Membrane protein transport between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi in tobacco leaves is energy dependent but cytoskeleton independent: evidence from selective photobleaching

HLB1 Is a Tetratricopeptide Repeat Domain-Containing Protein That Operates at the Intersection of the Exocytic and Endocytic Pathways at the TGN/EE in Arabidopsis

The endomembrane system plays essential roles in plant development, but the proteome responsible for its function and organization remains largely uncharacterized in plants. Here, we identified and characterized the HYPERSENSITIVE TO LATRUNCULIN B1 (HLB1) protein isolated through a forward-genetic screen in Arabidopsis thaliana for mutants with heightened sensitivity to actin-disrupting drugs. HLB1 is a plant-specific tetratricopeptide repeat domain-containing protein of unknown function encoded by a single Arabidopsis gene. HLB1 associated with the trans-Golgi network (TGN)/early endosome (EE) and tracked along filamentous actin, indicating that it could link post-Golgi traffic with the actin cytoskeleton in plants. HLB1 was found to interact with the ADP-ribosylation-factor guanine nucleotide exchange factor, MIN7/BEN1 (HOPM INTERACTOR7/BREFELDIN A-VISUALIZED ENDOCYTIC TRAFFICKING DEFECTIVE1) by coimmunoprecipitation. The min7/ben1 mutant phenocopied the mild root developmental defects and latrunculin B hypersensitivity of hlb1, and analyses of ahlb1/ min7/ben1 double mutant showed that hlb1 and min7/ben1 operate in common genetic pathways. Based on these data, we propose that HLB1 together with MIN7/BEN1 form a complex with actin to modulate the function of the TGN/EE at the intersection of the exocytic and endocytic pathways in plants.

In Vivo Quantification of Peroxisome Tethering to Chloroplasts in Tobacco Epidermal Cells Using Optical Tweezers

Peroxisomes are highly motile organelles that display a range of motions within a short time frame. In static snapshots, they can be juxtaposed to chloroplasts, which has led to the hypothesis that they are physically interacting. Here, using optical tweezers, we tested the dynamic physical interaction in vivo. Using near-infrared optical tweezers combined with TIRF microscopy, we were able to trap peroxisomes and approximate the forces involved in chloroplast association in vivo in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and observed weaker tethering to additional unknown structures within the cell. We show that chloroplasts and peroxisomes are physically tethered through peroxules, a poorly described structure in plant cells. We suggest that peroxules have a novel role in maintaining peroxisome-organelle interactions in the dynamic environment. This could be important for fatty acid mobilization and photorespiration through the interaction with oil bodies and chloroplasts, highlighting a fundamentally important role for organelle interactions for essential biochemistry and physiological processes.

ER to Golgi-Dependent Protein Secretion: The Conventional Pathway

Secretion is the cellular process present in every organism that delivers soluble proteins and cargoes to the extracellular space. In eukaryotes, conventional protein secretion (CPS) is the trafficking route that secretory proteins undertake when are transported from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi apparatus (GA), and subsequently to the plasma membrane (PM) via secretory vesicles or secretory granules. This book chapter recalls the fundamental steps in cell biology research contributing to the elucidation of CPS; it describes the most prominent examples of conventionally secreted proteins in eukaryotic cells and the molecular mechanisms necessary to regulate each step of this process.

ER network homeostasis is critical for plant endosome streaming and endocytosis

Eukaryotic cells internalize cargo at the plasma membrane via endocytosis, a vital process that is accomplished through a complex network of endosomal organelles. In mammalian cells, the ER is in close association with endosomes and regulates their fission. Nonetheless, the physiological role of such interaction on endocytosis is yet unexplored. Here, we probed the existence of ER–endosome association in plant cells and assayed its physiological role in endocytosis. Through live-cell imaging and electron microscopy studies, we established that endosomes are extensively associated with the plant ER, supporting conservation of interaction between heterotypic organelles in evolutionarily distant kingdoms. Furthermore, by analyzing ER–endosome dynamics in genetic backgrounds with defects in ER structure and movement, we also established that the ER network integrity is necessary for homeostasis of the distribution and streaming of various endosome populations as well as for efficient endocytosis. These results support a novel model that endocytosis homeostasis depends on a spatiotemporal control of the endosome dynamics dictated by the ER membrane network.

Molecular dissection of a rice microtubule-associated RING finger protein and its potential role in salt tolerance in Arabidopsis

Although a number of RING E3 ligases in plants have been demonstrated to play key roles in a wide range of abiotic stresses, relatively few studies have detailed how RING E3 ligases exert their cellular actions. We describe Oryza sativa RING finger protein with microtubule-targeting domain 1 (OsRMT1), a functional RING E3 ligase that is likely involved in a salt tolerance mechanism. Functional characterization revealed that OsRMT1 undergoes homodimer formation and subsequently autoubiquitination-mediated protein degradation under normal conditions. By contrast, OsRMT1 is predominantly found in the nucleus and microtubules and its degradation is inhibited under salt stress. Domain dissection of OsRMT1 indicates that the N-terminal domain is required for microtubule targeting. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation analysis and degradation assay revealed that OsRMT1-interacted proteins localized in various organelles were degraded via the ubiquitin (Ub)/26S proteasome-dependent pathway. Interestingly, when OsRMT1 and its target proteins were co-expressed in N. benthamiana leaves, the protein-protein interactions appeared to take place mainly in the microtubules. Overexpression of OsRMT1 in Arabidopsis resulted in increased tolerance to salt stress. Our findings suggest that the abundance of microtubule-associated OsRMT1 is strictly regulated, and OsRMT1 may play a relevant role in salt stress response by modulating levels of its target proteins.

Cytoskeletal Components Define Protein Location to Membrane Microdomains

The plasma membrane is an important compartment that undergoes dynamic changes in composition upon external or internal stimuli. The dynamic subcompartmentation of proteins in ordered low-density (DRM) and disordered high-density (DSM) membrane phases is hypothesized to require interactions with cytoskeletal components. Here, we systematically analyzed the effects of actin or tubulin disruption on the distribution of proteins between membrane density phases. We used a proteomic screen to identify candidate proteins with altered submembrane location, followed by biochemical or cell biological characterization in Arabidopsis thaliana. We found that several proteins, such as plasma membrane ATPases, receptor kinases, or remorins resulted in a differential distribution between membrane density phases upon cytoskeletal disruption. Moreover, in most cases, contrasting effects were observed: Disruption of actin filaments largely led to a redistribution of proteins from DRM to DSM membrane fractions while disruption of tubulins resulted in general depletion of proteins from the membranes. We conclude that actin filaments are necessary for dynamic movement of proteins between different membrane phases and that microtubules are not necessarily important for formation of microdomains as such, but rather they may control the protein amount present in the membrane phases.

The Vesicle-Forming 6K2 Protein of Turnip Mosaic Virus Interacts with the COPII Coatomer Sec24a for Viral Systemic Infection

Positive-sense RNA viruses remodel host cell endomembranes to generate quasi-organelles known as "viral factories" to coordinate diverse viral processes, such as genome translation and replication. It is also becoming clear that enclosing viral RNA (vRNA) complexes within membranous structures is important for virus cell-to-cell spread throughout the host. In plant cells infected by turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), a member of the family Potyviridae, peripheral motile endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived viral vesicles are produced that carry the vRNA to plasmodesmata for delivery into adjacent noninfected cells. The viral protein 6K2 is responsible for the formation of these vesicles, but how 6K2 is involved in their biogenesis is unknown. We show here that 6K2 is associated with cellular membranes. Deletion mapping and site-directed mutagenesis experiments defined a soluble N-terminal 12-amino-acid stretch, in particular a potyviral highly conserved tryptophan residue and two lysine residues that were important for vesicle formation. When the tryptophan residue was changed into an alanine in the viral polyprotein, virus replication still took place, albeit at a reduced level, but cell-to-cell movement of the virus was abolished. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) two-hybrid and coimmunoprecipitation experiments showed that 6K2 interacted with Sec24a, a COPII coatomer component. Appropriately, TuMV systemic movement was delayed in an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant line defective in Sec24a. Intercellular movement of TuMV replication vesicles thus requires ER export of 6K2, which is mediated by the interaction of the N-terminal domain of the viral protein with Sec24a.

IMPORTANCE

Many plant viruses remodel the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to generate vesicles that are associated with the virus replication complex. The viral protein 6K2 of turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) is known to induce ER-derived vesicles that contain vRNA as well as viral and host proteins required for vRNA synthesis. These vesicles not only sustain vRNA synthesis, they are also involved in the intercellular trafficking of vRNA. In this investigation, we found that the N-terminal soluble domain of 6K2 is required for ER export of the protein and for the formation of vesicles. ER export is not absolutely required for vRNA replication but is necessary for virus cell-to-cell movement. Furthermore, we found that 6K2 physically interacts with the COPII coatomer Sec24a and that an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant line with a defective Sec24a shows a delay in the systemic infection by TuMV.

Vesicles versus Tubes: Is Endoplasmic Reticulum-Golgi Transport in Plants Fundamentally Different from Other Eukaryotes?

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the gateway to the secretory pathway in all eukaryotic cells. Its products subsequently pass through the Golgi apparatus on the way to the cell surface (true secretion) or to the lytic compartment of the cell (vacuolar protein transport). In animal cells, the Golgi apparatus is present as a stationary larger order complex near the nucleus, and transport between the cortical ER and the Golgi complex occurs via an intermediate compartment which is transported on microtubules. By contrast, higher plant cells have discrete mobile Golgi stacks that move along the cortical ER, and the intermediate compartment is absent. Although many of the major molecular players involved in ER-Golgi trafficking in mammalian and yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells have homologs in higher plants, the narrow interface (less than 500 nm) between the Golgi and the ER, together with the motility factor, makes the identification of the transport vectors responsible for bidirectional traffic between these two organelles much more difficult. Over the years, a controversy has arisen over the two major possibilities by which transfer can occur: through vesicles or direct tubular connections. In this article, four leading plant cell biologists attempted to resolve this issue. Unfortunately, their opinions are so divergent and often opposing that it was not possible to reach a consensus. Thus, we decided to let each tell his or her version individually. The review begins with an article by Federica Brandizzi that provides the necessary molecular background on coat protein complexes in relation to the so-called secretory units model for ER-Golgi transport in highly vacuolated plant cells. The second article, written by Chris Hawes, presents the evidence in favor of tubules. It is followed by an article from David Robinson defending the classical notion that transport occurs via vesicles. The last article, by Akihiko Nakano, introduces the reader to possible alternatives to vesicles or tubules, which are now emerging as a result of exciting new developments in high-resolution light microscopy in yeast.

The Vesicle-Forming 6K2 Protein of Turnip Mosaic Virus Interacts with the COPII Coatomer Sec24a for Viral Systemic Infection

Positive-sense RNA viruses remodel host cell endomembranes to generate quasi-organelles known as "viral factories" to coordinate diverse viral processes, such as genome translation and replication. It is also becoming clear that enclosing viral RNA (vRNA) complexes within membranous structures is important for virus cell-to-cell spread throughout the host. In plant cells infected by turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), a member of the family Potyviridae, peripheral motile endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived viral vesicles are produced that carry the vRNA to plasmodesmata for delivery into adjacent noninfected cells. The viral protein 6K2 is responsible for the formation of these vesicles, but how 6K2 is involved in their biogenesis is unknown. We show here that 6K2 is associated with cellular membranes. Deletion mapping and site-directed mutagenesis experiments defined a soluble N-terminal 12-amino-acid stretch, in particular a potyviral highly conserved tryptophan residue and two lysine residues that were important for vesicle formation. When the tryptophan residue was changed into an alanine in the viral polyprotein, virus replication still took place, albeit at a reduced level, but cell-to-cell movement of the virus was abolished. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) two-hybrid and coimmunoprecipitation experiments showed that 6K2 interacted with Sec24a, a COPII coatomer component. Appropriately, TuMV systemic movement was delayed in an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant line defective in Sec24a. Intercellular movement of TuMV replication vesicles thus requires ER export of 6K2, which is mediated by the interaction of the N-terminal domain of the viral protein with Sec24a.

IMPORTANCE

Many plant viruses remodel the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to generate vesicles that are associated with the virus replication complex. The viral protein 6K2 of turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) is known to induce ER-derived vesicles that contain vRNA as well as viral and host proteins required for vRNA synthesis. These vesicles not only sustain vRNA synthesis, they are also involved in the intercellular trafficking of vRNA. In this investigation, we found that the N-terminal soluble domain of 6K2 is required for ER export of the protein and for the formation of vesicles. ER export is not absolutely required for vRNA replication but is necessary for virus cell-to-cell movement. Furthermore, we found that 6K2 physically interacts with the COPII coatomer Sec24a and that an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant line with a defective Sec24a shows a delay in the systemic infection by TuMV.

Investigating protein-protein interactions in the plant endomembrane system using multiphoton-induced FRET-FLIM

Real-time noninvasive fluorescence-based protein assays enable a direct access to study interactions in their natural environment and hence overcome the limitations of other methods that rely on invasive cell disruption techniques. The determination of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) by means of fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) is currently the most advanced method to observe protein-protein interactions at nanometer resolution inside single living cells and in real-time. In the FRET-FLIM approach, the information gained using steady-state FRET between interacting proteins is considerably improved by monitoring changes in the excited-state lifetime of the donor fluorophore where its quenching in the presence of the acceptor is evidence for a direct physical interaction. The combination of confocal laser scanning microscopy with the sensitive advanced technique of time-correlated single photon counting allows the mapping of the spatial distribution of fluorescence lifetimes inside living cells on a pixel-by-pixel basis that is the same as the fluorescence image. Moreover, the use of multiphoton excitation particularly for plant cells provides further advantages such as reduced phototoxicity and photobleaching. In this protocol, we briefly describe the instrumentation and experimental design to study protein interactions within the plant endomembrane system, with a focus on the imaging of plant cells expressing fluorescent proteins and acquisition and analysis of fluorescence lifetime resolved data.

DEVELOPMENTALLY REGULATED PLASMA MEMBRANE PROTEIN of Nicotiana benthamiana contributes to potyvirus movement and transports to plasmodesmata via the early secretory pathway and the actomyosin system

The intercellular movement of plant viruses requires both viral and host proteins. Previous studies have demonstrated that the frame-shift protein P3N-PIPO (for the protein encoded by the open reading frame [ORF] containing 5'-terminus of P3 and a +2 frame-shift ORF called Pretty Interesting Potyviridae ORF and embedded in the P3) and CYLINDRICAL INCLUSION (CI) proteins were required for potyvirus cell-to-cell movement. Here, we provide genetic evidence showing that a Tobacco vein banding mosaic virus (TVBMV; genus Potyvirus) mutant carrying a truncated PIPO domain of 58 amino acid residues could move between cells and induce systemic infection in Nicotiana benthamiana plants; mutants carrying a PIPO domain of seven, 20, or 43 amino acid residues failed to move between cells and cause systemic infection in this host plant. Interestingly, the movement-defective mutants produced progeny that eliminated the previously introduced stop codons and thus restored their systemic movement ability. We also present evidence showing that a developmentally regulated plasma membrane protein of N. benthamiana (referred to as NbDREPP) interacted with both P3N-PIPO and CI of the movement-competent TVBMV. The knockdown of NbDREPP gene expression in N. benthamiana impeded the cell-to-cell movement of TVBMV. NbDREPP was shown to colocalize with TVBMV P3N-PIPO and CI at plasmodesmata (PD) and traffic to PD via the early secretory pathway and the actomyosin motility system. We also show that myosin XI-2 is specially required for transporting NbDREPP to PD. In conclusion, NbDREPP is a key host protein within the early secretory pathway and the actomyosin motility system that interacts with two movement proteins and influences virus movement.

The endoplasmic reticulum: a dynamic and well-connected organelle

The endoplasmic reticulum forms the first compartment in a series of organelles which comprise the secretory pathway. It takes the form of an extremely dynamic and pleomorphic membrane-bounded network of tubules and cisternae which have numerous different cellular functions. In this review, we discuss the nature of endoplasmic reticulum structure and dynamics, its relationship with closely associated organelles, and its possible function as a highway for the distribution and delivery of a diverse range of structures from metabolic complexes to viral particles.

The pollen tube clear zone: clues to the mechanism of polarized growth

Pollen tubes usually exhibit a prominent region at their apex called the "clear zone" because it lacks light refracting amyloplasts. A robust, long clear zone often associates with fast growing pollen tubes, and thus serves as an indicator of pollen tube health. Nevertheless we do not understand how it arises or how it is maintained. Here we review the structure of the clear zone, and attempt to explain the factors that contribute to its formation. While amyloplasts and vacuolar elements are excluded from the clear zone, virtually all other organelles are present including secretory vesicles, mitochondria, Golgi dictyosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Secretory vesicles aggregate into an inverted cone appressed against the apical plasma membrane. ER elements move nearly to the extreme apex, whereas mitochondria and Golgi dictyosomes move less far forward. The cortical actin fringe assumes a central position in the control of clear zone formation and maintenance, given its role in generating cytoplasmic streaming. Other likely factors include the tip-focused calcium gradient, the apical pH gradient, the influx of water, and a host of signaling factors (small G-proteins). We think that the clear zone is an emergent property that depends on the interaction of several factors crucial for polarized growth.

Interactions between plant endomembrane systems and the actin cytoskeleton

Membrane trafficking, organelle movement, and morphogenesis in plant cells are mainly controlled by the actin cytoskeleton. Not all proteins that regulate the cytoskeleton and membrane dynamics in animal systems have functional homologs in plants, especially for those proteins that form the bridge between the cytoskeleton and membrane; the membrane-actin adaptors. Their nature and function is only just beginning to be elucidated and this field has been greatly enhanced by the recent identification of the NETWORKED (NET) proteins, which act as membrane-actin adaptors. In this review, we will summarize the role of the actin cytoskeleton and its regulatory proteins in their interaction with endomembrane compartments and where they potentially act as platforms for cell signaling and the coordination of other subcellular events.

Probing protein targeting to plasmodesmata using fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching

Fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching (FRAP) involves the irreversible bleaching of a fluorescent protein within a specific area of the cell using a high-intensity laser. The recovery of fluorescence represents the movement of new protein into this area and can therefore be used to investigate factors involved in this movement. Here we describe a FRAP method to investigate the effect of a range of pharmacological agents on the targeting of Tobacco mosaic virus movement protein to plasmodesmata.

A dual positional specific lipoxygenase functions in the generation of flavor compounds during climacteric ripening of apple

Lipoxygenase (LOX) is an important contributor to the formation of aroma-active C6 aldehydes in apple (Malus × domestica) fruit upon tissue disruption but little is known about its role in autonomously produced aroma volatiles from intact tissue. We explored the expression of 22 putative LOX genes in apple throughout ripening, but only six LOXs were expressed in a ripening-dependent manner. Recombinant LOX1:Md:1a, LOX1:Md:1c, LOX2:Md:2a and LOX2:Md:2b proteins showed 13/9-LOX, 9-LOX, 13/9-LOX and 13-LOX activity with linoleic acid, respectively. While products of LOX1:Md:1c and LOX2:Md:2b were S-configured, LOX1:Md:1a and LOX2:Md:2a formed 13(R)-hydroperoxides as major products. Site-directed mutagenesis of Gly567 to an alanine converted the dual positional specific LOX1:Md:1a to an enzyme with a high specificity for 9(S)-hydroperoxide formation. The high expression level of the corresponding MdLOX1a gene in stored apple fruit, the genetic association with a quantitative trait locus for fruit ester and the remarkable agreement in regio- and stereoselectivity of the LOX1:Md:1a reaction with the overall LOX activity found in mature apple fruits, suggest a major physiological function of LOX1:Md:1a during climacteric ripening of apples. While LOX1:Md:1c, LOX2:Md:2a and LOX2:Md:2b may contribute to aldehyde production in immature fruit upon cell disruption our results furnish additional evidence that LOX1:Md:1a probably regulates the availability of precursors for ester production in intact fruit tissue.

The transmembrane domain of N -acetylglucosaminyltransferase I is the key determinant for its Golgi subcompartmentation

Golgi-resident type-II membrane proteins are asymmetrically distributed across the Golgi stack. The intrinsic features of the protein that determine its subcompartment-specific concentration are still largely unknown. Here, we used a series of chimeric proteins to investigate the contribution of the cytoplasmic, transmembrane and stem region of Nicotiana benthamiana N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I (GnTI) for its cis/medial-Golgi localization and for protein-protein interaction in the Golgi. The individual GnTI protein domains were replaced with those from the well-known trans-Golgi enzyme α2,6-sialyltransferase (ST) and transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. Using co-localization analysis and N-glycan profiling, we show that the transmembrane domain of GnTI is the major determinant for its cis/medial-Golgi localization. By contrast, the stem region of GnTI contributes predominately to homomeric and heteromeric protein complex formation. Importantly, in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana, a chimeric GnTI variant with altered sub-Golgi localization was not able to complement the GnTI-dependent glycosylation defect. Our results suggest that sequence-specific features in the transmembrane domain of GnTI account for its steady-state distribution in the cis/medial-Golgi in plants, which is a prerequisite for efficient N-glycan processing in vivo.

ER - the key to the highway

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the key organelle at the start of the secretory pathway and the list of its functions is continually growing. The ER organization as a tubular/cisternal network at the cortex of plant cells has recently been shown to be governed by the membrane tubulation proteins of the reticulon family working alongside plant atlastin homologues, members of the RHD3 group of proteins. Such a network has intimate connections with other organelles such as peroxisomes via peroxules, chloroplasts, Golgi bodies and at the cell cortex to the plasma membrane with cytoskeleton at so called 'anchor/contact sites'. The ER network is by no means static displaying a range of different movements and acting as a subcellular highway supports the motility of organelles such as peroxisomes, mitochondria and Golgi bodies plus the transport of macromolecules such as viral movement proteins, nucleocapsid proteins and RNA. Here we highlight recent and exciting discoveries on the maintenance of the ER structure and its role on movement and biology of other organelles.

Formation and maintenance of the Golgi apparatus in plant cells

The Golgi apparatus plays essential roles in intracellular trafficking, protein and lipid modification, and polysaccharide synthesis in eukaryotic cells. It is well known for its unique stacked structure, which is conserved among most eukaryotes. However, the mechanisms of biogenesis and maintenance of the structure, which are deeply related to ER-Golgi and intra-Golgi transport systems, have long been mysterious. Now having extremely powerful microscopic technologies developed for live-cell imaging, the plant Golgi apparatus provides an ideal system to resolve the question. The plant Golgi apparatus has unique features that are not conserved in other kingdoms, which will also give new insights into the Golgi functions in plant life. In this review, we will summarize the features of the plant Golgi apparatus and transport mechanisms around it, with a focus on recent advances in Golgi biogenesis by live imaging of plants cells.

FRIENDLY regulates mitochondrial distribution, fusion, and quality control in Arabidopsis

Mitochondria are defining components of most eukaryotes. However, higher plant mitochondria differ biochemically, morphologically, and dynamically from those in other eukaryotes. FRIENDLY, a member of the CLUSTERED MITOCHONDRIA superfamily, is conserved among eukaryotes and is required for correct distribution of mitochondria within the cell. We sought to understand how disruption of FRIENDLY function in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leads to mitochondrial clustering and the effects of this aberrant chondriome on cell and whole-plant physiology. We present evidence for a role of FRIENDLY in mediating intermitochondrial association, which is a necessary prelude to mitochondrial fusion. We demonstrate that disruption of mitochondrial association, motility, and chondriome structure in friendly affects mitochondrial quality control and leads to mitochondrial stress, cell death, and strong growth phenotypes.

Arabidopsis UNHINGED encodes a VPS51 homolog and reveals a role for the GARP complex in leaf shape and vein patterning

Asymmetric localization of PIN proteins controls directionality of auxin transport and many aspects of plant development. Directionality of PIN1 within the marginal epidermis and the presumptive veins of developing leaf primordia is crucial for establishing leaf vein pattern. One mechanism that controls PIN protein distribution within the cell membranes is endocytosis and subsequent transport to the vacuole for degradation. The Arabidopsis mutant unhinged-1 (unh-1) has simpler leaf venation with distal non-meeting of the secondary veins and fewer higher order veins, a narrower leaf with prominent serrations, and reduced root and shoot growth. We identify UNH as the Arabidopsis vacuolar protein sorting 51 (VPS51) homolog, a member of the Arabidopsis Golgi-associated retrograde protein (GARP) complex, and show that UNH interacts with VPS52, another member of the complex and colocalizes with trans Golgi network and pre-vacuolar complex markers. The GARP complex in yeast and metazoans retrieves vacuolar sorting receptors to the trans-Golgi network and is important in sorting proteins for lysosomal degradation. We show that vacuolar targeting is reduced in unh-1. In the epidermal cells of unh-1 leaf margins, PIN1 expression is expanded. The unh-1 leaf phenotype is partially suppressed by pin1 and cuc2-3 mutations, supporting the idea that the phenotype results from expanded PIN1 expression in the marginal epidermis. Our results suggest that UNH is important for reducing expression of PIN1 within margin cells, possibly by targeting PIN1 to the lytic vacuole.

A novel chloroplast localized Rab GTPase protein CPRabA5e is involved in stress, development, thylakoid biogenesis and vesicle transport in Arabidopsis

A novel Rab GTPase protein in Arabidopsis thaliana, CPRabA5e (CP = chloroplast localized) is located in chloroplasts and has a role in transport. Transient expression of CPRabA5e:EGFP fusion protein in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaves, and immunoblotting using Arabidopsis showed localization of CPRabA5e in chloroplasts (stroma and thylakoids). Ypt31/32 in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are involved in regulating vesicle transport, and CPRabA5e a close homolog of Ypt31/32, restores the growth of the ypt31Δ ypt32(ts) mutant at 37 °C in yeast complementation. Knockout mutants of CPRabA5e displayed delayed seed germination and growth arrest during oxidative stress. Ultrastructural studies revealed that after preincubation at 4 °C mutant chloroplasts contained larger plastoglobules, lower grana, and more vesicles close to the envelopes compared to wild type, and vesicle formation being enhanced under oxidative stress. This indicated altered thylakoid development and organization of the mutants. A yeast-two-hybrid screen with CPRabA5e as bait revealed 13 interacting partner proteins, mainly located in thylakoids and plastoglobules. These proteins are known or predicted to be involved in development, stress responses, and photosynthesis related processes, consistent with the stress phenotypes observed. The results observed suggest a role of CPRabA5e in transport to and from thylakoids, similar to cytosolic Rab proteins involved in vesicle transport.

A model for transport of a viral membrane protein through the early secretory pathway: minimal sequence and endoplasmic reticulum lateral mobility requirements

Viral movement proteins exploit host endomembranes and the cytoskeleton to move within the cell via routes that, in some cases, are dependent on the secretory pathway. For example, melon necrotic spot virus p7B, a type II transmembrane protein, leaves the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through the COPII-dependent Golgi pathway to reach the plasmodesmata. Here we investigated the sequence requirements and putative mechanisms governing p7B transport through the early secretory pathway. Deletion of either the cytoplasmic N-terminal region (CR) or the luminal C-terminal region (LR) led to ER retention, suggesting that they are both essential for ER export. Through alanine-scanning mutagenesis, we identified residues in the CR and LR that are critical for both ER export and for viral cell-to-cell movement. Within the CR, alanine substitution of aspartic and proline residues in the DSSP β-turn motif (D7 AP10 A) led to movement of discrete structures along the cortical ER in an actin-dependent manner. In contrast, alanine substitution of a lysine residue in the LR (K49 A) resulted in a homogenous ER distribution of the movement protein and inhibition of ER-Golgi traffic. Moreover, the ability of p7B to recruit Sar1 to the ER membrane is lost in the D7 AP10 A mutant, but enhanced in the K49 A mutant. In addition, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching revealed that K49 A but not D7 AP10 A dramatically diminished protein lateral mobility. From these data, we propose a model whereby the LR directs actin-dependent mobility toward the cortical ER, where the cytoplasmic DSSP β-turn favors assembly of COPII vesicles for export of p7B from the ER.

Unique and conserved features of the plant ER-shaping GTPase RHD3

The architectural integrity of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) network depends on the function of membrane-associated dynamin-like GTPases that include metazoan atlastins, plant RHD3 and yeast Sey1p. The evidence that these proteins are sufficient to drive membrane fusion of reconstituted proteoliposomes, and that loss-of-function mutations lead to conspicuous ER shape defects indicates that atlastins, RHD3 and Sey1p promote ER membrane fusion. However, complementation experiments in reciprocal loss-of-function backgrounds have also suggested that RHD3 and Sey1p may be not functionally equivalent, supporting that ER fusion mechanisms may be not entirely conserved in eukaryotes. In this Letter, we provide a brief overview of the field as well as evidence that may explain the functional differences of the plant and yeast ER-shaping dynamin-like GTPases.

The endoplasmic reticulum exerts control over organelle streaming during cell expansion

Cytoplasmic streaming is crucial for cell homeostasis and expansion but the precise driving forces are largely unknown. In plants, partial loss of cytoplasmic streaming due to chemical and genetic ablation of myosins supports the existence of yet-unknown motors for organelle movement. Here we tested a role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as propelling force for cytoplasmic streaming during cell expansion. Through quantitative live-cell analyses in wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana cells and mutants with compromised ER structure and streaming, we demonstrate that cytoplasmic streaming undergoes profound changes during cell expansion and that it depends on motor forces co-exerted by the ER and the cytoskeleton.

Nodulin 22, a novel small heat-shock protein of the endoplasmic reticulum, is linked to the unfolded protein response in common bean

The importance of plant small heat shock proteins (sHsp) in multiple cellular processes has been evidenced by their unusual abundance and diversity; however, little is known about their biological role. Here, we characterized the in vitro chaperone activity and subcellular localization of nodulin 22 of Phaseolus vulgaris (PvNod22; common bean) and explored its cellular function through a virus-induced gene silencing-based reverse genetics approach. We established that PvNod22 facilitated the refolding of a model substrate in vitro, suggesting that it acts as a molecular chaperone in the cell. Through microscopy analyses of PvNod22, we determined its localization in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Furthermore, we found that silencing of PvNod22 resulted in necrotic lesions in the aerial organs of P. vulgaris plants cultivated under optimal conditions and that downregulation of PvNod22 activated the ER-unfolded protein response (UPR) and cell death. We also established that PvNod22 expression in wild-type bean plants was modulated by abiotic stress but not by chemicals that trigger the UPR, indicating PvNod22 is not under UPR control. Our results suggest that the ability of PvNod22 to suppress protein aggregation contributes to the maintenance of ER homeostasis, thus preventing the induction of cell death via UPR in response to oxidative stress during plant-microbe interactions.

Applications of fluorescent marker proteins in plant cell biology

Over the past decade, confocal microscopy and the ever-expanding toolchest of fluorescent protein (xFP) markers and technologies have become routine methods for the biological laboratory. A common use of xFP fluorophores is in localizing proteins and the subcellular structures with which they associate, including analyzing their distribution and dynamics and the interactions of proteins in vivo. Additionally, a number of so-called optical highlighters have proven especially useful in analyzing the kinetics of these processes in pulse-chase studies of protein relocation(s) following an experimental challenge. Here we focus on exemplary methods in transformation and live-cell imaging in plant cells, with the expectation that researchers will find these and the accompanying resources useful as a starting point in developing their own expertise.

Fluorescent labelling of the actin cytoskeleton in plants using a cameloid antibody

BACKGROUND

Certain members of the Camelidae family produce a special type of antibody with only one heavy chain. The antigen binding domains are the smallest functional fragments of these heavy-chain only antibodies and as a consequence have been termed nanobodies. Discovery of these nanobodies has allowed the development of a number of therapeutic proteins and tools. In this study a class of nanobodies fused to fluorescent proteins (chromobodies), and therefore allowing antigen-binding and visualisation by fluorescence, have been used. Such chromobodies can be expressed in living cells and used as genetically encoded immunocytochemical markers.

RESULTS

Here a modified version of the commercially available Actin-Chromobody® as a novel tool for visualising actin dynamics in tobacco leaf cells was tested. The actin-chromobody binds to actin in a specific manner. Treatment with latrunculin B, a drug which disrupts the actin cytoskeleton through inhibition of polymerisation results in loss of fluorescence after less than 30 min but this can be rapidly restored by washing out latrunculin B and thereby allowing the actin filaments to repolymerise. To test the effect of the actin-chromobody on actin dynamics and compare it to one of the conventional labelling probes, Lifeact, the effect of both probes on Golgi movement was studied as the motility of Golgi bodies is largely dependent on the actin cytoskeleton. With the actin-chromobody expressed in cells, Golgi body movement was slowed down but the manner of movement rather than speed was affected less than with Lifeact.

CONCLUSIONS

The actin-chromobody technique presented in this study provides a novel option for in vivo labelling of the actin cytoskeleton in comparison to conventionally used probes that are based on actin binding proteins. The actin-chromobody is particularly beneficial to study actin dynamics in plant cells as it does label actin without impairing dynamic movement and polymerisation of the actin filaments.

The sub-cellular localisation of the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes, CrtRb2 and PSY2

Carotenoids are isoprenoids with important biological roles both for plants and animals. The yellow flesh colour of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tubers is a quality trait dependent on the types and levels of carotenoids that accumulate. The carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is well characterised, facilitating the successful engineering of carotenoid content in numerous crops including potato. However, a clear understanding concerning the factors regulating carotenoid accumulation and localisation in plant storage organs, such as tubers, is lacking. In the present study, the localisation of key carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes was investigated, as one of the unexplored factors that could influence the accumulation of carotenoids in potato tubers. Stable transgenic potato plants were generated by over-expressing β-CAROTENE HYDROXYLASE 2 (CrtRb2) and PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 2 (PSY2) genes, fused to red fluorescent protein (RFP). Gene expression and carotenoid levels were both significantly increased, confirming functionality of the fluorescently tagged proteins. Confocal microscopy studies revealed different sub-organellar localisations of CrtRb2-RFP and PSY2-RFP within amyloplasts. CrtRb2 was detected in small vesicular structures, inside amyloplasts, whereas PSY2 was localised in the stroma of amyloplasts. We conclude that it is important to consider the location of biosynthetic enzymes when engineering the carotenoid metabolic pathway in storage organs such as tubers.

MAIGO5 functions in protein export from Golgi-associated endoplasmic reticulum exit sites in Arabidopsis

Plant cells face unique challenges to efficiently export cargo from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to mobile Golgi stacks. Coat protein complex II (COPII) components, which include two heterodimers of Secretory23/24 (Sec23/24) and Sec13/31, facilitate selective cargo export from the ER; however, little is known about the mechanisms that regulate their recruitment to the ER membrane, especially in plants. Here, we report a protein transport mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana, named maigo5 (mag5), which abnormally accumulates precursor forms of storage proteins in seeds. mag5-1 has a deletion in the putative ortholog of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Homo sapiens Sec16, which encodes a critical component of ER exit sites (ERESs). mag mutants developed abnormal structures (MAG bodies) within the ER and exhibited compromised ER export. A functional MAG5/SEC16A-green fluorescent protein fusion localized at Golgi-associated cup-shaped ERESs and cycled on and off these sites at a slower rate than the COPII coat. MAG5/SEC16A interacted with SEC13 and SEC31; however, in the absence of MAG5/SEC16A, recruitment of the COPII coat to ERESs was accelerated. Our results identify a key component of ER export in plants by demonstrating that MAG5/SEC16A is required for protein export at ERESs that are associated with mobile Golgi stacks, where it regulates COPII coat turnover.

Targeting of tonoplast proteins to the vacuole

Vacuoles are essential for plant growth and development, and are dynamic compartments that require constant deposition of integral membrane proteins. These membrane proteins carry out many critical functions of the vacuole such as transporting ions and metabolites for vacuolar storage. Understanding the mechanisms for targeting proteins to the vacuolar membrane, or tonoplast, is important for developing novel applications for biotechnology. The mechanisms to target tonoplast proteins to the vacuole are quite complex. Multiple routes, including both Golgi-dependent and Golgi-independent mechanisms, have been implicated in tonoplast protein trafficking. A few endomembrane proteins that regulate this traffic at the level of the endoplasmic reticulum, the pre-vacuolar compartment and the tonoplast are now known. Recent reports indicate that the Golgi-dependent and independent pathways may merge at the level of the pre-vacuolar compartment. Finally, the small GTP-binding protein Rab7 and the SNARE protein SYP21 have been implicated in the traffic of tonoplast proteins from the pre-vacuolar compartment to the tonoplast. With multiple cargo proteins being analyzed under a variety of experimental systems, a clearer picture for targeting mechanisms for tonoplast proteins is starting to emerge.

The cytosolic nucleoprotein of the plant-infecting bunyavirus tomato spotted wilt recruits endoplasmic reticulum-resident proteins to endoplasmic reticulum export sites

In contrast with animal-infecting viruses, few known plant viruses contain a lipid envelope, and the processes leading to their membrane envelopment remain largely unknown. Plant viruses with lipid envelopes include viruses of the Bunyaviridae, which obtain their envelope from the Golgi complex. The envelopment process is predominantly dictated by two viral glycoproteins (Gn and Gc) and the viral nucleoprotein (N). During maturation of the plant-infecting bunyavirus Tomato spotted wilt, Gc localizes at endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes and becomes ER export competent only upon coexpression with Gn. In the presence of cytosolic N, Gc remains arrested in the ER but changes its distribution from reticular into punctate spots. Here, we show that these areas correspond to ER export sites (ERESs), distinct ER domains where glycoprotein cargo concentrates prior to coat protein II vesicle-mediated transport to the Golgi. Gc concentration at ERES is mediated by an interaction between its cytoplasmic tail (CT) and N. Interestingly, an ER-resident calnexin provided with Gc-CT was similarly recruited to ERES when coexpressed with N. Furthermore, disruption of actin filaments caused the appearance of a larger amount of smaller ERES loaded with N-Gc complexes, suggesting that glycoprotein cargo concentration acts as a trigger for de novo synthesis of ERES.

Organization of the ER-Golgi interface for membrane traffic control

Coat protein complex I (COPI) and COPII are required for bidirectional membrane trafficking between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi. While these core coat machineries and other transport factors are highly conserved across species, high-resolution imaging studies indicate that the organization of the ER-Golgi interface is varied in eukaryotic cells. Regulation of COPII assembly, in some cases to manage distinct cellular cargo, is emerging as one important component in determining this structure. Comparison of the ER-Golgi interface across different systems, particularly mammalian and plant cells, reveals fundamental elements and distinct organization of this interface. A better understanding of how these interfaces are regulated to meet varying cellular secretory demands should provide key insights into the mechanisms that control efficient trafficking of proteins and lipids through the secretory pathway.

Identification of myosin XI receptors in Arabidopsis defines a distinct class of transport vesicles

To characterize the mechanism through which myosin XI-K attaches to its principal endomembrane cargo, a yeast two-hybrid library of Arabidopsis thaliana cDNAs was screened using the myosin cargo binding domain as bait. This screen identified two previously uncharacterized transmembrane proteins (hereinafter myosin binding proteins or MyoB1/2) that share a myosin binding, conserved domain of unknown function 593 (DUF593). Additional screens revealed that MyoB1/2 also bind myosin XI-1, whereas myosin XI-I interacts with the distantly related MyoB7. The in vivo interactions of MyoB1/2 with myosin XI-K were confirmed by immunoprecipitation and colocalization analyses. In epidermal cells, the yellow fluorescent protein-tagged MyoB1/2 localize to vesicles that traffic in a myosin XI-dependent manner. Similar to myosin XI-K, MyoB1/2 accumulate in the tip-growing domain of elongating root hairs. Gene knockout analysis demonstrated that functional cooperation between myosin XI-K and MyoB proteins is required for proper plant development. Unexpectedly, the MyoB1-containing vesicles did not correspond to brefeldin A-sensitive Golgi and post-Golgi or prevacuolar compartments and did not colocalize with known exocytic or endosomal compartments. Phylogenomic analysis suggests that DUF593 emerged in primitive land plants and founded a multigene family that is conserved in all flowering plants. Collectively, these findings indicate that MyoB are membrane-anchored myosin receptors that define a distinct, plant-specific transport vesicle compartment.

Cytoskeleton-dependent endomembrane organization in plant cells: an emerging role for microtubules

Movement of secretory organelles is a fascinating yet largely mysterious feature of eukaryotic cells. Microtubule-based endomembrane and organelle motility utilizing the motor proteins dynein and kinesin is commonplace in animal cells. In contrast, it has been long accepted that intracellular motility in plant cells is predominantly driven by myosin motors dragging organelles and endomembrane-bounded cargo along actin filament bundles. Consistent with this, defects in the acto-myosin cytoskeleton compromise plant growth and development. Recent findings, however, challenge the actin-centric view of the motility of critical secretory organelles and distribution of associated protein machinery. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on actin-mediated organelle movement within the secretory pathway of plant cells, and report on recent and exciting findings that support a critical role of microtubules in plant cell development, in fine-tuning the positioning of Golgi stacks, as well as their involvement in cellulose synthesis and auxin polar transport. These emerging aspects of the biology of microtubules highlight adaptations of an ancestral machinery that plants have specifically evolved to support the functioning of the acto-myosin cytoskeleton, and mark new trends in our global appreciation of the complexity of organelle movement within the plant secretory pathway.

The endoplasmic reticulum is a reservoir for WAVE/SCAR regulatory complex signaling in the Arabidopsis leaf

During plant cell morphogenesis, signal transduction and cytoskeletal dynamics interact to locally organize the cytoplasm and define the geometry of cell expansion. The WAVE/SCAR (for WASP family verprolin homologous/suppressor of cyclic AMP receptor) regulatory complex (W/SRC) is an evolutionarily conserved heteromeric protein complex. Within the plant kingdom W/SRC is a broadly used effector that converts Rho-of-Plants (ROP)/Rac small GTPase signals into Actin-Related Protein2/3 and actin-dependent growth responses. Although the components and biochemistry of the W/SRC pathway are well understood, a basic understanding of how cells partition W/SRC into active and inactive pools is lacking. In this paper, we report that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an important organelle for W/SRC regulation. We determined that a large intracellular pool of the core W/SRC subunit NAP1, like the known positive regulator of W/SRC, the DOCK family guanine nucleotide-exchange factor SPIKE1 (SPK1), localizes to the surface of the ER. The ER-associated NAP1 is inactive because it displays little colocalization with the actin network, and ER localization requires neither activating signals from SPK1 nor a physical association with its W/SRC-binding partner, SRA1. Our results indicate that in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leaf pavement cells and trichomes, the ER is a reservoir for W/SRC signaling and may have a key role in the early steps of W/SRC assembly and/or activation.

Golgi traffic and integrity depend on N-myristoyl transferase-1 in Arabidopsis

N-myristoylation is a crucial irreversible eukaryotic lipid modification allowing a key subset of proteins to be targeted at the periphery of specific membrane compartments. Eukaryotes have conserved N-myristoylation enzymes, involving one or two N-myristoyltransferases (NMT1 and NMT2), among which NMT1 is the major enzyme. In the postembryonic developmental stages, defects in NMT1 lead to aberrant cell polarity, flower differentiation, fruit maturation, and innate immunity; however, no specific NMT1 target responsible for such deficiencies has hitherto been identified. Using a confocal microscopy forward genetics screen for the identification of Arabidopsis thaliana secretory mutants, we isolated STINGY, a recessive mutant with defective Golgi traffic and integrity. We mapped STINGY to a substitution at position 160 of Arabidopsis NMT1 (NMT1A160T). In vitro kinetic studies with purified NMT1A160T enzyme revealed a significant reduction in its activity due to a remarkable decrease in affinity for both myristoyl-CoA and peptide substrates. We show here that this recessive mutation is responsible for the alteration of Golgi traffic and integrity by predominantly affecting the Golgi membrane/cytosol partitioning of ADP-ribosylation factor proteins. Our results provide important functional insight into N-myristoylation in plants by ascribing postembryonic functions of Arabidopsis NMT1 that involve regulation of the functional and morphological integrity of the plant endomembranes.

Time-resolved fluorescence imaging reveals differential interactions of N-glycan processing enzymes across the Golgi stack in planta

N-Glycan processing is one of the most important cellular protein modifications in plants and as such is essential for plant development and defense mechanisms. The accuracy of Golgi-located processing steps is governed by the strict intra-Golgi localization of sequentially acting glycosidases and glycosyltransferases. Their differential distribution goes hand in hand with the compartmentalization of the Golgi stack into cis-, medial-, and trans-cisternae, which separate early from late processing steps. The mechanisms that direct differential enzyme concentration are still unknown, but the formation of multienzyme complexes is considered a feasible Golgi protein localization strategy. In this study, we used two-photon excitation-Förster resonance energy transfer-fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy to determine the interaction of N-glycan processing enzymes with differential intra-Golgi locations. Following the coexpression of fluorescent protein-tagged amino-terminal Golgi-targeting sequences (cytoplasmic-transmembrane-stem [CTS] region) of enzyme pairs in leaves of tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), we observed that all tested cis- and medial-Golgi enzymes, namely Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Golgi α-mannosidase I, Nicotiana tabacum β1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I, Arabidopsis Golgi α-mannosidase II (GMII), and Arabidopsis β1,2-xylosyltransferase, form homodimers and heterodimers, whereas among the late-acting enzymes Arabidopsis β1,3-galactosyltransferase1 (GALT1), Arabidopsis α1,4-fucosyltransferase, and Rattus norvegicus α2,6-sialyltransferase (a nonplant Golgi marker), only GALT1 and medial-Golgi GMII were found to form a heterodimer. Furthermore, the efficiency of energy transfer indicating the formation of interactions decreased considerably in a cis-to-trans fashion. The comparative fluorescence lifetime imaging of several full-length cis- and medial-Golgi enzymes and their respective catalytic domain-deleted CTS clones further suggested that the formation of protein-protein interactions can occur through their amino-terminal CTS region.

Endomembrane and Golgi traffic in plant cells

Leaf epidermal cells make ideal specimens for the investigation of the plant secretory pathway in that it is relatively easy to tag with fluorescent proteins and visualize in vivo the various organelles of the pathway. A number of techniques can be employed to identify and study proteins within the endomembrane organelles and to study their dynamics and interactions. Here, we discuss the most commonly used approaches to express proteins within arabidopsis and tobacco leaves, the use of mutant screens to identify trafficking proteins, and the use of two in vivo techniques, Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and Förster resonance energy transfer, to study protein dynamics in plant cells.

Relocalization of late blight resistance protein R3a to endosomal compartments is associated with effector recognition and required for the immune response

An important objective of plant-pathogen interactions research is to determine where resistance proteins detect pathogen effectors to mount an immune response. Many nucleotide binding-Leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR) resistance proteins accumulate in the plant nucleus following effector recognition, where they initiate the hypersensitive response (HR). Here, we show that potato (Solanum tuberosum) resistance protein R3a relocates from the cytoplasm to endosomal compartments only when coexpressed with recognized Phytophthora infestans effector form AVR3a(KI) and not unrecognized form AVR3a(EM). Moreover, AVR3a(KI), but not AVR3a(EM), is also relocalized to endosomes in the presence of R3a. Both R3a and AVR3a(KI) colocalized in close physical proximity at endosomes in planta. Treatment with brefeldin A (BFA) or wortmannin, inhibitors of the endocytic cycle, attenuated both the relocalization of R3a to endosomes and the R3a-mediated HR. No such effect of these inhibitors was observed on HRs triggered by the gene-for-gene pairs Rx1/PVX-CP and Sto1/IpiO1. An R3a(D501V) autoactive MHD mutant, which triggered HR in the absence of AVR3a(KI), failed to localize to endosomes. Moreover, BFA and wortmannin did not alter cell death triggered by this mutant. We conclude that effector recognition and consequent HR signaling by NB-LRR resistance protein R3a require its relocalization to vesicles in the endocytic pathway.

4-O-methylation of glucuronic acid in Arabidopsis glucuronoxylan is catalyzed by a domain of unknown function family 579 protein

The hemicellulose 4-O-methyl glucuronoxylan is one of the principle components present in the secondary cell walls of eudicotyledonous plants. However, the biochemical mechanisms leading to the formation of this polysaccharide and the effects of modulating its structure on the physical properties of the cell wall are poorly understood. We have identified and functionally characterized an Arabidopsis glucuronoxylan methyltransferase (GXMT) that catalyzes 4-O-methylation of the glucuronic acid substituents of this polysaccharide. AtGXMT1, which was previously classified as a domain of unknown function (DUF) 579 protein, specifically transfers the methyl group from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to O-4 of α-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid residues that are linked to O-2 of the xylan backbone. Biochemical characterization of the recombinant enzyme indicates that GXMT1 is localized in the Golgi apparatus and requires Co(2+) for optimal activity in vitro. Plants lacking GXMT1 synthesize glucuronoxylan in which the degree of 4-O-methylation is reduced by 75%. This result is correlated to a change in lignin monomer composition and an increase in glucuronoxylan release during hydrothermal treatment of secondary cell walls. We propose that the DUF579 proteins constitute a previously undescribed family of cation-dependent, polysaccharide-specific O-methyl-transferases. This knowledge provides new opportunities to selectively manipulate polysaccharide O-methylation and extends the portfolio of structural targets that can be modified either alone or in combination to modulate biopolymer interactions in the plant cell wall.

The FRIABLE1 gene product affects cell adhesion in Arabidopsis

Cell adhesion in plants is mediated predominantly by pectins, a group of complex cell wall associated polysaccharides. An Arabidopsis mutant, friable1 (frb1), was identified through a screen of T-DNA insertion lines that exhibited defective cell adhesion. Interestingly, the frb1 plants displayed both cell and organ dissociations and also ectopic defects in organ separation. The FRB1 gene encodes a Golgi-localized, plant specific protein with only weak sequence similarities to known proteins (DUF246). Unlike other cell adhesion deficient mutants, frb1 mutants do not have reduced levels of adhesion related cell wall polymers, such as pectins. Instead, FRB1 affects the abundance of galactose- and arabinose-containing oligosaccharides in the Golgi. Furthermore, frb1 mutants displayed alteration in pectin methylesterification, cell wall associated extensins and xyloglucan microstructure. We propose that abnormal FRB1 action has pleiotropic consequences on wall architecture, affecting both the extensin and pectin matrices, with consequent changes to the biomechanical properties of the wall and middle lamella, thereby influencing cell-cell adhesion.

Fluorescent protein-based technologies: shedding new light on the plant endomembrane system

Without doubt, GFP and spectral derivatives have revolutionized the way biologists approach their journey toward the discovery of how plant cells function. It is fascinating that in its early days GFP was used merely for localization studies, but as time progressed researchers successfully explored new avenues to push the power of GFP technology to reach new and exciting research frontiers. This has had a profound impact on the way we can now study complex and dynamic systems such as plant endomembranes. Here we briefly describe some of the approaches where GFP has revolutionized in vivo studies of protein distribution and dynamics and focus on two emerging approaches for the application of GFP technology in plant endomembranes, namely optical tweezers and forward genetics approaches, which are based either on the light or on genetic manipulation of secretory organelles to gain insights on the factors that control their activities and integrity.

In Arabidopsis, the spatial and dynamic organization of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus is influenced by the integrity of the C-terminal domain of RHD3, a non-essential GTPase

The mechanisms underlying the organization and dynamics of plant endomembranes are largely unknown. Arabidopsis RHD3, a distant member of the dynamin superfamily, has recently been implicated in plant ER morphology and Golgi movement through analyses of dominant-negative mutants of the putative GTPase domain in a heterologous system. Whether RHD3 is indispensable for ER architecture and what role regions other than the putative GTPase domain play in RHD3 function are unanswered questions. Here we characterized an EMS mutant, gom8, with disrupted Golgi movement and positioning and compromised ER shape and dynamics. gom8 mapped to a missense mutation in the RHD3 hairpin loop domain, causing accumulation of the mutant protein into large structures, a markedly different distribution compared with wild-type RHD3 over the ER network. Despite the GOM8 distribution, tubules fused in the peripheral ER of the gom8 mutant. These data imply that integrity of the hairpin region is important for the subcellular distribution of RHD3, and that reduced availability of RHD3 over the ER can cause ER morphology defects, but does not prevent peripheral fusion between tubules. This was confirmed by evidence that gom8 was phenocopied in an RHD3 null background. Furthermore, we established that the region encompassing the RHD3 hairpin domain and the C-terminal cytosolic domain is necessary for RHD3 function. We conclude that RHD3 is important in ER morphology, but is dispensable for peripheral ER tubulation in an endogenous context, and that its activity relies on the C-terminal region in addition to the GTPase domain.

Evidence for sequential action of Rab5 and Rab7 GTPases in prevacuolar organelle partitioning

GTPases of the Rab5 and Rab7 families were shown to control vacuolar sorting but their specific subcellular localization is controversial in plants. Here, we show that both the canonical as well as the plant-specific Rab5 reside at the newly discovered 'late prevacuolar compartment' (LPVC) while Rab7 partitions to the vacuolar membrane when expressed at low levels. Higher expression levels of wild-type Rab5 GTPases but not Rab7 lead to dose-dependent inhibition of biosynthetic vacuolar transport. In the case of Ara6, this included aberrant co-localization with markers for earlier post-Golgi compartments including the trans-Golgi network. However, nucleotide-free mutants of all three GTPases (Rha1, Ara6 and Rab7) cause stronger dose-dependent inhibition of vacuolar sorting. In addition, nucleotide-free Rha1 led to a later maturation defect and co-localization of markers for the prevacuolar compartment (PVC) and the LPVC. The corresponding Rab7 mutant strongly inhibited vacuolar delivery without merging of PVC and LPVC markers. Evidence for functional differentiation of the Rab5 family members is underlined by the fact that mutant Rha1 expression can be suppressed by increasing wild-type Rha1 levels while mutant Ara6 specifically titrates the nucleotide exchange factor Vps9. A model describing the sequential action of Rab5 and Rab7 GTPases is presented in the light of the current observations.

Hijack it, change it: how do plant viruses utilize the host secretory pathway for efficient viral replication and spread?

The secretory pathway of eukaryotic cells has an elaborated set of endomembrane compartments involved in the synthesis, modification, and sorting of proteins and lipids. The secretory pathway in plant cells shares many features with that in other eukaryotic cells but also has distinct characteristics important for fundamental cell and developmental processes and for proper immune responses. Recently, there has been evidence that the remodeling of this pathway, and often the formation of viral-induced organelles, play an important role in viral replication and spread. The modification of the host secretory pathway seems to be a common feature among most single-stranded positive ss(+)RNA and even some DNA viruses. In this review, we will present the recent advances in the understanding of the organization and dynamics of the plant secretory pathway and the molecular regulation of membrane trafficking in the pathway. We will also discuss how different plant viruses may interact with the host secretory pathway for their efficient replication and spread, with a focus on tobacco mosaic virus and turnip mosaic virus.

A specific role for Arabidopsis TRAPPII in post-Golgi trafficking that is crucial for cytokinesis and cell polarity

Cytokinesis and cell polarity are supported by membrane trafficking from the trans-Golgi network (TGN), but the molecular mechanisms that promote membrane trafficking from the TGN are poorly defined in plant cells. Here we show that TRAPPII in Arabidopsis regulates the post-Golgi trafficking that is crucial for assembly of the cell plate and cell polarity. Disruptions of AtTRS120 or AtTRS130, two genes encoding two key subunits of TRAPPII, result in defective cytokinesis and cell polarity in embryogenesis and seedling development. In attrs120 and attrs130, the organization and trafficking in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi interface are normal. However, post-Golgi trafficking to the cell plate and to the cell wall, but not to the vacuole, is impaired. Furthermore, TRAPPII is required for the selective transport of PIN2, but not PIN1, to the plasma membrane. We revealed that AtTRS130 is co-localized with RAB-A1c. Expression of constitutively active RAB-A1c partially rescues attrs130. RAB-A1c, which resides at the TGN, is delocalized to the cytosol in attrs130. We propose that TRAPPII in Arabidopsis acts upstream of Rab-A GTPases in post-Golgi membrane trafficking in plant cells.