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Kamat A, Misra V, Cassol E, Ancuta P, Yan Z, Li C, Morgello S, Gabuzda D. A plasma biomarker signature of immune activation in HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30881. [PMID: 22363505 PMCID: PMC3281899 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immune activation is a strong predictor of disease progression in HIV infection. Combinatorial plasma biomarker signatures that represent surrogate markers of immune activation in both viremic and aviremic HIV patients on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) have not been defined. Here, we identify a plasma inflammatory biomarker signature that distinguishes between both viremic and aviremic HIV patients on cART and healthy controls and examine relationships of this signature to markers of disease progression. METHODS Multiplex profiling and ELISA were used to detect 15 cytokines/chemokines, soluble IL-2R (sIL-2R), and soluble CD14 (sCD14) in plasma from 57 HIV patients with CD4 nadir <300 cells/µl and 29 healthy controls. Supervised and unsupervised analyses were used to identify biomarkers explaining variance between groups defined by HIV status or drug abuse. Relationships between biomarkers and disease markers were examined by Spearman correlation. RESULTS The majority (91%) of HIV subjects were on cART, with 38% having undetectable viral loads (VL). Hierarchical clustering identified a biomarker cluster in plasma consisting of two interferon-stimulated gene products (CXCL9 and CXCL10), T cell activation marker (sIL-2R), and monocyte activation marker (sCD14) that distinguished both viremic and aviremic HIV patients on cART from controls (p<0.0001) and were top-ranked in variables important in projection plots. IL-12 and CCL4 were also elevated in viremic and aviremic patients compared to controls (p<0.05). IL-12 correlated with IFNα, IFNγ, CXCL9, and sIL-2R (p<0.05). CXCL10 correlated positively with plasma VL and percentage of CD16+ monocytes, and inversely with CD4 count (p = 0.001, <0.0001, and 0.04, respectively). CONCLUSION A plasma inflammatory biomarker signature consisting of CXCL9, CXCL10, sIL-2R, and sCD14 may be useful as a surrogate marker to monitor immune activation in both viremic and aviremic HIV patients on cART during disease progression and therapeutic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupa Kamat
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Vikas Misra
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Edana Cassol
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Petronela Ancuta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, CHUM-Research Center, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Zhenyu Yan
- Department of Biostatistics, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Cheng Li
- Department of Biostatistics, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Susan Morgello
- Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, United States of America
| | - Dana Gabuzda
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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Effect of probiotic bacteria on microbial host defense, growth, and immune function in human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection. Nutrients 2011; 3:1042-70. [PMID: 22292110 PMCID: PMC3260491 DOI: 10.3390/nu3121042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2011] [Revised: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The hypothesis that probiotic administration protects the gut surface and could delay progression of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type1 (HIV-1) infection to the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) was proposed in 1995. Over the last five years, new studies have clarified the significance of HIV-1 infection of the gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) for subsequent alterations in the microflora and breakdown of the gut mucosal barrier leading to pathogenesis and development of AIDS. Current studies show that loss of gut CD4+ Th17 cells, which differentiate in response to normal microflora, occurs early in HIV-1 disease. Microbial translocation and suppression of the T regulatory (Treg) cell response is associated with chronic immune activation and inflammation. Combinations of probiotic bacteria which upregulate Treg activation have shown promise in suppressing pro inflammatory immune response in models of autoimmunity including inflammatory bowel disease and provide a rationale for use of probiotics in HIV-1/AIDS. Disturbance of the microbiota early in HIV-1 infection leads to greater dominance of potential pathogens, reducing levels of bifidobacteria and lactobacillus species and increasing mucosal inflammation. The interaction of chronic or recurrent infections, and immune activation contributes to nutritional deficiencies that have lasting consequences especially in the HIV-1 infected child. While effective anti-retroviral therapy (ART) has enhanced survival, wasting is still an independent predictor of survival and a major presenting symptom. Congenital exposure to HIV-1 is a risk factor for growth delay in both infected and non-infected infants. Nutritional intervention after 6 months of age appears to be largely ineffective. A meta analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials of infant formulae supplemented with Bifidobacterium lactis showed that weight gain was significantly greater in infants who received B. lactis compared to formula alone. Pilot studies have shown that probiotic bacteria given as a supplement have improved growth and protected against loss of CD4+ T cells. The recognition that normal bacterial flora prime neonatal immune response and that abnormal flora have a profound impact on metabolism has generated insight into potential mechanisms of gut dysfunction in many settings including HIV-1 infection. As discussed here, current and emerging studies support the concept that probiotic bacteria can provide specific benefit in HIV-1 infection. Probiotic bacteria have proven active against bacterial vaginosis in HIV-1 positive women and have enhanced growth in infants with congenital HIV-1 infection. Probiotic bacteria may stabilize CD4+ T cell numbers in HIV-1 infected children and are likely to have protective effects against inflammation and chronic immune activation of the gastrointestinal immune system.
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A peripheral monocyte interferon phenotype in HIV infection correlates with a decrease in magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolite concentrations. AIDS 2011; 25:1721-6. [PMID: 21750421 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0b013e328349f022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In spite of effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), cognition is impaired in upwards of 35% of the HIV-infected population. We investigated a possible link between peripheral immune activation and brain metabolite concentrations. DESIGN AND METHODS Thirty-five HIV-seropositive (HIV+) and eight HIV-seronegative adults were recruited to this cross-sectional study. All HIV-positive patients were on ART or a treatment interruption. Participants were evaluated for monocyte gene expression, cognitive status, and brain metabolite concentrations using 4-Tesla short echo-time proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Absolute concentrations of brain metabolites in the frontal white matter (FWM), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and basal ganglia were derived and related to monocyte gene expression and global deficit scores. RESULTS Analysis of monocyte gene arrays revealed an interferon (IFN)-α-induced activation phenotype. Fourteen genes having the greatest fold increase in response to HIV were IFN genes. Monocyte activation as measured by gene expression profiles strongly correlated with lower N-acetylaspartate (NAA) in FWM. The IFN response gene Interferon-gamma inducible protein-10 (IP-10) was activated in monocytes from HIV individuals and strongly correlated with plasma protein levels. Plasma IP-10 correlated significantly and inversely with ACC NAA, which was lower in HIV-positive patients with mild compared to no cognitive impairment. CONCLUSION Chronic peripheral immune activation driven by a type 1 IFN correlates with neuronal injury in FWM and ACC and cognitive dysfunction. Easily measured IFN-induced blood markers may be clinically significant in following early neural cell damage.
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Srinivasula S, Lempicki RA, Adelsberger JW, Huang CY, Roark J, Lee PI, Rupert A, Stevens R, Sereti I, Lane HC, Di Mascio M, Kovacs JA. Differential effects of HIV viral load and CD4 count on proliferation of naive and memory CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes. Blood 2011; 118:262-70. [PMID: 21562041 PMCID: PMC3138680 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2011-02-335174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that HIV infection leads to expansion of a rapidly proliferating pool (s(1)) of CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes. In the current study, we used in vivo labeling with bromodeoxyuridine to characterize the kinetics of naive, memory, and activated (HLA-DR(+)/CD38(+)) subpopulations of CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes, and to examine the relationship between kinetic parameters and baseline CD4 counts, HIV viral load, potential markers of microbial translocation, and cytokine levels. Activated cells showed the highest proliferation rates, followed by effector and central memory cells, with naive cells showing the lowest rates, for both CD4 and CD8 T cells. HIV viral load correlated with s(1) of CD4 and CD8 effector memory cells, as well as CD8 naive cells, whereas CD4 cell counts correlated inversely with naive CD4 s(1). Endotoxin levels showed a weak negative association with CD4 but not CD8 s(1). INF-γ and TNF-α were associated with s(1) for CD4 and CD8 cells, respectively. Thus, HIV is the primary driving force behind the activation and proliferation of most subsets of both CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes, whereas naive CD4 cell proliferation likely represents a homeostatic response. Microbial translocation does not appear to play an important role in this proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharat Srinivasula
- Biostatistics Research Branch, SAIC-Frederick Inc, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, MD, USA.
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Tippett E, Cheng WJ, Westhorpe C, Cameron PU, Brew BJ, Lewin SR, Jaworowski A, Crowe SM. Differential expression of CD163 on monocyte subsets in healthy and HIV-1 infected individuals. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19968. [PMID: 21625498 PMCID: PMC3098854 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
CD163, a haptoglobin-hemoglobin (Hp-Hb) scavenger receptor, expressed by monocytes and macrophages, is important in resolution of inflammation. Age-related non-AIDS co-morbidities in HIV-infected individuals, particularly dementia and cardiovascular disease, result in part from effects of HIV-1 infection on monocyte and macrophage biology. CD163 co-expression on CD14+CD16++ monocytes has been proposed as a useful biomarker for HIV-1 disease progression and the presence of HIV associated dementia. Here we investigated CD163 expression on monocyte subsets ex vivo, on cultured macrophages, and soluble in plasma, in the setting of HIV-1 infection. Whole blood immunophenotyping revealed CD163 expression on CD14++CD16- monocytes but not on CD14+CD16++ monocytes (P = 0.004), supported by CD163 mRNA levels. Incubation with M-CSF induced CD163 protein expression on CD14+CD16++ monocytes to the same extent as CD14++CD16− monocytes. CD163 expression on CD14++CD16+ monocytes from HIV-infected subjects was significantly higher than from uninfected individuals, with a trend towards increased expression on CD14++CD16− monocytes (P = 0.019 and 0.069 respectively), which is accounted for by HIV-1 therapy including protease inhibitors. Shedding of CD163 was shown to predominantly occur from the CD14++CD16− subset after Ficoll isolation and LPS stimulation. Soluble CD163 concentration in plasma from HIV-1 infected donors was similar to HIV-1 uninfected donors. Monocyte CD163 expression in HIV-1 infected patients showed a complicated relationship with classical measures of disease progression. Our findings clarify technical issues regarding CD163 expression on monocyte subsets and further elucidates its role in HIV-associated inflammation by demonstrating that CD163 is readily lost from CD14++CD16− monocytes and induced in pro-inflammatory CD14+CD16++ monocytes by M-CSF. Our data show that all monocyte subsets are potentially capable of differentiating into CD163-expressing anti-inflammatory macrophages given appropriate stimuli. Levels of CD163 expression on monocytes may be a potential biomarker reflecting efforts by the immune system to resolve immune activation and inflammation in HIV-infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Tippett
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Wan-Jung Cheng
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Clare Westhorpe
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul U. Cameron
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Infectious Disease Unit, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Immunology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bruce J. Brew
- Department of Neurology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Sharon R. Lewin
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Infectious Disease Unit, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Anthony Jaworowski
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Immunology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Suzanne M. Crowe
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Eller MA, Blom KG, Gonzalez VD, Eller LA, Naluyima P, Laeyendecker O, Quinn TC, Kiwanuka N, Serwadda D, Sewankambo NK, Tasseneetrithep B, Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Marovich MA, Michael NL, de Souza MS, Wabwire-Mangen F, Robb ML, Currier JR, Sandberg JK. Innate and adaptive immune responses both contribute to pathological CD4 T cell activation in HIV-1 infected Ugandans. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18779. [PMID: 21526194 PMCID: PMC3079731 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 disease progression is associated with persistent immune activation. However, the nature of this association is incompletely understood. Here, we investigated immune activation in the CD4 T cell compartment of chronically HIV-1 infected individuals from Rakai, Uganda. Levels of CD4 T cell activation, assessed as co-expression of PD-1, CD38 and HLA-DR, correlated directly to viral load and inversely to CD4 count. Deeper characterization of these cells indicated an effector memory phenotype with relatively frequent expression of Ki67 despite their PD-1 expression, and levels of these cells were inversely associated with FoxP3+ regulatory T cells. We therefore use the term deregulated effector memory (DEM) cells to describe them. CD4 T cells with a DEM phenotype could be generated by antigen stimulation of recall responses in vitro. Responses against HIV-1 and CMV antigens were enriched among the DEM CD4 T cells in patients, and the diverse Vβ repertoire of DEM CD4 T cells suggested they include diverse antigen-specificities. Furthermore, the levels of DEM CD4 T cells correlated directly to soluble CD14 (sCD14) and IL-6, markers of innate immune activation, in plasma. The size of the activated DEM CD4 T cell subset was predictive of the rate of disease progression, whereas IL-6 was only weakly predictive and sCD14 was not predictive. Taken together, these results are consistent with a model where systemic innate immune activation and chronic antigen stimulation of adaptive T cell responses both play important roles in driving pathological CD4 T cell immune activation in HIV-1 disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Eller
- Makerere University Walter Reed Project, Kampala, Uganda
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kim G. Blom
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Veronica D. Gonzalez
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Leigh Anne Eller
- Makerere University Walter Reed Project, Kampala, Uganda
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Oliver Laeyendecker
- National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Thomas C. Quinn
- National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Noah Kiwanuka
- School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
- Rakai Health Sciences Program, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - David Serwadda
- School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
- Rakai Health Sciences Program, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Nelson K. Sewankambo
- Rakai Health Sciences Program, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
- Faculty of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Boonrat Tasseneetrithep
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
- Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Maria J. Wawer
- Rakai Health Sciences Program, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
- Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Ronald H. Gray
- Rakai Health Sciences Program, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
- Johns Hopkins Center for Global Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Mary A. Marovich
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Nelson L. Michael
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Mark S. de Souza
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Fred Wabwire-Mangen
- Makerere University Walter Reed Project, Kampala, Uganda
- School of Public Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Merlin L. Robb
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey R. Currier
- U. S. Military HIV Research Program, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Johan K. Sandberg
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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CD4+ T cells, including Th17 and cycling subsets, are intact in the gut mucosa of HIV-1-infected long-term nonprogressors. J Virol 2011; 85:5880-8. [PMID: 21471231 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02643-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
During acute human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, there is a massive depletion of CD4(+) T cells in the gut mucosa that can be reversed to various degrees with antiretroviral therapy. Th17 cells have been implicated in mucosal immunity to extracellular bacteria, and preservation of this subset may support gut mucosal immune recovery. However, this possibility has not yet been evaluated in HIV-1-infected long-term nonprogressors (LTNPs), who maintain high CD4(+) T cell counts and suppress viral replication in the absence of antiretroviral therapy. In this study, we evaluated the immunophenotype and function of CD4(+) T cells in peripheral blood and gut mucosa of HIV-uninfected controls, LTNPs, and HIV-1-infected individuals treated with prolonged antiretroviral therapy (ART) (VL [viral load]<50). We found that LTNPs have intact CD4(+) T cell populations, including Th17 and cycling subsets, in the gut mucosa and a preserved T cell population expressing gut homing molecules in the peripheral blood. In addition, we observed no evidence of higher monocyte activation in LTNPs than in HIV-infected (HIV(-)) controls. These data suggest that, similar to nonpathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection, LTNPs preserve the balance of CD4(+) T cell populations in blood and gut mucosa, which may contribute to the lack of disease progression observed in these patients.
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Cassol E, Rossouw T, Seebregts C, Cassol S. Microbial translocation: a marker of advanced HIV-1 infection and a predictor of treatment failure? J Infect Dis 2011; 203:747-8. [PMID: 21278212 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiq109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
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Redd AD, Gray RH, Quinn TC. Is microbial translocation a cause or consequence of HIV disease progression? J Infect Dis 2011; 203:744-5; author reply 746. [PMID: 21220777 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiq107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Smith AJ, Li Q, Wietgrefe SW, Schacker TW, Reilly CS, Haase AT. Host genes associated with HIV-1 replication in lymphatic tissue. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:5417-24. [PMID: 20935203 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Much effort has been spent recently in identifying host factors required for HIV-1 to effectively replicate in cultured human cells. However, much less is known about the genetic factors in vivo that impact viral replication in lymphatic tissue, the primary anatomical site of virus-host interactions where the bulk of viral replication and pathogenesis occurs. To identify genetic determinants in lymphatic tissue that critically affect HIV-1 replication, we used microarrays to transcriptionally profile and identify host genes expressed in inguinal lymph nodes that were associated determinants of viral load. Strikingly, ∼95% of the transcripts (558) in this data set (592 transcripts total) were negatively associated with HIV-1 replication. Genes in this subset 1) inhibit cellular activation/proliferation (e.g., TCFL5, SOCS5 and SCOS7, KLF10), 2) promote heterochromatin formation (e.g., HIC2, CREBZF, ZNF148/ZBP-89), 3) increase collagen synthesis (e.g., PLOD2, POSTN, CRTAP), and 4) reduce cellular transcription and translation. Potential anti-HIV-1 restriction factors were also identified (e.g., NR3C1, HNRNPU, PACT). Only ∼5% of the transcripts (34) were positively associated with HIV-1 replication. Paradoxically, nearly all of these genes function in innate and adaptive immunity, particularly highlighting heightened gene expression in the IFN system. We conclude that this conventional host response cannot contain HIV-1 replication and, in fact, could well contribute to increased replication through immune activation. More importantly, genes that have a negative association with virus replication point to target cell availability and potentially new viral restriction factors as principal determinants of viral load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Smith
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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