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Culm in Rice Straw as a New Source for Sugar RecoveryviaEnzymatic Saccharification. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2014; 74:50-5. [DOI: 10.1271/bbb.90535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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52
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Yin Y, Johns MA, Cao H, Rupani M. A survey of plant and algal genomes and transcriptomes reveals new insights into the evolution and function of the cellulose synthase superfamily. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:260. [PMID: 24708035 PMCID: PMC4023592 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Enzymes of the cellulose synthase (CesA) family and CesA-like (Csl) families are responsible for the synthesis of celluloses and hemicelluloses, and thus are of great interest to bioenergy research. We studied the occurrences and phylogenies of CesA/Csl families in diverse plants and algae by comprehensive data mining of 82 genomes and transcriptomes. Results We found that 1) charophytic green algae (CGA) have orthologous genes in CesA, CslC and CslD families; 2) liverwort genes are found in the CesA, CslA, CslC and CslD families; 3) The fern Pteridium aquilinum not only has orthologs in these conserved families but also in the CslB, CslH and CslE families; 4) basal angiosperms, e.g. Aristolochia fimbriata, have orthologs in these families too; 5) gymnosperms have genes forming clusters ancestral to CslB/H and to CslE/J/G respectively; 6) CslG is found in switchgrass and basal angiosperms; 7) CslJ is widely present in dicots and monocots; 8) CesA subfamilies have already diversified in ferns. Conclusions We speculate that: (i) ferns and horsetails might both have CslH enzymes, responsible for the synthesis of mixed-linkage glucans and (ii) CslD and similar genes might be responsible for the synthesis of mannans in CGA. Our findings led to a more detailed model of cell wall evolution and suggested that gene loss played an important role in the evolution of Csl families. We also demonstrated the usefulness of transcriptome data in the study of plant cell wall evolution and diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanbin Yin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Illinois University, Montgomery Hall 325A, DeKalb, IL 60115-2857, USA.
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53
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Burton RA, Fincher GB. Evolution and development of cell walls in cereal grains. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:456. [PMID: 25309555 PMCID: PMC4161051 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The composition of cell walls in cereal grains and other grass species differs markedly from walls in seeds of other plants. In the maternal tissues that surround the embryo and endosperm of the grain, walls contain higher levels of cellulose and in many cases are heavily lignified. This may be contrasted with walls of the endosperm, where the amount of cellulose is relatively low, and the walls are generally not lignified. The low cellulose and lignin contents are possible because the walls of the endosperm perform no load-bearing function in the mature grain and indeed the low levels of these relatively intractable wall components are necessary because they allow rapid degradation of the walls following germination of the grain. The major non-cellulosic components of endosperm walls are usually heteroxylans and (1,3;1,4)-β-glucans, with lower levels of xyloglucans, glucomannans, and pectic polysaccharides. Pectic polysaccharides and xyloglucans are the major non-cellulosic wall constituents in most dicot species, in which (1,3;1,4)-β-glucans are usually absent and heteroxylans are found at relatively low levels. Thus, the "core" non-cellulosic wall polysaccharides in grain of the cereals and other grasses are the heteroxylans and, more specifically, arabinoxylans. The (1,3;1,4)-β-glucans appear in the endosperm of some grass species but are essentially absent from others; they may constitute from zero to more than 45% of the cell walls of the endosperm, depending on the species. It is clear that in some cases these (1,3;1,4)-β-glucans function as a major store of metabolizable glucose in the grain. Cereal grains and their constituent cell wall polysaccharides are centrally important as a source of dietary fiber in human societies and breeders have started to select for high levels of non-cellulosic wall polysaccharides in grain. To meet end-user requirements, it is important that we understand cell wall biology in the grain both during development and following germination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Geoffrey B. Fincher
- *Correspondence: Geoffrey B. Fincher, Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls – School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia e-mail:
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Simmons TJ, Uhrín D, Gregson T, Murray L, Sadler IH, Fry SC. An unexpectedly lichenase-stable hexasaccharide from cereal, horsetail and lichen mixed-linkage β-glucans (MLGs): implications for MLG subunit distribution. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2013; 95:322-332. [PMID: 24025426 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Mixed-linkage (1→3),(1→4)-β-d-glucan (MLG) is a biologically and technologically important hemicellulose, known to occur in three widely separated lineages: the Poales (including grasses and cereals), Equisetum (fern-allies), and some lichens e.g. Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica). Lichenase (E.C. 3.2.1.73) is widely assumed to hydrolyse all (1→4) bonds that immediately follow (1→3) bonds in MLG, generating predominantly the tetrasaccharide β-d-Glcp-(1→4)-β-d-Glcp-(1→4)-β-d-Glcp-(1→3)-d-Glc (G4G4G3G; MLG4), the corresponding trisaccharide (G4G3G; MLG3), and sometimes also laminaribiose (G3G; MLG2). The ratio of the oligosaccharides produced characterises each polysaccharide. We report here that digestion of MLG from barley (Hordeum vulgare), Equisetum arvense and C. islandica by Bacillus subtilis lichenase also yields the unexpectedly stable hexasaccharide, β-d-Glcp-(1→3)-β-d-Glcp-(1→4)-β-d-Glcp-(1→4)-β-d-Glcp-(1→4)-β-d-Glcp-(1→3)-d-Glc (G3G4G4G4G3G, i.e. MLG2-MLG4), identified by thin-layer chromatography, gel-permeation chromatography, HPLC (HPAEC), β-glucosidase digestion, (1)H/(13)C-NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. On HPLC, G3G4G4G4G3G is the major constituent of a peak previously ascribed solely to the nonasaccharide G4G4G4G4G4G4G4G3G. Because it was widely presumed that lichenase would cleave G3G4G4G4G3G to MLG2+MLG4, our data both redefine the substrate specificity of Bacillus lichenase and show previous attempts to characterise MLGs by HPLC of lichenase-digests to be flawed. MLG2 subunits are particularly underestimated; often reported as negligible, they are here shown to be an appreciable constituent of MLGs from all three lineages. We also show that there is no appreciable yield of water-soluble lichenase products with DP>9; potential identities of products previously labelled DP>9 are suggested. Finally, this discovery also provides a opportunity to investigate the spatial distribution of subunits along the MLG chain. We show that MLG2 subunits in barley and Cetraria MLG are not randomly distributed, but predominantly found at the non-reducing end of MLG4 subunits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Simmons
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JH, UK
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55
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He C, Wang L, Liu J, Liu X, Li X, Ma J, Lin Y, Xu F. Evidence for 'silicon' within the cell walls of suspension-cultured rice cells. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2013; 200:700-709. [PMID: 23834738 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Despite the ubiquity and beneficial role of silicon (Si) in plant biology, structural and chemical mechanisms operating at the single-cell level have not been extensively studied. To obtain insights regarding the effect of Si on individual cells, we cultivated suspended rice (Oryza sativa) cells in the absence and presence of Si and analyzed single cells using a combination of physical techniques including atomic force microscopy (AFM). Si is naturally present as a constituent of the cell walls, where it is firmly bound to the cell wall matrix rather than occurring within intra- or extracellular silica deposition, as determined by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). This species of Si, linked with the cell wall matrix, improves the structural stability of cell walls during their expansion and subsequent cell division. Maintaining cell shape is thereby enhanced, which may be crucial for the function and survival of cells. This study provides further evidence that organosilicon is present in plant cell walls, which broadens our understanding of the chemical nature of 'anomalous Si' in plant biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Congwu He
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Lijun Wang
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Jian Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Xin Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Xiuli Li
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Jie Ma
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Yongjun Lin
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
| | - Fangsen Xu
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, 430070, China
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Pauly M, Gille S, Liu L, Mansoori N, de Souza A, Schultink A, Xiong G. Hemicellulose biosynthesis. PLANTA 2013; 238:627-42. [PMID: 23801299 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-013-1921-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
One major component of plant cell walls is a diverse group of polysaccharides, the hemicelluloses. Hemicelluloses constitute roughly one-third of the wall biomass and encompass the heteromannans, xyloglucan, heteroxylans, and mixed-linkage glucan. The fine structure of these polysaccharides, particularly their substitution, varies depending on the plant species and tissue type. The hemicelluloses are used in numerous industrial applications such as food additives as well as in medicinal applications. Their abundance in lignocellulosic feedstocks should not be overlooked, if the utilization of this renewable resource for fuels and other commodity chemicals becomes a reality. Fortunately, our understanding of the biosynthesis of the various hemicelluloses in the plant has increased enormously in recent years mainly through genetic approaches. Taking advantage of this knowledge has led to plant mutants with altered hemicellulosic structures demonstrating the importance of the hemicelluloses in plant growth and development. However, while we are on a solid trajectory in identifying all necessary genes/proteins involved in hemicellulose biosynthesis, future research is required to combine these single components and assemble them to gain a holistic mechanistic understanding of the biosynthesis of this important class of plant cell wall polysaccharides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Pauly
- Energy Biosciences Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA,
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57
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Leroux O, Eeckhout S, Viane RLL, Popper ZA. Ceratopteris richardii (C-fern): a model for investigating adaptive modification of vascular plant cell walls. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:367. [PMID: 24065974 PMCID: PMC3779834 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/29/2013] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls are essential for most aspects of plant growth, development, and survival, including cell division, expansive cell growth, cell-cell communication, biomechanical properties, and stress responses. Therefore, characterizing cell wall diversity contributes to our overall understanding of plant evolution and development. Recent biochemical analyses, concomitantly with whole genome sequencing of plants located at pivotal points in plant phylogeny, have helped distinguish between homologous characters and those which might be more derived. Most plant lineages now have at least one fully sequenced representative and although genome sequences for fern species are in progress they are not yet available for this group. Ferns offer key advantages for the study of developmental processes leading to vascularisation and complex organs as well as the specific differences between diploid sporophyte tissues and haploid gametophyte tissues and the interplay between them. Ceratopteris richardii has been well investigated building a body of knowledge which combined with the genomic and biochemical information available for other plants will progress our understanding of wall diversity and its impact on evolution and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Leroux
- Botany and Plant Science and The Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, School of Natural Sciences, National University of IrelandGalway, Ireland
- Department of Biology, Research Group Pteridology, Ghent UniversityGhent, Belgium
| | - Sharon Eeckhout
- Department of Biology, Research Group Pteridology, Ghent UniversityGhent, Belgium
| | - Ronald L. L. Viane
- Department of Biology, Research Group Pteridology, Ghent UniversityGhent, Belgium
| | - Zoë A. Popper
- Botany and Plant Science and The Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, School of Natural Sciences, National University of IrelandGalway, Ireland
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58
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Leroux O, Leroux F, Mastroberti AA, Santos-Silva F, Van Loo D, Bagniewska-Zadworna A, Van Hoorebeke L, Bals S, Popper ZA, de Araujo Mariath JE. Heterogeneity of silica and glycan-epitope distribution in epidermal idioblast cell walls in Adiantum raddianum laminae. PLANTA 2013; 237:1453-64. [PMID: 23430352 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-013-1856-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Laminae of Adiantum raddianum Presl., a fern belonging to the family Pteridaceae, are characterised by the presence of epidermal fibre-like cells under the vascular bundles. These cells were thought to contain silica bodies, but their thickened walls leave no space for intracellular silica suggesting it may actually be deposited within their walls. Using advanced electron microscopy in conjunction with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis we showed the presence of silica in the cell walls of the fibre-like idioblasts. However, it was specifically localised to the outer layers of the periclinal wall facing the leaf surface, with the thick secondary wall being devoid of silica. Immunocytochemical experiments were performed to ascertain the respective localisation of silica deposition and glycan polymers. Epitopes characteristic for pectic homogalacturonan and the hemicelluloses xyloglucan and mannan were detected in most epidermal walls, including the silica-rich cell wall layers. The monoclonal antibody, LM6, raised against pectic arabinan, labelled the silica-rich primary wall of the epidermal fibre-like cells and the guard cell walls, which were also shown to contain silica. We hypothesise that the silicified outer wall layers of the epidermal fibre-like cells support the lamina during cell expansion prior to secondary wall formation. This implies that silicification does not impede cell elongation. Although our results suggest that pectic arabinan may be implicated in silica deposition, further detailed analyses are needed to confirm this. The combinatorial approach presented here, which allows correlative screening and in situ localisation of silicon and cell wall polysaccharide distribution, shows great potential for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Leroux
- Botany and Plant Science and Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine and Energy Research, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, University Road, Galway, Ireland
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59
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Sikora P, Tosh SM, Brummer Y, Olsson O. Identification of high β-glucan oat lines and localization and chemical characterization of their seed kernel β-glucans. Food Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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60
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Simmons TJ. Considerations in the search for mixed-linkage (1→3),(1→4)-β-D-glucan-active endotransglycosylases. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2013; 8:e23835. [PMID: 23425852 PMCID: PMC7030212 DOI: 10.4161/psb.23835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase, catalyzed by XTH subfamily members, is thought to play crucial roles in plant cell wall physiology. Recent discovery of endotransglycosylases active on other hemicelluloses extend our understanding of the physiological scope of endotransglycosylation in general. Discovery in Poaceaen XTHs of endotransglycosylases which act on Poaceaen-prevalent hemicelluloses, such as MLG, could reconcile the apparent incongruence between the large size of Poaceaen putative XTH families and the low xyloglucan content of their cell walls. Here, I speculate on hypothetical MLG-active endotransglycosylases and highlight potential hindrances to their discovery. It is suggested that because the location of β-(1→3) bonds within MLG oligosaccharides (MLGOs) could define their ability to act as endotranglycosylase acceptor substrates: a) thorough probing of substrate specificities necessitates the use of MLGOs created using different endo-glycanases; and b) endogenous plant exo-glycosidases, which can hinder endotranglycosylase assays by degrading acceptor substrates, might prove particularly troublesome where MLGOs are concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. Simmons
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group; Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences; School of Biological Sciences; The University of Edinburgh; Edinburgh, U.K
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61
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Vega-Sánchez ME, Verhertbruggen Y, Scheller HV, Ronald PC. Abundance of mixed linkage glucan in mature tissues and secondary cell walls of grasses. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2013; 8:e23143. [PMID: 23299432 PMCID: PMC3657012 DOI: 10.4161/psb.23143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
(1,3; 1,4)-β-D-glucan, also known as mixed linkage glucan (MLG), is a polysaccharide that in flowering plants is unique to the cell walls of grasses and other related members of Poales. MLG is highly abundant in endosperm cell walls, where it is considered a storage carbohydrate. In vegetative tissues, MLG transiently accumulates in the primary cell walls of young, elongating organs. In evolutionary distant species such as Equisetum, MLG accumulates predominantly in old tissues in the stems. Similarly, we have recently shown that rice accumulates a large amount of MLG in mature stems, which prompted us to re-evaluate the hypothesis that MLG is solely related to growth in grass vegetative tissues. Here, we summarize data that confirms the presence of MLG in secondary cell walls and mature tissues in rice and other grasses. Along with these results, we discuss additional evidence indicating a broader role for MLG than previously considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel E. Vega-Sánchez
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Physical Biosciences Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, CA USA
| | - Yves Verhertbruggen
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Physical Biosciences Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, CA USA
| | - Henrik V. Scheller
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Physical Biosciences Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, CA USA
| | - Pamela C. Ronald
- Joint BioEnergy Institute and Physical Biosciences Division; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, CA USA
- Department of Plant Pathology and the Genome Center; University of California; Davis, CA USA
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62
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Mohler KE, Simmons TJ, Fry SC. Mixed-linkage glucan:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (MXE) re-models hemicelluloses in Equisetum shoots but not in barley shoots or Equisetum callus. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2013; 197:111-122. [PMID: 23078260 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04371.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/31/2012] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Among land-plant hemicelluloses, xyloglucan is ubiquitous, whereas mixed-linkage (1→3),(1→4)-β-D-glucan (MLG) is confined to the Poales (e.g. cereals) and Equisetales (horsetails). The enzyme MLG:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (MXE) grafts MLG to xyloglucan. In Equisetum, MXE often exceeds extractable xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (XET) activity; curiously, cereals lack extractable MXE. We investigated whether barley possesses inextractable MXE. Grafting of endogenous MLG or xyloglucan onto exogenous [(3)H]xyloglucan oligosaccharides in vivo indicated MXE and XET action, respectively. Extractable MXE and XET activities were assayed in vitro. MXE and XET actions were both detectable in living Equisetum fluviatile shoots, the MXE : XET ratio increasing with age. However, only XET action was observed in barley coleoptiles, leaves and roots (which all contained MLG) and in E. fluviatile intercalary meristems and callus (which lacked MLG). In E. fluviatile, extractable MXE activity was high in mature shoots, but extremely low in callus and young shoots; in E. arvense strobili, it was undetectable. Barley possesses neither extractable nor inextractable MXE, despite containing both of its substrates and high XET activity. As the Poales are xyloglucan-poor, the role of their abundant endotransglucosylases remains enigmatic. The distribution of MXE action and activity within Equisetum suggests a strengthening role in ageing tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle E Mohler
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
| | - Thomas J Simmons
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
| | - Stephen C Fry
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
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63
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Abstract
Almost all plant cells are surrounded by glycan-rich cell walls, which form much of the plant body and collectively are the largest source of biomass on earth. Plants use polysaccharides for support, defense, signaling, cell adhesion, and as energy storage, and many plant glycans are also important industrially and nutritionally. Understanding the biological roles of plant glycans and the effective exploitation of their useful properties requires a detailed understanding of their structures, occurrence, and molecular interactions. Microarray technology has revolutionized the massively high-throughput analysis of nucleotides, proteins, and increasingly carbohydrates. Using microarrays, the abundance of and interactions between hundreds and thousands of molecules can be assessed simultaneously using very small amounts of analytes. Here we show that carbohydrate microarrays are multifunctional tools for plant research and can be used to map glycan populations across large numbers of samples to screen antibodies, carbohydrate binding proteins, and carbohydrate binding modules and to investigate enzyme activities.
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64
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Moller IE, Pettolino FA, Hart C, Lampugnani ER, Willats WGT, Bacic A. Glycan profiling of plant cell wall polymers using microarrays. J Vis Exp 2012:e4238. [PMID: 23271573 DOI: 10.3791/4238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cell walls are complex matrixes of heterogeneous glycans which play an important role in the physiology and development of plants and provide the raw materials for human societies (e.g. wood, paper, textile and biofuel industries)(1,2). However, understanding the biosynthesis and function of these components remains challenging. Cell wall glycans are chemically and conformationally diverse due to the complexity of their building blocks, the glycosyl residues. These form linkages at multiple positions and differ in ring structure, isomeric or anomeric configuration, and in addition, are substituted with an array of non-sugar residues. Glycan composition varies in different cell and/or tissue types or even sub-domains of a single cell wall(3). Furthermore, their composition is also modified during development(1), or in response to environmental cues(4). In excess of 2,000 genes have Plant cell walls are complex matrixes of heterogeneous glycans been predicted to be involved in cell wall glycan biosynthesis and modification in Arabidopsis(5). However, relatively few of the biosynthetic genes have been functionally characterized (4,5). Reverse genetics approaches are difficult because the genes are often differentially expressed, often at low levels, between cell types(6). Also, mutant studies are often hindered by gene redundancy or compensatory mechanisms to ensure appropriate cell wall function is maintained(7). Thus novel approaches are needed to rapidly characterise the diverse range of glycan structures and to facilitate functional genomics approaches to understanding cell wall biosynthesis and modification. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs)(8,9) have emerged as an important tool for determining glycan structure and distribution in plants. These recognise distinct epitopes present within major classes of plant cell wall glycans, including pectins, xyloglucans, xylans, mannans, glucans and arabinogalactans. Recently their use has been extended to large-scale screening experiments to determine the relative abundance of glycans in a broad range of plant and tissue types simultaneously(9,10,11). Here we present a microarray-based glycan screening method called Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling (CoMPP) (Figures 1 & 2)(10,11) that enables multiple samples (100 sec) to be screened using a miniaturised microarray platform with reduced reagent and sample volumes. The spot signals on the microarray can be formally quantified to give semi-quantitative data about glycan epitope occurrence. This approach is well suited to tracking glycan changes in complex biological systems(12) and providing a global overview of cell wall composition particularly when prior knowledge of this is unavailable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel E Moller
- Australian Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of Botany, University of Melbourne.
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Leroux O. Collenchyma: a versatile mechanical tissue with dynamic cell walls. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2012; 110:1083-98. [PMID: 22933416 PMCID: PMC3478049 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcs186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Collenchyma has remained in the shadow of commercially exploited mechanical tissues such as wood and fibres, and therefore has received little attention since it was first described. However, collenchyma is highly dynamic, especially compared with sclerenchyma. It is the main supporting tissue of growing organs with walls thickening during and after elongation. In older organs, collenchyma may become more rigid due to changes in cell wall composition or may undergo sclerification through lignification of newly deposited cell wall material. While much is known about the systematic and organographic distribution of collenchyma, there is rather less information regarding the molecular architecture and properties of its cell walls. SCOPE AND CONCLUSIONS This review summarizes several aspects that have not previously been extensively discussed including the origin of the term 'collenchyma' and the history of its typology. As the cell walls of collenchyma largely determine the dynamic characteristics of this tissue, I summarize the current state of knowledge regarding their structure and molecular composition. Unfortunately, to date, detailed studies specifically focusing on collenchyma cell walls have not been undertaken. However, generating a more detailed understanding of the structural and compositional modifications associated with the transition from plastic to elastic collenchyma cell wall properties is likely to provide significant insights into how specific configurations of cell wall polymers result in specific functional properties. This approach, focusing on architecture and functional properties, is likely to provide improved clarity on the controversial definition of collenchyma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Leroux
- Botany and Plant Science and Ryan Institute, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, University Road, Galway, Ireland.
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66
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Preparation of plant cells for transmission electron microscopy to optimize immunogold labeling of carbohydrate and protein epitopes. Nat Protoc 2012; 7:1716-27. [PMID: 22918389 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2012.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Despite the remarkable advances in electron microscopy, the difficulty in preserving the ultrastructural details of many plant cells is the major limitation to exploiting the full potential of this technology. The very nature of plant cells, including their hydrophobic surfaces, rigid cell walls and large vacuoles, make them recalcitrant to the efficient exchange of reagents that are crucial to preserving their fine structure. Achieving ultrastructural preservation while protecting the antigenicity of molecular epitopes has proven difficult. Here we describe two methods that provide good ultrastructural detail in plant cells while preserving the binding capacity of carbohydrate and protein epitopes. The first is a traditional, chemical-based protocol used to prepare developing grass (cereal) grain for electron microscopy and to locate carbohydrates as they are deposited using immunogold labeling. The second uses cryofixation techniques, including high-pressure freezing and freeze substitution, to prepare delicate, tip-growing pollen tubes and to locate the intracellular site of a polysaccharide synthase. Both procedures can take as long as 2 weeks to achieve results, but there is scope to fast-track some steps depending on the physical characteristics of the material being processed.
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Hsieh YSY, Harris PJ. Structures of xyloglucans in primary cell walls of gymnosperms, monilophytes (ferns sensu lato) and lycophytes. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2012; 79:87-101. [PMID: 22537406 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Revised: 03/16/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Little is known about the structures of the xyloglucans in the primary cell walls of vascular plants (tracheophytes) other than angiosperms. Xyloglucan structures were examined in 13 species of gymnosperms, 13 species of monilophytes (ferns sensu lato), and two species of lycophytes. Wall preparations were obtained, extracted with 6 M sodium hydroxide, and the extracts treated with a xyloglucan-specific endo-(1→4)-β-glucanase preparation. The oligosaccharides released were analysed by matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry and by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography. The xyloglucan oligosaccharide profiles from the gymnosperm walls were similar to those from the walls of most eudicotyledons and non-commelinid monocotyledons, indicating that the xyloglucans were fucogalactoxyloglucans, containing the fucosylated units XXFG and XLFG. The xyloglucan oligosaccharide profiles for six of the monilophyte species were similar to those of the gymnosperms, indicating they were also fucogalactoxyloglucans. Phylogenetically, these monilophyte species were from both basal and more derived orders. However, the profiles for the other monilophyte species showed various significant differences, including additional oligosaccharides. In three of the species, these additional oligosaccharides contained arabinosyl residues which were most abundant in the profile of Equisetum hyemale. The two species of lycophytes examined, Selaginella kraussiana and Lycopodium cernuum, had quite different xyloglucan oligosaccharide profiles, but neither were fucogalactoxyloglucans. The S. kraussiana profile had abundant oligosaccharides containing arabinosyl residues. The L. cernuum profile indicated the xyloglucan had a very complex structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves S Y Hsieh
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
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Peng F, Peng P, Xu F, Sun RC. Fractional purification and bioconversion of hemicelluloses. Biotechnol Adv 2012; 30:879-903. [PMID: 22306329 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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The glycosyltransferase repertoire of the spikemoss Selaginella moellendorffii and a comparative study of its cell wall. PLoS One 2012; 7:e35846. [PMID: 22567114 PMCID: PMC3342304 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Spike mosses are among the most basal vascular plants, and one species, Selaginella moellendorffii, was recently selected for full genome sequencing by the Joint Genome Institute (JGI). Glycosyltransferases (GTs) are involved in many aspects of a plant life, including cell wall biosynthesis, protein glycosylation, primary and secondary metabolism. Here, we present a comparative study of the S. moellendorffii genome across 92 GT families and an additional family (DUF266) likely to include GTs. The study encompasses the moss Physcomitrella patens, a non-vascular land plant, while rice and Arabidopsis represent commelinid and non-commelinid seed plants. Analysis of the subset of GT-families particularly relevant to cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis was complemented by a detailed analysis of S. moellendorffii cell walls. The S. moellendorffii cell wall contains many of the same components as seed plant cell walls, but appears to differ somewhat in its detailed architecture. The S. moellendorffii genome encodes fewer GTs (287 GTs including DUF266s) than the reference genomes. In a few families, notably GT51 and GT78, S. moellendorffii GTs have no higher plant orthologs, but in most families S. moellendorffii GTs have clear orthologies with Arabidopsis and rice. A gene naming convention of GTs is proposed which takes orthologies and GT-family membership into account. The evolutionary significance of apparently modern and ancient traits in S. moellendorffii is discussed, as is its use as a reference organism for functional annotation of GTs.
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Vega-Sánchez ME, Verhertbruggen Y, Christensen U, Chen X, Sharma V, Varanasi P, Jobling SA, Talbot M, White RG, Joo M, Singh S, Auer M, Scheller HV, Ronald PC. Loss of Cellulose synthase-like F6 function affects mixed-linkage glucan deposition, cell wall mechanical properties, and defense responses in vegetative tissues of rice. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 159:56-69. [PMID: 22388489 PMCID: PMC3375985 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.195495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Mixed-linkage glucan (MLG) is a cell wall polysaccharide containing a backbone of unbranched (1,3)- and (1,4)-linked β-glucosyl residues. Based on its occurrence in plants and chemical characteristics, MLG has primarily been associated with the regulation of cell wall expansion due to its high and transient accumulation in young, expanding tissues. The Cellulose synthase-like F (CslF) subfamily of glycosyltransferases has previously been implicated in mediating the biosynthesis of this polymer. We confirmed that the rice (Oryza sativa) CslF6 gene mediates the biosynthesis of MLG by overexpressing it in Nicotiana benthamiana. Rice cslf6 knockout mutants show a slight decrease in height and stem diameter but otherwise grew normally during vegetative development. However, cslf6 mutants display a drastic decrease in MLG content (97% reduction in coleoptiles and virtually undetectable in other tissues). Immunodetection with an anti-MLG monoclonal antibody revealed that the coleoptiles and leaves retain trace amounts of MLG only in specific cell types such as sclerenchyma fibers. These results correlate with the absence of endogenous MLG synthase activity in mutant seedlings and 4-week-old sheaths. Mutant cell walls are weaker in mature stems but not seedlings, and more brittle in both stems and seedlings, compared to wild type. Mutants also display lesion mimic phenotypes in leaves, which correlates with enhanced defense-related gene expression and enhanced disease resistance. Taken together, our results underline a weaker role of MLG in cell expansion than previously thought, and highlight a structural role for MLG in nonexpanding, mature stem tissues in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Pamela C. Ronald
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, California 94608 (M.E.V.-S., Y.V., U.C., X.C., V.S., P.V., M.J., S.S., M.A., H.V.S., P.C.R.); Divisions of Physical Biosciences (Y.V., U.C., V.S., H.V.S., P.C.R.) and Life Sciences (M.J., M.A.), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720; Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Food Futures Flagship (S.A.J., M.T., R.G.W.) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Plant Industry (S.A.J.), Black Mountain Laboratories, Black Mountain, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia; Department of Plant Pathology (M.E.V.-S., X.C., P.C.R.) and The Genome Center (P.C.R.), University of California, Davis, California 95616; Biomass Science and Conversion Technologies Department, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94551 (P.V., S.S.); and Department of Plant Molecular System Biotechnology and Crop Biotech Institute, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 446–701, Korea (P.C.R.)
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Xue X, Fry SC. Evolution of mixed-linkage (1 -> 3, 1 -> 4)-β-D-glucan (MLG) and xyloglucan in Equisetum (horsetails) and other monilophytes. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2012; 109:873-86. [PMID: 22378839 PMCID: PMC3310500 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcs018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2012] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Horsetails (Equisetopsida) diverged from other extant eusporangiate monilophytes in the Upper Palaeozoic. They are the only monilophytes known to contain the hemicellulose mixed-linkage (1 → 3, 1 → 4)-β-d-glucan (MLG), whereas all land plants possess xyloglucan. It has been reported that changes in cell-wall chemistry often accompanied major evolutionary steps. We explored changes in hemicelluloses occurring during Equisetum evolution. METHODS Hemicellulose from numerous monilophytes was treated with lichenase and xyloglucan endoglucanase. Lichenase digests MLG to di-, tri- and tetrasaccharide repeat-units, resolvable by thin-layer chromatography. KEY RESULTS Among monilophytes, MLG was confined to horsetails. Our analyses support a basal trichotomy of extant horsetails: MLG was more abundant in subgenus Equisetum than in subgenus Hippochaete, and uniquely the sister group E. bogotense yielded almost solely the tetrasaccharide repeat-unit (G4G4G3G). Other species also gave the disaccharide, whereas the trisaccharide was consistently very scarce. Tetrasaccharide : disaccharide ratios varied interspecifically, but with no consistent difference between subgenera. Xyloglucan was scarce in Psilotum and subgenus Equisetum, but abundant in subgenus Hippochaete and in the eusporangiate ferns Marattia and Angiopteris; leptosporangiate ferns varied widely. All monilophytes shared a core pattern of xyloglucan repeat-units, major XEG products co-chromatographing on thin-layer chromatography with non-fucosylated hepta-, octa- and nonasaccharides and fucose-containing nona- and decasaccharides. CONCLUSIONS G4G4G3G is the ancestral repeat-unit of horsetail MLG. Horsetail evolution was accompanied by quantitative and qualitative modification of MLG; variation within subgenus Hippochaete suggests that the structure and biosynthesis of MLG is evolutionarily plastic. Xyloglucan quantity correlates negatively with abundance of other hemicelluloses; but qualitatively, all monilophyte xyloglucans conform to a core pattern of repeat-unit sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stephen C. Fry
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Daniel Rutherford Building, The King's Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JH, UK
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Harvey DJ. Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: an update for 2007-2008. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2012; 31:183-311. [PMID: 21850673 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2010] [Revised: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This review is the fifth update of the original review, published in 1999, on the application of MALDI mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2008. The first section of the review covers fundamental studies, fragmentation of carbohydrate ions, use of derivatives and new software developments for analysis of carbohydrate spectra. Among newer areas of method development are glycan arrays, MALDI imaging and the use of ion mobility spectrometry. The second section of the review discusses applications of MALDI MS to the analysis of different types of carbohydrate. Specific compound classes that are covered include carbohydrate polymers from plants, N- and O-linked glycans from glycoproteins, biopharmaceuticals, glycated proteins, glycolipids, glycosides and various other natural products. There is a short section on the use of MALDI mass spectrometry for the study of enzymes involved in glycan processing and a section on the use of MALDI MS to monitor products of the chemical synthesis of carbohydrates with emphasis on carbohydrate-protein complexes and glycodendrimers. Corresponding analyses by electrospray ionization now appear to outnumber those performed by MALDI and the amount of literature makes a comprehensive review on this technique impractical. However, most of the work relating to sample preparation and glycan synthesis is equally relevant to electrospray and, consequently, those proposing analyses by electrospray should also find material in this review of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harvey
- Oxford Glycobiology Institute, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK.
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Balbuena TS, He R, Salvato F, Gang DR, Thelen JJ. Large-scale proteome comparative analysis of developing rhizomes of the ancient vascular plant equisetum hyemale. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:131. [PMID: 22740841 PMCID: PMC3382741 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/01/2012] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Horsetail (Equisetum hyemale) is a widespread vascular plant species, whose reproduction is mainly dependent on the growth and development of the rhizomes. Due to its key evolutionary position, the identification of factors that could be involved in the existence of the rhizomatous trait may contribute to a better understanding of the role of this underground organ for the successful propagation of this and other plant species. In the present work, we characterized the proteome of E. hyemale rhizomes using a GeLC-MS spectral-counting proteomics strategy. A total of 1,911 and 1,860 non-redundant proteins were identified in the rhizomes apical tip and elongation zone, respectively. Rhizome-characteristic proteins were determined by comparisons of the developing rhizome tissues to developing roots. A total of 87 proteins were found to be up-regulated in both horsetail rhizome tissues in relation to developing roots. Hierarchical clustering indicated a vast dynamic range in the regulation of the 87 characteristic proteins and revealed, based on the regulation profile, the existence of nine major protein groups. Gene ontology analyses suggested an over-representation of the terms involved in macromolecular and protein biosynthetic processes, gene expression, and nucleotide and protein binding functions. Spatial difference analysis between the rhizome apical tip and the elongation zone revealed that only eight proteins were up-regulated in the apical tip including RNA-binding proteins and an acyl carrier protein, as well as a KH domain protein and a T-complex subunit; while only seven proteins were up-regulated in the elongation zone including phosphomannomutase, galactomannan galactosyltransferase, endoglucanase 10 and 25, and mannose-1-phosphate guanyltransferase subunits alpha and beta. This is the first large-scale characterization of the proteome of a plant rhizome. Implications of the findings were discussed in relation to other underground organs and related species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Santana Balbuena
- Department of Biochemistry, Interdisciplinary Plant Group, Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of MissouriColumbia, MO, USA
- Institute of Biology, State University of CampinasCampinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Tiago Santana Balbuena, Instituto de Biologia-Bloco J, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Rua Monteiro Lobato 970, CEP 13.083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. e-mail:
| | - Ruifeng He
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State UniversityPullman, WA, USA
| | - Fernanda Salvato
- Department of Biochemistry, Interdisciplinary Plant Group, Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of MissouriColumbia, MO, USA
| | - David R. Gang
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State UniversityPullman, WA, USA
| | - Jay J. Thelen
- Department of Biochemistry, Interdisciplinary Plant Group, Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, University of MissouriColumbia, MO, USA
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Zhang SJ, Song XQ, Yu BS, Zhang BC, Sun CQ, Knox JP, Zhou YH. Identification of quantitative trait loci affecting hemicellulose characteristics based on cell wall composition in a wild and cultivated rice species. MOLECULAR PLANT 2012; 5:162-75. [PMID: 21914650 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssr076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Cell wall hemicellulosic polysaccharides are structurally complex and diverse. Knowledge about the synthesis of cell wall hemicelluloses and their biological roles is limited. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping is a helpful tool for the dissection of complex phenotypes for gene identification. In this study, we exploited the natural variation in cell wall monosaccharide levels between a common wild rice, Yuanj, and an elite indica cultivar, Teqing, and performed QTL mapping with their introgression lines (ILs). Chemical analyses conducted on the culms of Yuanj and Teqing showed that the major alterations are found in glucose and xylose levels, which are correlated with specific hemicellulosic polymers. Glycosidic linkage examination revealed that, in Yuanj, an increase in glucose content results from a higher level of mixed linkage β-glucan (MLG), whereas a reduction in xylose content reflects a low level of xylan backbone and a varied arabinoxylan (AX) structure. Seventeen QTLs for monosaccharides have been identified through composition analysis of the culm residues of 95 core ILs. Four major QTLs affecting xylose and glucose levels are responsible for 19 and 21% of the phenotypic variance, respectively. This study provides a unique resource for the genetic dissection of rice cell wall formation and remodeling in the vegetative organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Ju Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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Bar-Peled M, Urbanowicz BR, O’Neill MA. The Synthesis and Origin of the Pectic Polysaccharide Rhamnogalacturonan II - Insights from Nucleotide Sugar Formation and Diversity. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:92. [PMID: 22639675 PMCID: PMC3355719 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
There is compelling evidence showing that the structurally complex pectic polysaccharide rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) exists in the primary cell wall as a borate cross-linked dimer and that this dimer is required for the assembly of a functional wall and for normal plant growth and development. The results of several studies have also established that RG-II structure and cross-linking is conserved in vascular plants and that RG-II likely appeared early in the evolution of land plants. Two features that distinguish RG-II from other plant polysaccharides are that RG-II is composed of 13 different glycoses linked to each other by up to 22 different glycosidic linkages and that RG-II is the only polysaccharide known to contain both apiose and aceric acid. Thus, one key event in land plant evolution was the emergence of genes encoding nucleotide sugar biosynthetic enzymes that generate the activated forms of apiose and aceric acid required for RG-II synthesis. Many of the genes involved in the generation of the nucleotide sugars used for RG-II synthesis have been functionally characterized. By contrast, only one glycosyltransferase involved in the assembly of RG-II has been identified. Here we provide an overview of the formation of the activated sugars required for RG-II synthesis and point to the possible cellular and metabolic processes that could be involved in assembling and controlling the formation of a borate cross-linked RG-II molecule. We discuss how nucleotide sugar synthesis is compartmentalized and how this may control the flux of precursors to facilitate and regulate the formation of RG-II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maor Bar-Peled
- Department of Plant Biology, Complex Carbohydrate Research, The University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
- *Correspondence: Maor Bar-Peled, Department of Plant Biology, Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA 30602, USA. e-mail:
| | | | - Malcolm A. O’Neill
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, The University of GeorgiaAthens, GA, USA
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Sørensen I, Pettolino FA, Bacic A, Ralph J, Lu F, O'Neill MA, Fei Z, Rose JKC, Domozych DS, Willats WGT. The charophycean green algae provide insights into the early origins of plant cell walls. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 68:201-11. [PMID: 21707800 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2011.04686.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Numerous evolutionary innovations were required to enable freshwater green algae to colonize terrestrial habitats and thereby initiate the evolution of land plants (embryophytes). These adaptations probably included changes in cell-wall composition and architecture that were to become essential for embryophyte development and radiation. However, it is not known to what extent the polymers that are characteristic of embryophyte cell walls, including pectins, hemicelluloses, glycoproteins and lignin, evolved in response to the demands of the terrestrial environment or whether they pre-existed in their algal ancestors. Here we show that members of the advanced charophycean green algae (CGA), including the Charales, Coleochaetales and Zygnematales, but not basal CGA (Klebsormidiales and Chlorokybales), have cell walls that are comparable in several respects to the primary walls of embryophytes. Moreover, we provide both chemical and immunocytochemical evidence that selected Coleochaete species have cell walls that contain small amounts of lignin or lignin-like polymers derived from radical coupling of hydroxycinnamyl alcohols. Thus, the ability to synthesize many of the components that characterize extant embryophyte walls evolved during divergence within CGA. Our study provides new insight into the evolutionary window during which the structurally complex walls of embryophytes originated, and the significance of the advanced CGA during these events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iben Sørensen
- Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, DK-1871 Copenhagen, Denmark
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Leroux O, Knox JP, Masschaele B, Bagniewska-Zadworna A, Marcus SE, Claeys M, van Hoorebeke L, Viane RLL. An extensin-rich matrix lines the carinal canals in Equisetum ramosissimum, which may function as water-conducting channels. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2011; 108:307-19. [PMID: 21752793 PMCID: PMC3143055 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcr161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The anatomy of Equisetum stems is characterized by the occurrence of vallecular and carinal canals. Previous studies on the carinal canals in several Equisetum species suggest that they convey water from one node to another. METHODS Cell wall composition and ultrastructure have been studied using immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy, respectively. Serial sectioning and X-ray computed tomography were employed to examine the internode-node-internode transition of Equisetum ramosissimum. KEY RESULTS The distribution of the LM1 and JIM20 extensin epitopes is restricted to the lining of carinal canals. The monoclonal antibodies JIM5 and LM19 directed against homogalacturonan with a low degree of methyl esterification and the CBM3a probe recognizing crystalline cellulose also bound to this lining. The xyloglucan epitopes recognized by LM15 and CCRC-M1 were only detected in this lining after pectate lyase treatment. The carinal canals, connecting consecutive rings of nodal xylem, are formed by the disruption and dissolution of protoxylem elements during elongation of the internodes. Their inner surface appears smooth compared with that of vallecular canals. CONCLUSIONS The carinal canals in E. ramosissimum have a distinctive lining containing pectic homogalacturonan, cellulose, xyloglucan and extensin. These canals might function as water-conducting channels which would be especially important during the elongation of the internodes when protoxylem is disrupted and the metaxylem is not yet differentiated. How the molecularly distinct lining relates to the proposed water-conducting function of the carinal canals requires further study. Efforts to elucidate the spatial and temporal distribution of cell wall polymers in a taxonomically broad range of plants will probably provide more insight into the structural-functional relationships of individual cell wall components or of specific configurations of cell wall polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Leroux
- Pteridology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, KL Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Law C, Exley C. New insight into silica deposition in horsetail (Equisetum arvense). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 11:112. [PMID: 21801378 PMCID: PMC3160890 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-11-112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The horsetails (Equisetum sp) are known biosilicifiers though the mechanism underlying silica deposition in these plants remains largely unknown. Tissue extracts from horsetails grown hydroponically and also collected from the wild were acid-digested in a microwave oven and their silica 'skeletons' visualised using the fluor, PDMPO, and fluorescence microscopy. RESULTS Silica deposits were observed in all plant regions from the rhizome through to the stem, leaf and spores. Numerous structures were silicified including cell walls, cell plates, plasmodesmata, and guard cells and stomata at varying stages of differentiation. All of the major sites of silica deposition in horsetail mimicked sites and structures where the hemicellulose, callose is known to be found and these serendipitous observations of the coincidence of silica and callose raised the possibility that callose might be templating silica deposition in horsetail. Hydroponic culture of horsetail in the absence of silicic acid resulted in normal healthy plants which, following acid digestion, showed no deposition of silica anywhere in their tissues. To test the hypothesis that callose might be templating silica deposition in horsetail commercially available callose was mixed with undersaturated and saturated solutions of silicic acid and the formation of silica was demonstrated by fluorimetry and fluorescence microscopy. CONCLUSIONS The initiation of silica formation by callose is the first example whereby any biomolecule has been shown to induce, as compared to catalyse, the formation of silica in an undersaturated solution of silicic acid. This novel discovery allowed us to speculate that callose and its associated biochemical machinery could be a missing link in our understanding of biosilicification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinnoi Law
- The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Christopher Exley
- The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
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80
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Moller IE, De Fine Licht HH, Harholt J, Willats WGT, Boomsma JJ. The dynamics of plant cell-wall polysaccharide decomposition in leaf-cutting ant fungus gardens. PLoS One 2011; 6:e17506. [PMID: 21423735 PMCID: PMC3053354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2010] [Accepted: 02/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The degradation of live plant biomass in fungus gardens of leaf-cutting ants is poorly characterised but fundamental for understanding the mutual advantages and efficiency of this obligate nutritional symbiosis. Controversies about the extent to which the garden-symbiont Leucocoprinus gongylophorus degrades cellulose have hampered our understanding of the selection forces that induced large scale herbivory and of the ensuing ecological footprint of these ants. Here we use a recently established technique, based on polysaccharide microarrays probed with antibodies and carbohydrate binding modules, to map the occurrence of cell wall polymers in consecutive sections of the fungus garden of the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex echinatior. We show that pectin, xyloglucan and some xylan epitopes are degraded, whereas more highly substituted xylan and cellulose epitopes remain as residuals in the waste material that the ants remove from their fungus garden. These results demonstrate that biomass entering leaf-cutting ant fungus gardens is only partially utilized and explain why disproportionally large amounts of plant material are needed to sustain colony growth. They also explain why substantial communities of microbial and invertebrate symbionts have evolved associations with the dump material from leaf-cutting ant nests, to exploit decomposition niches that the ant garden-fungus does not utilize. Our approach thus provides detailed insight into the nutritional benefits and shortcomings associated with fungus-farming in ants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel E Moller
- Copenhagen Biocenter, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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81
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Leroux O, Bagniewska-Zadworna A, Rambe SK, Knox JP, Marcus SE, Bellefroid E, Stubbe D, Chabbert B, Habrant A, Claeys M, Viane RLL. Non-lignified helical cell wall thickenings in root cortical cells of Aspleniaceae (Polypodiales): histology and taxonomical significance. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2011; 107:195-207. [PMID: 21118842 PMCID: PMC3025727 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcq225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Extraxylary helical cell wall thickenings in vascular plants are not well documented, except for those in orchid velamen tissues which have been studied extensively. Reports on their occurrence in ferns exist, but detailed information is missing. The aim of this study is to focus on the broad patterns of structure and composition and to study the taxonomic occurrence of helical cell wall thickenings in the fern family Aspleniaceae. METHODS Structural and compositional aspects of roots have been examined by means of light, electron, epifluorescence and laser scanning confocal microscopy. To assess the taxonomical distribution of helical cell wall thickenings a molecular phylogenetic analysis based on rbcL sequences of 64 taxa was performed. KEY RESULTS The helical cell wall thickenings of all examined species showed considerable uniformity of design. The pattern consists of helical, regularly bifurcating and anastomosing strands. Compositionally, the cell wall thickenings were found to be rich in homogalacturonan, cellulose, mannan and xyloglucan. Thioacidolysis confirmed our negative phloroglucinol staining tests, demonstrating the absence of lignins in the root cortex. All taxa with helical cell wall thickenings formed a monophyletic group supported by a 100 % bootstrap value and composed of mainly epiphytic species. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report of non-lignified pectin-rich secondary cell walls in ferns. Based on our molecular analysis, we reject the hypothesis of parallel evolution of helical cell wall thickenings in Aspleniaceae. Helical cell wall thickenings can mechanically stabilize the cortex tissue, allowing maximal uptake of water and nutrients during rainfall events. In addition, it can also act as a boundary layer increasing the diffusive pathway towards the atmosphere, preventing desiccation of the stele of epiphytic growing species.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. Leroux
- Pteridology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - A. Bagniewska-Zadworna
- Department of General Botany, Institute of Experimental Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - S. K. Rambe
- NSSE–Biology, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Walk 1, 637616, Singapore
| | - J. P. Knox
- Centre for Plant Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - S. E. Marcus
- Centre for Plant Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - E. Bellefroid
- Pteridology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - D. Stubbe
- Research Group Mycology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - B. Chabbert
- URCA, UMR Fractionnement Agroressources & Environment 614, F-51686 Reims, France
| | - A. Habrant
- URCA, UMR Fractionnement Agroressources & Environment 614, F-51686 Reims, France
| | - M. Claeys
- Nematology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - R. L. L. Viane
- Pteridology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- For correspondence. E-mail
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82
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Burton RA, Collins HM, Kibble NAJ, Smith JA, Shirley NJ, Jobling SA, Henderson M, Singh RR, Pettolino F, Wilson SM, Bird AR, Topping DL, Bacic A, Fincher GB. Over-expression of specific HvCslF cellulose synthase-like genes in transgenic barley increases the levels of cell wall (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucans and alters their fine structure. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2011; 9:117-35. [PMID: 20497371 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7652.2010.00532.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cell walls in commercially important cereals and grasses are characterized by the presence of (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucans. These polysaccharides are beneficial constituents of human diets, where they can reduce the risk of hypercholesterolemia, type II diabetes, obesity and colorectal cancer. The biosynthesis of cell wall (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucans in the Poaceae is mediated, in part at least, by the cellulose synthase-like CslF family of genes. Over-expression of the barley CslF6 gene under the control of an endosperm-specific oat globulin promoter results in increases of more than 80% in (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucan content in grain of transgenic barley. Analyses of (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucan fine structure indicate that individual CslF enzymes might direct the synthesis of (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucans with different structures. When expression of the CslF6 transgene is driven by the Pro35S promoter, the transgenic lines have up to sixfold higher levels of (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucan in leaves, but similar levels as controls in the grain. Some transgenic lines of Pro35S:CslF4 also show increased levels of (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucans in grain, but not in leaves. Thus, the effects of CslF genes on (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucan levels are dependent not only on the promoter used, but also on the specific member of the CslF gene family that is inserted into the transgenic barley lines. Altering (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucan levels in grain and vegetative tissues will have potential applications in human health, where (1,3;1,4)-β-d-glucans contribute to dietary fibre, and in tailoring the composition of biomass cell walls for the production of bioethanol from cereal crop residues and grasses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Burton
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, and the Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, Australia
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83
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Abstract
Plant cells are surrounded by cell walls built largely from complex carbohydrates. The primary walls of growing plant cells consist of interdependent networks of three polysaccharide classes: cellulose, cross-linking glycans (also known as hemicelluloses), and pectins. Cellulose microfibrils are tethered together by cross-linking glycans, and this assembly forms the major load-bearing component of primary walls, which is infiltrated with pectic polymers. In the secondary walls of woody tissues, pectins are much reduced and walls are reinforced with the phenolic polymer lignin. Plant cell walls are essential for plant life and also have numerous industrial applications, ranging from wood to nutraceuticals. Enhancing our knowledge of cell wall biology and the effective use of cell wall materials is dependent to a large extent on being able to analyse their fine structures. We have developed a suite of techniques based on microarrays probed with monoclonal antibodies with specificity for cell wall components, and here we present practical protocols for this type of analysis.
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84
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Carpita NC. Update on mechanisms of plant cell wall biosynthesis: how plants make cellulose and other (1->4)-β-D-glycans. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 155:171-84. [PMID: 21051553 PMCID: PMC3075763 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.163360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Carpita
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, and Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2054, USA.
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85
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Guillon F, Bouchet B, Jamme F, Robert P, Quéméner B, Barron C, Larré C, Dumas P, Saulnier L. Brachypodium distachyon grain: characterization of endosperm cell walls. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2011; 62:1001-15. [PMID: 21062963 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erq332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The wild grass Brachypodium distachyon has been proposed as an alternative model species for temperate cereals. The present paper reports on the characterization of B. distachyon grain, placing emphasis on endosperm cell walls. Brachypodium distachyon is notable for its high cell wall polysaccharide content that accounts for ∼52% (w/w) of the endosperm in comparison with 2-7% (w/w) in other cereals. Starch, the typical storage polysaccharide, is low [<10% (w/w)] in the endosperm where the main polysaccharide is (1-3) (1-4)-β-glucan [40% (w/w) of the endosperm], which in all likelihood plays a role as a storage compound. In addition to (1-3) (1-4)-β-glucan, endosperm cells contain cellulose and xylan in significant amounts. Interestingly, the ratio of ferulic acid to arabinoxylan is higher in B. distachyon grain than in other investigated cereals. Feruloylated arabinoxylan is mainly found in the middle lamella and cell junction zones of the storage endosperm, suggesting a potential role in cell-cell adhesion. The present results indicate that B. distachyon grains contain all the cell wall polysaccharides encountered in other cereal grains. Thus, due to its fully sequenced genome, its short life cycle, and the genetic tools available for mutagenesis/transformation, B. distachyon is a good model to investigate cell wall polysaccharide synthesis and function in cereal grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Guillon
- INRA UR1268 Biopolymers, Interactions Assemblies, F-44316 Nantes, France.
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86
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Abstract
In today's field of plant cell wall research, insights into the structure of wall components are obtained using many different techniques, ranging from spectroscopic and microscopic to chemical and biochemical. In this chapter, we describe one method: oligosaccharide mass profiling (OLIMP). Using OLIMP, we can harness the selective power of a specific wall hydrolase together with the speed and sensitivity of mass spectrometry to provide highly reproducible structural and compositional information about the wall molecule of interest.
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87
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Popper ZA, Michel G, Hervé C, Domozych DS, Willats WGT, Tuohy MG, Kloareg B, Stengel DB. Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: from algae to flowering plants. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 62:567-90. [PMID: 21351878 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 409] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
All photosynthetic multicellular Eukaryotes, including land plants and algae, have cells that are surrounded by a dynamic, complex, carbohydrate-rich cell wall. The cell wall exerts considerable biological and biomechanical control over individual cells and organisms, thus playing a key role in their environmental interactions. This has resulted in compositional variation that is dependent on developmental stage, cell type, and season. Further variation is evident that has a phylogenetic basis. Plants and algae have a complex phylogenetic history, including acquisition of genes responsible for carbohydrate synthesis and modification through a series of primary (leading to red algae, green algae, and land plants) and secondary (generating brown algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates) endosymbiotic events. Therefore, organisms that have the shared features of photosynthesis and possession of a cell wall do not form a monophyletic group. Yet they contain some common wall components that can be explained increasingly by genetic and biochemical evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoë A Popper
- Botany and Plant Science, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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88
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Collins HM, Burton RA, Topping DL, Liao M, Bacic A, Fincher GB. REVIEW: Variability in Fine Structures of Noncellulosic Cell Wall Polysaccharides from Cereal Grains: Potential Importance in Human Health and Nutrition. Cereal Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1094/cchem-87-4-0272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Helen M. Collins
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - Rachel A. Burton
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
| | - David L. Topping
- CSIRO Food Futures National Research Flagship, Kintore Avenue, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Ming‐Long Liao
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Geoffrey B. Fincher
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
- Corresponding author. Fax +61‐8‐8303‐7102. E‐mail:
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89
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Schädel C, Richter A, Blöchl A, Hoch G. Hemicellulose concentration and composition in plant cell walls under extreme carbon source-sink imbalances. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2010; 139:241-255. [PMID: 20113432 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2010.01360.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Hemicelluloses account for one-quarter of the global dry plant biomass and therefore are the second most abundant biomass fraction after cellulose. Despite their quantitative significance, the responsiveness of hemicelluloses to atmospheric carbon oversupply is still largely unknown, although hemicelluloses could serve as carbon sinks with increasing CO(2) concentrations. This study aimed at clarifying the role hemicelluloses play as carbon sinks, analogous to non-structural carbohydrates (NSC), by experimentally manipulating the plants' carbon supply. Sixteen plant species from four different plant functional types (grasses, herbs, seedlings of broad-leaved trees and conifers) were grown for 2 months in greenhouses at either extremely low (140 ppm), medium (280 ppm) or high (560 ppm) atmospheric CO(2) concentrations, thus inducing situations of massive C-limitation or -oversupply. Above and belowground biomass as well as NSC significantly increased in all species and tissues with increasing CO(2) concentrations. Increasing CO(2) concentrations had no significant effect on total hemicellulose concentrations in leaves and woody tissues in all species, except for two out of four grass species, where hemicellulose concentrations increased with atmospheric CO(2) supply. Despite the overall stable total hemicellulose concentrations, the monosaccharide spectra of hemicelluloses showed a significant increase in glucose monomers in leaves of woody species as C-supply increased. In summary, total hemicellulose concentrations in de novo built biomass seem to be largely unaffected by changed atmospheric CO(2) concentrations, while significant increases of hemicellulose-derived glucose with increasing CO(2) concentrations in leaves of broad-leaved and conifer tree seedlings showed differential responses among the different hemicellulose classes in response to varying CO(2) concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Schädel
- Institute of Botany, University of Basel, Schönbeinstrasse 6, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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90
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Popper ZA, Tuohy MG. Beyond the green: understanding the evolutionary puzzle of plant and algal cell walls. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:373-83. [PMID: 20421458 PMCID: PMC2879814 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.158055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2010] [Accepted: 04/26/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zoë A Popper
- Botany and Plant Science , School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
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91
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Sørensen I, Domozych D, Willats WG. How have plant cell walls evolved? PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:366-72. [PMID: 20431088 PMCID: PMC2879805 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.154427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/28/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - William G.T. Willats
- Department of Plant Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Buelowsvej 17–1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark (I.S., W.G.T.W.); Department of Biology and Skidmore Microscopy Imaging Center, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York 12866 (D.D.)
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92
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Geshi N, Petersen BL, Scheller HV. Toward tailored synthesis of functional polysaccharides in plants. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1190:50-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05267.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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93
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Alonso-Simón A, Kristensen JB, Obro J, Felby C, Willats WGT, Jørgensen H. High-throughput microarray profiling of cell wall polymers during hydrothermal pre-treatment of wheat straw. Biotechnol Bioeng 2010; 105:509-14. [PMID: 19777595 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Lignocellulosic plant material is potentially a sustainable source of fermentable sugars for bioethanol production. However, a barrier to this is the high resistance or recalcitrance of plant cell walls to be hydrolyzed. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of the structural features of plant cell walls that contribute to recalcitrance is important for improving the efficiency of bioethanol production. In this work we have used a technique known as Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling (CoMPP) to analyze wheat straw before and after being subjected to hydrothermal pre-treatments at four different temperatures. The CoMPP technique combines the specificity of monoclonal antibodies with the high-throughput capacity of microarrays. Changes in the relative abundance of cell wall polysaccharides could be tracked during processing, and a reduction in xylan, arabinoxylans, xyloglucan, and mixed-linked glucan epitopes was detected at the two highest temperatures of pre-treatment used. This work demonstrates the potential of CoMPP as a complementally technique to conventional methods for analyzing biomass composition.
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94
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Abstract
Hemicelluloses are polysaccharides in plant cell walls that have beta-(1-->4)-linked backbones with an equatorial configuration. Hemicelluloses include xyloglucans, xylans, mannans and glucomannans, and beta-(1-->3,1-->4)-glucans. These types of hemicelluloses are present in the cell walls of all terrestrial plants, except for beta-(1-->3,1-->4)-glucans, which are restricted to Poales and a few other groups. The detailed structure of the hemicelluloses and their abundance vary widely between different species and cell types. The most important biological role of hemicelluloses is their contribution to strengthening the cell wall by interaction with cellulose and, in some walls, with lignin. These features are discussed in relation to widely accepted models of the primary wall. Hemicelluloses are synthesized by glycosyltransferases located in the Golgi membranes. Many glycosyltransferases needed for biosynthesis of xyloglucans and mannans are known. In contrast, the biosynthesis of xylans and beta-(1-->3,1-->4)-glucans remains very elusive, and recent studies have led to more questions than answers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Vibe Scheller
- Feedstocks Division, Joint BioEnergy Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Emeryville, California 94608, USA.
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95
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Christensen U, Alonso-Simon A, Scheller HV, Willats WGT, Harholt J. Characterization of the primary cell walls of seedlings of Brachypodium distachyon--a potential model plant for temperate grasses. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2010; 71:62-9. [PMID: 19828160 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2009] [Revised: 09/16/2009] [Accepted: 09/16/2009] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The genome of Brachypodium distachyon, also known as purple false brome, was fully sequenced in 2008 largely in response to the demand for a model plant for temperate grasses. A comparative study of the primary cell walls of seedlings of B. distachyon, Hordeum vulgare and Triticum aestivum was carried out. The cell walls of the three species were characterized by similar relative levels of, and developmental changes in, hemicelluloses. The occurrence of (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans was correlated with phases of growth involving cell elongation. Expression profiling of the genes involved in (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan synthesis (cellulose synthase-like F family (CSLF), CSLH and a putative synthase gene CSLJ) did not show a transcriptional regulation that corresponded to the abundance of (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans. CSLF6 transcripts were similarly highly expressed in all three grasses, and were much more abundant than any of the other transcripts. The CSLH transcript was relatively abundant in B. distachyon but almost undetectable in the other species. The deposition of arabinoxylans increased steadily during seedling growth in all three grasses, but they became less substituted and more cross-linked into the wall matrix during cell maturation. Moreover, arabinoxylans in B. distachyon differed from the two other grasses in having a lower degree of arabinose substitution, a higher percentage of ferulic acid in form of dimers and a larger proportion of ester-linked p-coumaric acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulla Christensen
- University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, VKR-Centre ProActive Plants, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
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96
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Schädel C, Blöchl A, Richter A, Hoch G. Quantification and monosaccharide composition of hemicelluloses from different plant functional types. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2010; 48:1-8. [PMID: 19926487 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2009.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Hemicelluloses are the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature after cellulose. So far, the chemical heterogeneity of cell-wall hemicelluloses and the relatively large sample-volume required in existing methods represent major obstacles for large-scale, cross-species analyses of this important plant compound. Here, we apply a new micro-extraction method to analyse hemicelluloses and the ratio of 'cellulose and lignin' to hemicelluloses in different tissues of 28 plant species comprising four plant functional types (broad-leaved trees, conifers, grasses and herbs). For this study, the fiber analysis after Van Soest was modified to enable the simultaneous quantitative and qualitative measurements of hemicelluloses in small sample volumes. Total hemicellulose concentrations differed markedly among functional types and tissues with highest concentration in sapwood of broad-leaved trees (31% d.m. in Fraxinus excelsior) and lowest concentration between 10 and 15% d.m. in leaves and bark of woody species as well as in roots of herbs. As for total hemicellulose concentrations, plant functional types and tissues exhibited characteristic ratios between the sum of cellulose plus lignin and hemicelluloses, with very high ratios (>4) in bark of trees and low ratios (<2) in all investigated leaves. Additional HPLC analyses of hydrolysed hemicelluloses showed xylose to be the dominant hemicellulose monosaccharide in tissues of broad-leaved trees, grasses and herbs while coniferous species showed higher amounts of arabinose, galactose and mannose. Overall, the micro-extraction method permitted for the simultaneous determination of hemicelluloses of various tissues and plant functional types which exhibited characteristic hemicellulose concentrations and monosaccharide patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Schädel
- Institute of Botany, University of Basel, Switzerland, Schönbeinstrasse 6, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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Burton RA, Fincher GB. (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans in cell walls of the poaceae, lower plants, and fungi: a tale of two linkages. MOLECULAR PLANT 2009; 2:873-82. [PMID: 19825664 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssp063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
(1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans consist of unbranched and unsubstituted chains of (1,3)- and (1,4)-beta-glucosyl residues, in which the ratio of (1,4)-beta-D-glucosyl residues to (1,3)-beta-D-glucosyl residues appears to influence not only the physicochemical properties of the polysaccharide and therefore its functional properties in cell walls, but also its adoption by different plant species during evolution. The (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans are widely distributed as non-cellulosic matrix phase polysaccharides in cell walls of the Poaceae, which evolved relatively recently and consist of the grasses and commercially important cereal species, but they are less commonly found in lower vascular plants, such as the horsetails, in algae and in fungi. The (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans have often been considered to be components mainly of primary cell walls, but recent observations indicate that they can also be located in secondary walls of certain tissues. Enzymes involved in the depolymerisation of (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans have been well characterized. In contrast, initial difficulties in purifying the enzymes responsible for (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan biosynthesis slowed progress in the identification of the genes that encode (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan synthases, but emerging comparative genomics and associated techniques have allowed at least some of the genes that contribute to (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan synthesis in the Poaceae to be identified. Whether similar genes and enzymes also mediate (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan biosynthesis in lower plants and fungi is not yet known. Here, we compare the different fine structures of (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans across the plant kingdom, present current information on the genes that have been implicated recently in their biosynthesis, and consider aspects of the cell biology of (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan biosynthesis in the Poaceae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Burton
- The Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
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Schädel C, Blöchl A, Richter A, Hoch G. Short-term dynamics of nonstructural carbohydrates and hemicelluloses in young branches of temperate forest trees during bud break. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 29:901-911. [PMID: 19457884 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpp034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC) are the most important C reserves in the tissues of deciduous and evergreen tree species. Besides NSC, cell-wall hemicelluloses as the second most abundant polysaccharides in plants have often been discussed to serve as additional mobile carbon (C) reserves during periods of enhanced carbon-sink activities. To assess the significance of hemicelluloses as mobile carbon reserves, branches of two deciduous (Carpinus betulus L. and Fagus sylvatica L.) and two evergreen (Picea abies L. and Pinus sylvestris L.) tree species were sampled in a mature mixed forest stand in short intervals before and during bud break to assess NSC and hemicellulose concentrations in response to the increased carbon demand during bud break. Starch concentrations in branch sapwood of deciduous trees strongly decreased immediately before bud break and increased after bud break. In both evergreen species, only small changes of NSC were found in branch sapwood. However, 1-year-old needles exhibited a significant increase in starch concentration shortly before bud break which declined again after flushing. Hemicellulose concentrations (on an NSC-free dry matter basis) in branch sapwood of Carpinus decreased significantly shortly before bud break, but increased again after bud break. Contrarily, in Fagus branch sapwood, hemicellulose concentrations remained constant during bud break. Moderate increases of total hemicellulose concentrations before bud break were found in 1-year-old needles of both conifers, which could be explained by an accumulation of glucose units within the hemicellulose fraction. Overall, cell-wall hemicelluloses appeared to respond in a species-specific manner to the enhanced carbon demand during bud break. Hemicelluloses in branch sapwood of Carpinus and in 1-year-old needles of conifers likely act as additional carbon reserves similar to starch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Schädel
- Institute of Botany, University of Basel, Schönbeinstrasse 6, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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Doblin MS, Pettolino FA, Wilson SM, Campbell R, Burton RA, Fincher GB, Newbigin E, Bacic A. A barley cellulose synthase-like CSLH gene mediates (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan synthesis in transgenic Arabidopsis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:5996-6001. [PMID: 19321749 PMCID: PMC2667043 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0902019106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The walls of grasses and related members of the Poales are characterized by the presence of the polysaccharide (1,3, 1,4)-beta-D-glucan (beta-glucan). To date, only members of the grass-specific cellulose synthase-like F (CSLF) gene family have been implicated in its synthesis. Assuming that other grass-specific CSL genes also might encode synthases for this polysaccharide, we cloned HvCSLH1, a CSLH gene from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), and expressed an epitope-tagged version of the cDNA in Arabidopsis, a species with no CSLH genes and no beta-glucan in its walls. Transgenic Arabidopsis lines that had detectable amounts of the epitope-tagged HvCSLH1 protein accumulated beta-glucan in their walls. The presence of beta-glucan was confirmed by immunoelectron microscopy (immuno-EM) of sectioned tissues and chemical analysis of wall extracts. In the chemical analysis, characteristic tri- and tetra-saccharides were identified by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography and MALDI-TOF MS following their release from transgenic Arabidopsis walls by a specific beta-glucan hydrolase. Immuno-EM also was used to show that the epitope-tagged HvCSLH1 protein was in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi-associated vesicles, but not in the plasma membrane. In barley, HvCSLH1 was expressed at very low levels in leaf, floral tissues, and the developing grain. In leaf, expression was highest in xylem and interfascicular fiber cells that have walls with secondary thickenings containing beta-glucan. Thus both the CSLH and CSLF families contribute to beta-glucan synthesis in grasses and probably do so independently of each other, because there is no significant transcriptional correlation between these genes in the barley tissues surveyed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika S. Doblin
- Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Filomena A. Pettolino
- Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Sarah M. Wilson
- Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Rebecca Campbell
- Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Rachel A. Burton
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Agriculture and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; and
| | - Geoffrey B. Fincher
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Agriculture and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia; and
| | - Ed Newbigin
- Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Antony Bacic
- Plant Cell Biology Research Centre, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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100
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Fincher GB. Exploring the evolution of (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans in plant cell walls: comparative genomics can help! CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2009; 12:140-7. [PMID: 19168383 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2009.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Revised: 01/05/2009] [Accepted: 01/05/2009] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
A key distinguishing feature of the grasses is that their cell walls contain (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans, which are distributed almost exclusively within the Poaceae. The identification of genes that mediate in (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan biosynthesis has been possible through relatively recent genome sequencing programmes and comparative genomics techniques. The evolution of a single new gene appears to have been sufficient for the first synthesis of (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucans and there is compelling evidence that existing hydrolytic enzymes were adapted for the specific hydrolysis of the polysaccharide during wall turnover or degradation. Manipulation of the expression levels of genes involved in (1,3;1,4)-beta-D-glucan synthesis is likely to provide opportunities to enhance the value of grasses and cereals in commercial applications such as human nutrition and biofuel production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey B Fincher
- Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia.
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