomic regions, HSPV lacked full-length homologues of genes variably fragmented in other VACV-like viruses but was unique in fragmentation of the homologue of VACV strain Copenhagen B6R, a gene intact in other known VACV-like viruses. Notably, HSPV contained in terminal genomic regions 17 kbp of OPV-like sequence absent in known VACV-like viruses, including fragments of genes intact in other OPVs and approximately 1.4 kb of sequence present only in cowpox virus (CPXV). HSPV also contained seven full-length genes fragmented or missing in other VACV-like viruses, including intact homologues of the CPXV strain GRI-90 D2L/I4R CrmB and D13L CD30-like tumor necrosis factor receptors, D3L/I3R and C1L ankyrin repeat proteins, B19R kelch-like protein, D7L BTB/POZ domain protein, and B22R variola virus B22R-like protein. These results indicated that HSPV contains unique genomic features likely contributing to a unique virulence/host range phenotype. They also indicated that while closely related to known VACV-like viruses, HSPV contains additional, potentially ancestral sequences absent in other VACV-like viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Tulman
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY 11944, USA
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81
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Kik MJL, Liu PL, van Asten JAM. Cowpoxvirus infection in the Patagonian cavy (Dolichotis patagonum) emerging disease in an educational animal park the first reported case. Vet Q 2006; 28:42-4. [PMID: 16841565 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2006.9695206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Generalized cowpox infection in the Patagonian cavy may represent a threat to the health of immunocompromised persons. We report the first case of cowpoxvirus infection in the Patagonian cavy in an educational animal park. The mara developed extensive pox lesions, shedding large amounts of viral particles. The ending of vaccination programmes against smallpox in the late 1970's may lead to an increase in susceptibility of humans to zoonotic poxviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J L Kik
- Department of Pathobiology, Division Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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82
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Stittelaar KJ, Neyts J, Naesens L, van Amerongen G, van Lavieren RF, Holý A, De Clercq E, Niesters HGM, Fries E, Maas C, Mulder PGH, van der Zeijst BAM, Osterhaus ADME. Antiviral treatment is more effective than smallpox vaccination upon lethal monkeypox virus infection. Nature 2006; 439:745-8. [PMID: 16341204 DOI: 10.1038/nature04295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2005] [Accepted: 09/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
There is concern that variola virus, the aetiological agent of smallpox, may be used as a biological weapon. For this reason several countries are now stockpiling (vaccinia virus-based) smallpox vaccine. Although the preventive use of smallpox vaccination has been well documented, little is known about its efficacy when used after exposure to the virus. Here we compare the effectiveness of (1) post-exposure smallpox vaccination and (2) antiviral treatment with either cidofovir (also called HPMPC or Vistide) or with a related acyclic nucleoside phosphonate analogue (HPMPO-DAPy) after lethal intratracheal infection of cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) with monkeypox virus (MPXV). MPXV causes a disease similar to human smallpox and this animal model can be used to measure differences in the protective efficacies of classical and new-generation candidate smallpox vaccines. We show that initiation of antiviral treatment 24 h after lethal intratracheal MPXV infection, using either of the antiviral agents and applying various systemic treatment regimens, resulted in significantly reduced mortality and reduced numbers of cutaneous monkeypox lesions. In contrast, when monkeys were vaccinated 24 h after MPXV infection, using a standard human dose of a currently recommended smallpox vaccine (Elstree-RIVM), no significant reduction in mortality was observed. When antiviral therapy was terminated 13 days after infection, all surviving animals had virus-specific serum antibodies and antiviral T lymphocytes. These data show that adequate preparedness for a biological threat involving smallpox should include the possibility of treating exposed individuals with antiviral compounds such as cidofovir or other selective anti-poxvirus drugs.
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83
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Sweet's Syndrome Mimicking an Orthopoxvirus Infection. INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN CLINICAL PRACTICE 2006. [DOI: 10.1097/01.idc.0000183677.02156.a9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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84
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Espy MJ, Uhl JR, Sloan LM, Buckwalter SP, Jones MF, Vetter EA, Yao JDC, Wengenack NL, Rosenblatt JE, Cockerill FR, Smith TF. Real-time PCR in clinical microbiology: applications for routine laboratory testing. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006; 19:165-256. [PMID: 16418529 PMCID: PMC1360278 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.19.1.165-256.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 800] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Real-time PCR has revolutionized the way clinical microbiology laboratories diagnose many human microbial infections. This testing method combines PCR chemistry with fluorescent probe detection of amplified product in the same reaction vessel. In general, both PCR and amplified product detection are completed in an hour or less, which is considerably faster than conventional PCR detection methods. Real-time PCR assays provide sensitivity and specificity equivalent to that of conventional PCR combined with Southern blot analysis, and since amplification and detection steps are performed in the same closed vessel, the risk of releasing amplified nucleic acids into the environment is negligible. The combination of excellent sensitivity and specificity, low contamination risk, and speed has made real-time PCR technology an appealing alternative to culture- or immunoassay-based testing methods for diagnosing many infectious diseases. This review focuses on the application of real-time PCR in the clinical microbiology laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Espy
- Mayo Clinic, 200 First St. SW, Hilton 470, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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85
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Vollmar J, Arndtz N, Eckl KM, Thomsen T, Petzold B, Mateo L, Schlereth B, Handley A, King L, Hülsemann V, Tzatzaris M, Merkl K, Wulff N, Chaplin P. Safety and immunogenicity of IMVAMUNE, a promising candidate as a third generation smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 2005; 24:2065-70. [PMID: 16337719 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2005] [Revised: 10/18/2005] [Accepted: 11/10/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A Phase I trial was performed to investigate the safety and immunogenicity of the third generation smallpox vaccine MVA-BN (IMVAMUNE), a highly attenuated clone derived from the Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara strain 571, in naive and pre-immunized subjects. A total of 86 healthy subjects received the vaccine in five groups using different doses and routes of administration. All 38 subjects seroconverted in the groups receiving the highest dose (10(8) TCID50). All vaccinations were well tolerated with mainly mild or moderate pain at the injection site being the most frequent symptom. The results indicate that MVA-BN has the potential to be developed as an efficient and safe alternative to the conventional smallpox vaccines such as Lister-Elstree or Dryvax. Unique attributes render it a promising candidate for prophylactic mass immunization, even in subjects for whom conventional smallpox vaccines are contraindicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Vollmar
- Bavarian Nordic GmbH, Fraunhoferstrasse 13, 82152 Martinsried, Germany.
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86
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Rajan N, Carmichael AJ, McCarron BM. Human cowpox: presentation and investigation in an era of bioterrorism. J Infect 2005; 51:e167-9. [PMID: 16230199 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2004.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2004] [Accepted: 12/23/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N Rajan
- Department of Dermatology, The James Cook University Hospital, Marton Road, Middlesbrough TS4 3BW, UK.
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87
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Magee WC, Hostetler KY, Evans DH. Mechanism of inhibition of vaccinia virus DNA polymerase by cidofovir diphosphate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49:3153-62. [PMID: 16048917 PMCID: PMC1196213 DOI: 10.1128/aac.49.8.3153-3162.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cidofovir (CDV) is a broad-spectrum antiviral agent that has been approved for clinical use in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis. It has also been used off label to treat a variety of other viral infections, including those caused by orf and molluscum contagiosum poxviruses. Because it is a dCMP analog, CDV is thought to act by inhibiting viral DNA polymerases. However, the details of the inhibitory mechanism are not well established and nothing is known about the mechanism by which the drug inhibits poxvirus DNA polymerases. To address this concern, we have studied the effect of the active intracellular metabolite of CDV, CDV diphosphate (CDVpp), on reactions catalyzed by vaccinia virus DNA polymerase. Using different primer-template pairs and purified vaccinia virus polymerase, we observed that CDV is incorporated into the growing DNA strand opposite template G's but the enzyme exhibits a lower catalytic efficiency compared with dCTP. CDV-terminated primers are also good substrates for the next deoxynucleoside monophosphate addition step, but these CDV + 1 reaction products are poor substrates for further rounds of synthesis. We also noted that although CDV can be excised from the primer 3' terminus by the 3'-to-5' proofreading exonuclease activity of vaccinia virus polymerase, DNAs bearing CDV as the penultimate 3' residue are completely resistant to exonuclease attack. These results show that vaccinia virus DNA polymerase can use CDVpp as a dCTP analog, albeit one that slows the rate of primer extension. By inhibiting the activity of the proofreading exonuclease, the misincorporation of CDV could also promote error-prone DNA synthesis during poxvirus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy C Magee
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
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88
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Lobato Z, Trindade G, Frois M, Ribeiro E, Dias G, Teixeira B, Lima F, Almeida G, Kroon E. Surto de varíola bovina causada pelo vírus Vaccinia na região da Zona da Mata Mineira. ARQ BRAS MED VET ZOO 2005. [DOI: 10.1590/s0102-09352005000400001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Relata-se um surto de doença exantemática, caracterizada como varíola bovina, acometendo bovinos e seres humanos na Zona da Mata Mineira. Setenta e duas propriedades, distribuídas em 20 municípios localizados na região, foram visitadas para se levantar os aspectos clínicos e epidemiológicos da doença. Detectaram-se 1020 vacas doentes durante a investigação, quando houve queda na produção do leite associada a infecções bacterianas secundárias. Casos humanos foram registrados em 83% das propriedades visitadas. Espécimes clínicos e amostras de soro foram coletados dos animais doentes ou convalescentes. O diagnóstico de laboratório mostrou o envolvimento de um ortopoxvírus, precisamente o Vaccinia virus como agente etiológico do surto.
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89
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Nitsche A, Steger B, Ellerbrok H, Pauli G. Detection of vaccinia virus DNA on the LightCycler by fluorescence melting curve analysis. J Virol Methods 2005; 126:187-95. [PMID: 15847936 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2005.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2004] [Revised: 02/15/2005] [Accepted: 02/22/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
After eradication of variola virus the worldwide vaccination program was stopped to avoid the severe complications observed in a small fraction of vaccinees. Hence, there is at least one non-vaccinated generation in the human population that is immunologically naive with respect to variola virus infections. The possibility of a deliberate release of variola virus by bioterrorist attacks has led to the resumption of vaccination of hospital employees and military personnel with vaccinia virus in certain parts of the world. However, the appearance of a single confirmed smallpox case worldwide would result in vaccination of possible contact persons with vaccinia virus. Therefore, reliable confirmation of vaccinia virus in patients presenting with smallpox-like syndromes is required. A vaccinia virus-specific single nucleotide polymorphism was identified in the gene B8R coding for a vaccinia virus IFNgamma receptor. Based on this polymorphism, the LightCycler real-time PCR assay detects vaccinia virus DNA in a linear range from 10(6) to 10 genome equivalents and discriminates vaccinia virus from other orthopoxviruses by fluorescence melting curve analysis (DeltaT = 9 degrees C). While the assay amplifies generically DNA of all orthopoxviruses tested, amplification curves are only displayed for vaccinia virus strains including strains formerly used for vaccination. In addition, an internal amplification control is described that allows reliable interpretation of results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Nitsche
- Robert Koch-Institut, Zentrum für Biologische Sicherheit 1, Nordufer 20, D-13353 Berlin, Germany.
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90
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Stittelaar KJ, van Amerongen G, Kondova I, Kuiken T, van Lavieren RF, Pistoor FHM, Niesters HGM, van Doornum G, van der Zeijst BAM, Mateo L, Chaplin PJ, Osterhaus ADME. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara protects macaques against respiratory challenge with monkeypox virus. J Virol 2005; 79:7845-51. [PMID: 15919938 PMCID: PMC1143678 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.12.7845-7851.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2004] [Accepted: 02/24/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of classical smallpox vaccines based on vaccinia virus (VV) is associated with severe complications in both naive and immune individuals. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), a highly attenuated replication-deficient strain of VV, has been proven to be safe in humans and immunocompromised animals, and its efficacy against smallpox is currently being addressed. Here we directly compare the efficacies of MVA alone and in combination with classical VV-based vaccines in a cynomolgus macaque monkeypox model. The MVA-based smallpox vaccine protected macaques against a lethal respiratory challenge with monkeypox virus and is therefore an important candidate for the protection of humans against smallpox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koert J Stittelaar
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, Building Hoboken, Room Ee 17.26, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Abstract
Despite the success of the WHO-led smallpox eradication programme a quarter of a century ago, there remains considerable fear that variola virus, or other related pathogenic poxviruses such as monkeypox, could re-emerge and spread disease in the human population. Even today, we are still mostly ignorant about why most poxvirus infections of vertebrate hosts show strict species specificity, or how zoonotic poxvirus infections occur when poxviruses occasionally leap into novel host species. Poxvirus tropism at the cellular level seems to be regulated by intracellular events downstream of virus binding and entry, rather than at the level of specific host receptors as is the case for many other viruses. This review summarizes our current understanding of poxvirus tropism and host range, and discusses the prospects of exploiting host-restricted poxvirus vectors for vaccines, gene therapy or tissue-targeted oncolytic viral therapies for the treatment of human cancers. Poxvirus host range varies markedly ? some viruses, such as variola and molluscum contagiosum virus (both of which are human-specific), exhibit strict species tropism, whereas others such as cowpox virus are able to infect multiple host species. Members of four of the eight genera of chordopoxviruses can zoonotically infect man. For example, monkeypox virus can cause severe smallpox-like disease in humans that clinically resembles variola virus. The species tropism that is exhibited by many poxviruses in terms of causing disease is frequently quite different from the range of cultured cells that can be infected by these viruses. Specific host-cell receptors do not mediate the distinction between cells that are permissive as opposed to non-permissive for poxvirus infection. Rather, restrictive host cells fail to support the full replication cycle of the infecting poxvirus at a point downstream of binding and entry. A variety of poxviral host-range genes have been identified that contribute to the control of permissive versus non-permissive infection of cultured mammalian cells. The gene products of these host-range genes regulate the ability of the virus to complete its cytoplasmic replication cycle. The development of host-restricted vaccines, like modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA), that do not replicate in humans but that retain potent immunogenicity, will provide safer platforms for recombinant vaccines. Another advance has been the development of poxvirus-based oncolytic vectors that replicate preferentially in human tumour cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant McFadden
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Ontario, and Robarts Research Institute, Siebens-Drake Building, Room 133, 1400 Western Road, London, Ontario N6G 2V4, Canada.
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McFadden G. Smallpox: an ancient disease enters the modern era of virogenomics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:14994-5. [PMID: 15479762 PMCID: PMC524071 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0406207101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Grant McFadden
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Robarts Research Laboratory, Room 1-33, Siebens Drake Building, University of Western Ontario, 1400 Western Road, London, ON, Canada N6G 2V4.
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