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Dancik Y, Troutman JA, Jaworska J. Estimation of in vivo dose of dermally applied chemicals leading to estrogen/androgen receptor-mediated toxicity from in vitro data--Illustration with four reproductive toxicants. Reprod Toxicol 2015; 55:50-63. [PMID: 25597788 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 12/21/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We present a quantitative in vitro-in vivo extrapolation framework enabling the estimation of the external dermal exposure dose from in vitro experimental data relevant to a toxicity pathway of interest. The framework adapts elements of the biological pathway altering dose (BPAD) method [Judson et al. Chem Res Toxicol 2011;24:451] to the case of dermal exposure. Dermal doses of four toxicants equivalent to concentrations characterizing their effect on estrogen receptor α or androgen receptor activity in chemical-activated luciferase expression (CALUX) assays are estimated. The analysis shows that dermal BPADs, calculated from one in vitro concentration, can differ by up to a factor of 55, due to the impact applied dose and dermal exposure scenarios can have on skin permeation kinetics. These features should therefore be taken into account in risk assessment of dermally applied chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Dancik
- The Procter & Gamble Company, 1853 Strombeek-Bever, Belgium.
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52
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Lairmore MD, Ilkiw J. Animals Used in Research and Education, 1966-2016: Evolving Attitudes, Policies, and Relationships. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICAL EDUCATION 2015; 42:425-440. [PMID: 26673210 DOI: 10.3138/jvme.0615-087r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Since the inception of the Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges (AAVMC), the use of animals in research and education has been a central element of the programs of member institutions. As veterinary education and research programs have evolved over the past 50 years, so too have societal views and regulatory policies. AAVMC member institutions have continually responded to these events by exchanging best practices in training their students in the framework of comparative medicine and the needs of society. Animals provide students and faculty with the tools to learn the fundamental knowledge and skills of veterinary medicine and scientific discovery. The study of animal models has contributed extensively to medicine, veterinary medicine, and basic sciences as these disciplines seek to understand life processes. Changing societal views over the past 50 years have provided active examination and continued refinement of the use of animals in veterinary medical education and research. The future use of animals to educate and train veterinarians will likely continue to evolve as technological advances are applied to experimental design and educational systems. Natural animal models of both human and animal health will undoubtedly continue to serve a significant role in the education of veterinarians and in the development of new treatments of animal and human disease. As it looks to the future, the AAVMC as an organization will need to continue to support and promote best practices in the humane care and appropriate use of animals in both education and research.
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MESH Headings
- Animal Experimentation/history
- Animal Experimentation/legislation & jurisprudence
- Animal Use Alternatives/history
- Animal Use Alternatives/legislation & jurisprudence
- Animal Use Alternatives/trends
- Animal Welfare/history
- Animal Welfare/legislation & jurisprudence
- Animals
- Animals, Laboratory
- Education, Veterinary/history
- Education, Veterinary/methods
- Education, Veterinary/trends
- History, 18th Century
- History, 19th Century
- History, 20th Century
- History, 21st Century
- History, Ancient
- Human-Animal Bond
- Humans
- Models, Animal
- United States
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53
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Lee S, Dong DX, Jindal R, Maguire T, Mitra B, Schloss R, Yarmush M. Predicting full thickness skin sensitization using a support vector machine. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:1413-23. [PMID: 25025180 PMCID: PMC4470375 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
To assess the public's propensity for allergic contact dermatitis (ACD), many alternatives to in vivo chemical screening have been developed which generally incorporate a small panel of cell surface and secreted dendritic cell biomarkers. However, given the underlying complexity of ACD, one cell type and limited cellular metrics may be insufficient to predict contact sensitizers accurately. To identify a molecular signature that can further characterize sensitization, we developed a novel system using RealSkin, a full thickness skin equivalent, in co-culture with MUTZ-3 derived Langerhan's cells. This system was used to distinguish a model moderate pro-hapten isoeugenol (IE) and a model strong pre-hapten p-phenylenediamine (PPD) from irritant, salicylic acid (SA). Commonly evaluated metrics such as CD86, CD54, and IL-8 secretion were assessed, in concert with a 27-cytokine multi-plex screen and a functional chemotaxis assay. Data were analyzed with feature selection methods using ANOVA, hierarchical cluster analysis, and a support vector machine to identify the best molecular signature for sensitization. A panel consisting of IL-12, IL-9, VEGF, and IFN-γ predicted sensitization with over 90% accuracy using this co-culture system analysis. Thus, a multi-metric approach that has the potential to identify a molecular signature may be more predictive of contact sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serom Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States
| | - David Xu Dong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States
| | - Rohit Jindal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States
| | - Tim Maguire
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States
| | - Bhaskar Mitra
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States
| | - Rene Schloss
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States
| | - Martin Yarmush
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States; Center for Engineering in Medicine and the Department of Surgery, Massachusettes General Hospital and the Shriners Burns Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, United States.
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54
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Oesch F, Fabian E, Guth K, Landsiedel R. Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of rat, mouse, pig, guinea pig, man, and in human skin models. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:2135-90. [PMID: 25370008 PMCID: PMC4247477 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1382-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The exposure of the skin to medical drugs, skin care products, cosmetics, and other chemicals renders information on xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XME) in the skin highly interesting. Since the use of freshly excised human skin for experimental investigations meets with ethical and practical limitations, information on XME in models comes in the focus including non-human mammalian species and in vitro skin models. This review attempts to summarize the information available in the open scientific literature on XME in the skin of human, rat, mouse, guinea pig, and pig as well as human primary skin cells, human cell lines, and reconstructed human skin models. The most salient outcome is that much more research on cutaneous XME is needed for solid metabolism-dependent efficacy and safety predictions, and the cutaneous metabolism comparisons have to be viewed with caution. Keeping this fully in mind at least with respect to some cutaneous XME, some models may tentatively be considered to approximate reasonable closeness to human skin. For dermal absorption and for skin irritation among many contributing XME, esterase activity is of special importance, which in pig skin, some human cell lines, and reconstructed skin models appears reasonably close to human skin. With respect to genotoxicity and sensitization, activating XME are not yet judgeable, but reactive metabolite-reducing XME in primary human keratinocytes and several reconstructed human skin models appear reasonably close to human skin. For a more detailed delineation and discussion of the severe limitations see the “Overview and Conclusions” section in the end of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Oesch
- Oesch-Tox Toxicological Consulting and Expert Opinions GmbH&Co.KG, Rheinblick 21, 55263, Wackernheim, Germany
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55
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Nafisi S, Schäfer-Korting M, Maibach HI. Perspectives on percutaneous penetration: Silica nanoparticles. Nanotoxicology 2014; 9:643-57. [DOI: 10.3109/17435390.2014.958115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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56
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Manevski N, Balavenkatraman KK, Bertschi B, Swart P, Walles M, Camenisch G, Schiller H, Kretz O, Ling B, Wettstein R, Schaefer DJ, Pognan F, Wolf A, Litherland K. Aldehyde Oxidase Activity in Fresh Human Skin. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:2049-57. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.060368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Wu Y, Beland FA, Chen S, Fang JL. Extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 and Akt contribute to triclosan-stimulated proliferation of JB6 Cl 41-5a cells. Arch Toxicol 2014; 89:1297-311. [PMID: 25033989 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1308-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Triclosan is a broad spectrum anti-bacterial agent widely used in many personal care products, household items, medical devices, and clinical settings. Human exposure to triclosan is mainly through oral and dermal routes. In previous studies, we found that sub-chronic dermal exposure of B6C3F1 mice to triclosan induced epidermal hyperplasia and focal necrosis; however, the mechanisms for these responses remain elusive. In this study, using mouse epidermis-derived JB6 Cl 41-5a cells, we found that triclosan stimulated cell growth in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Enhanced cell proliferation was demonstrated by a substantial increase in the percentage of BrdU-positive cells, an elevation in the protein levels of cyclin D1 and cyclin A, and a reduction in the protein level of p27(Kip1). Western blotting analysis revealed that triclosan induced the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), p38, and Akt. Pre-treatment of the cells with PD184352, an inhibitor of the upstream kinase MEK1/2, or with wortmannin, an inhibitor of phosphoinositide 3-kinase, blocked triclosan-mediated phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Akt, respectively, and substantially suppressed triclosan-stimulated cell proliferation, whereas the JNK inhibitor SP600125 or the p38 inhibitor SB203580 had little to no effect on triclosan-stimulated cell proliferation. The phosphorylation activation of ERK1/2 and Akt was further confirmed on the skin of mice dermally administered triclosan. These data suggest that the activation of ERK1/2 and Akt is involved in triclosan-stimulated proliferation of JB6 Cl 41-5a cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanfeng Wu
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
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58
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Aires V, Delmas D, Le Bachelier C, Latruffe N, Schlemmer D, Benoist JF, Djouadi F, Bastin J. Stilbenes and resveratrol metabolites improve mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation defects in human fibroblasts. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2014; 9:79. [PMID: 24898617 PMCID: PMC4051957 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1172-9-79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Inborn enzyme defects of mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation (FAO) form a large group of genetic disorders associated to variable clinical presentations ranging from life-threatening pediatric manifestations up to milder late onset phenotypes, including myopathy. Very few candidate drugs have been identified in this group of disorders. Resveratrol (RSV) is a natural polyphenol with anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, recently shown to have beneficial metabolic properties in mice models. Our study explores its possible effects on FAO and mitochondrial energy metabolism in human cells, which are still very little documented. Methods Using cells from controls and from patients with Carnitine Palmitoyl Transferase 2 (CPT2) or Very Long Chain AcylCoA Dehydrogenase (VLCAD) deficiency we characterized the metabolic effects of RSV, RSV metabolites, and other stilbenes. We also focused on analysis of RSV uptake, and on the effects of low RSV concentrations, considering the limited bioavailability of RSV in vivo. Results Time course of RSV accumulation in fibroblasts over 48 h of treatment were consistent with the resulting stimulation or correction of FAO capacities. At 48 h, half maximal and maximal FAO stimulations were respectively achieved for 37,5 microM (EC50) and 75 microM RSV, but we found that serum content of culture medium negatively modulated RSV uptake and FAO induction. Indeed, decreasing serum from 12% to 3% led to shift EC50 from 37,5 to 13 microM, and a 2.6-3.6-fold FAO stimulation was reached with 20 microM RSV at 3% serum, that was absent at 12% serum. Two other stilbenes often found associated with RSV, i.e. cis- RSV and piceid, also triggered significant FAO up-regulation. Resveratrol glucuro- or sulfo- conjugates had modest or no effects. In contrast, dihydro-RSV, one of the most abundant circulating RSV metabolites in human significantly stimulated FAO (1.3-2.3-fold). Conclusions This study provides the first compared data on mitochondrial effects of resveratrol, its metabolites, and other natural compounds of the stilbene family in human cells. The results clearly indicate that several of these compounds can improve mitochondrial FAO capacities in human FAO-deficient cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jean Bastin
- INSERM UMR-S 1124, Université Paris Descartes, UFR Biomédicale des Saints-Pères, 45, rue des Saints-Pères, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France.
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Alloul-Ramdhani M, Tensen CP, El Ghalbzouri A. Performance of the N/TERT epidermal model for skin sensitizer identification via Nrf2-Keap1-ARE pathway activation. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:982-9. [PMID: 24794257 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Animal testing of chemical ingredients for cosmetic purposes is prohibited. Therefore there is an urgent need for in vitro models to identify chemical allergens. In human skin, keratinocytes (KCs) are abundantly present and are key players in initiation of allergic contact dermatitis. One of the pathways that has been shown to be induced by sensitizers is the Keap1-Nrf2-ARE pathway. In this study we compared the response of four keratinocyte-based models including (a) primary human KCs, (b) N/TERT monolayer cultures, (c) the Leiden Epidermal models (LEMs) and (d) the N/TERT epidermal models (NEMs). All keratinocyte-based models were subjected to chemical exposure of the sensitizer 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) and irritant Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) at nontoxic concentrations. Activation of the Keap1-Nrf2-ARE pathway was evaluated by measuring Nrf2 protein levels as well as nuclear translocation and activation of transcriptional targets of Nrf2. Results show that the Keap1-Nrf2-ARE pathway is activated by the sensitizer DNCB in monolayer keratinocytes and as well as the LEMs and NEMs and not by the irritant SDS. Collectively our data demonstrate that the N/TERT models respond similarly as primary KCs and could therefore serve as an alternative model for skin sensitizer identification, thereby overcoming the need for primary skin tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cornelis P Tensen
- Department of Dermatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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60
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Petrova A, Celli A, Jacquet L, Dafou D, Crumrine D, Hupe M, Arno M, Hobbs C, Cvoro A, Karagiannis P, Devito L, Sun R, Adame LC, Vaughan R, McGrath JA, Mauro TM, Ilic D. 3D In vitro model of a functional epidermal permeability barrier from human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cell Reports 2014; 2:675-89. [PMID: 24936454 PMCID: PMC4050479 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2014.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cornification and epidermal barrier defects are associated with a number of clinically diverse skin disorders. However, a suitable in vitro model for studying normal barrier function and barrier defects is still lacking. Here, we demonstrate the generation of human epidermal equivalents (HEEs) from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). HEEs are structurally similar to native epidermis, with a functional permeability barrier. We exposed a pure population of hESC/iPSC-derived keratinocytes, whose transcriptome corresponds to the gene signature of normal primary human keratinocytes (NHKs), to a sequential high-to-low humidity environment in an air/liquid interface culture. The resulting HEEs had all of the cellular strata of the human epidermis, with skin barrier properties similar to those of normal skin. Such HEEs generated from disease-specific iPSCs will be an invaluable tool not only for dissecting molecular mechanisms that lead to epidermal barrier defects but also for drug development and screening. Manufacture of HEEs with a functional epidermal barrier in vitro from hESCs/iPSCs Unique model for skin diseases with defective epidermal permeability barriers Easily adaptable model for use in regenerative and aesthetic medicine Cost-effective model for testing new drugs and cosmetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Petrova
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Assisted Conception Unit, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK ; St John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Anna Celli
- Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - Laureen Jacquet
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Assisted Conception Unit, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Dimitra Dafou
- Division of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, King's College London School of Medicine, Guy's Hospital, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Debra Crumrine
- Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - Melanie Hupe
- Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - Matthew Arno
- Genomics Centre, King's College London, London SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Carl Hobbs
- Histology Laboratory, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Aleksandra Cvoro
- Genomic Medicine, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | | | - Liani Devito
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Assisted Conception Unit, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Richard Sun
- Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - Lillian C Adame
- Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - Robert Vaughan
- Clinical Transplantation Laboratory, GSTS and MRC Centre for Transplantation, King's College London, King's Health Partners, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - John A McGrath
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Theodora M Mauro
- Department of Dermatology, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
| | - Dusko Ilic
- Stem Cell Laboratory, Assisted Conception Unit, Division of Women's Health, Women's Health Academic Centre, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
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61
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Wu Z, Uchi H, Morino-Koga S, Nakamura-Satomura A, Kita K, Shi W, Furue M. Z-Ligustilide inhibits benzo(a)pyrene-induced CYP1A1 upregulation in cultured human keratinocytes via ROS-dependent Nrf2 activation. Exp Dermatol 2014; 23:260-5. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.12360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhouwei Wu
- Department of Dermatology; Graduate School of Medical Sciences; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
- Department of Dermatology; Shanghai First People's Hospital; Shanghai Jiaotong University; Shanghai China
| | - Hiroshi Uchi
- Department of Dermatology; Graduate School of Medical Sciences; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
- Research and Clinical Center for Yusho and Dioxin; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Saori Morino-Koga
- Department of Dermatology; Graduate School of Medical Sciences; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Akiko Nakamura-Satomura
- Department of Dermatology; Graduate School of Medical Sciences; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
- Research and Clinical Center for Yusho and Dioxin; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Kazuyo Kita
- Department of Dermatology; Graduate School of Medical Sciences; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
- Research and Clinical Center for Yusho and Dioxin; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
| | - Weimin Shi
- Department of Dermatology; Shanghai First People's Hospital; Shanghai Jiaotong University; Shanghai China
| | - Masutaka Furue
- Department of Dermatology; Graduate School of Medical Sciences; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
- Research and Clinical Center for Yusho and Dioxin; Kyushu University; Fukuoka Japan
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Gundert-Remy U, Bernauer U, Blömeke B, Döring B, Fabian E, Goebel C, Hessel S, Jäckh C, Lampen A, Oesch F, Petzinger E, Völkel W, Roos PH. Extrahepatic metabolism at the body's internal–external interfaces. Drug Metab Rev 2014; 46:291-324. [DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2014.900565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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63
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Eilstein J, Léreaux G, Budimir N, Hussler G, Wilkinson S, Duché D. Comparison of xenobiotic metabolizing enzyme activities in ex vivo human skin and reconstructed human skin models from SkinEthic. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:1681-1694. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1218-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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64
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The Cosmetics Europe strategy for animal-free genotoxicity testing: Project status up-date. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:18-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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65
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Vocanson M, Nicolas JF, Basketter D. In vitroapproaches to the identification and characterization of skin sensitizers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1586/17469872.2013.814882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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66
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67
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Lebonvallet N, Pennec JP, Le Gall-Ianotto C, Chéret J, Jeanmaire C, Carré JL, Pauly G, Misery L. Activation of primary sensory neurons by the topical application of capsaicin on the epidermis of a re-innervated organotypic human skin model. Exp Dermatol 2013; 23:73-5. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.12294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Lebonvallet
- Laboratory of Neurosciences of Brest, EA4685; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Brest; Brest France
- BASF Beauty Care Solutions; Pulnoy France
| | - Jean-Pierre Pennec
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Brest; Brest France
| | - Christelle Le Gall-Ianotto
- Laboratory of Neurosciences of Brest, EA4685; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Brest; Brest France
| | - Jérémy Chéret
- Laboratory of Neurosciences of Brest, EA4685; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Brest; Brest France
| | | | - Jean-Luc Carré
- Laboratory of Neurosciences of Brest, EA4685; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Brest; Brest France
| | | | - Laurent Misery
- Laboratory of Neurosciences of Brest, EA4685; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences; University of Brest; Brest France
- Department of Dermatology; Brest University Hospital; Brest France
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68
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Sharma AM, Uetrecht J. Bioactivation of drugs in the skin: relationship to cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Drug Metab Rev 2013; 46:1-18. [DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2013.848214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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69
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Karlberg AT, Börje A, Duus Johansen J, Lidén C, Rastogi S, Roberts D, Uter W, White IR. Activation of non-sensitizing or low-sensitizing fragrance substances into potent sensitizers - prehaptens and prohaptens. Contact Dermatitis 2013; 69:323-34. [DOI: 10.1111/cod.12127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Therese Karlberg
- Division of Dermatochemistry and Skin Allergy, Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology; University of Gothenburg; SE-412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Anna Börje
- Division of Dermatochemistry and Skin Allergy, Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology; University of Gothenburg; SE-412 96 Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Jeanne Duus Johansen
- National Allergy Research Centre, Department of Dermato-Allergology; Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen; DK-2900 Hellerup Denmark
| | - Carola Lidén
- Institute of Environmental Medicine; Karolinska Institutet; SE-171 77 Stockholm Sweden
| | | | - David Roberts
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences; Liverpool John Moores University; Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Wolfgang Uter
- Department of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology; University Erlangen/Nürnberg; 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | - Ian R. White
- Department of Cutaneous Allergy; St John's Institute of Dermatology, St Thomas' Hospital; London SE1 7EH UK
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Induction of a chloracne phenotype in an epidermal equivalent model by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is dependent on aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation and is not reproduced by aryl hydrocarbon receptor knock down. J Dermatol Sci 2013; 73:10-22. [PMID: 24161567 PMCID: PMC3885976 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is a potent activator of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and causes chloracne in humans. The pathogenesis and role of AhR in chloracne remains incompletely understood. OBJECTIVE To elucidate the mechanisms contributing to the development of the chloracne-like phenotype in a human epidermal equivalent model and identify potential biomarkers. METHODS Using primary normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEK), we studied AhR activation by XRE-luciferase, AhR degradation and CYP1A1 induction. We treated epidermal equivalents with high affinity TCDD or two non-chloracnegens: β-naphthoflavone (β-NF) and 2-(1'H-indole-3'-carbonyl)-thiazole-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester (ITE). Using Western blotting and immunochemistry for filaggrin (FLG), involucrin (INV) and transglutaminase-1 (TGM-1), we compared the effects of the ligands on keratinocyte differentiation and development of the chloracne-like phenotype by H&E. RESULTS In NHEKs, activation of an XRE-luciferase and CYP1A1 protein induction correlated with ligand binding affinity: TCDD>β-NF>ITE. AhR degradation was induced by all ligands. In epidermal equivalents, TCDD induced a chloracne-like phenotype, whereas β-NF or ITE did not. All three ligands induced involucrin and TGM-1 protein expression in epidermal equivalents whereas FLG protein expression decreased following treatment with TCDD and β-NF. Inhibition of AhR by α-NF blocked TCDD-induced AhR activation in NHEKs and blocked phenotypic changes in epidermal equivalents; however, AhR knock down did not reproduce the phenotype. CONCLUSION Ligand-induced CYP1A1 and AhR degradation did not correlate with their chloracnegenic potential, indicating that neither CYP1A1 nor AhR are suitable biomarkers. Mechanistic studies showed that the TCDD-induced chloracne-like phenotype depends on AhR activation whereas AhR knock down did not appear sufficient to induce the phenotype.
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71
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Development of a new in vitro skin sensitization assay (Epidermal Sensitization Assay; EpiSensA) using reconstructed human epidermis. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 27:2213-24. [PMID: 23999411 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2013] [Revised: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent changes in regulatory requirements and social views on animal testing have accelerated the development of reliable alternative tests for predicting skin sensitizing potential of chemicals. In this study, we aimed to develop a new in vitro skin sensitization assay using reconstructed human epidermis, RhE model, which is expected to have broader applicability domain rather than existing in vitro assays. Microarray analysis revealed that the expression of five genes (ATF3, DNAJB4, GCLM, HSPA6 and HSPH1) related to cellular stress response were significantly up-regulated in RhE model after 6h treatment with representative skin sensitizers, 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and oxazolone, but not a non-sensitizer, benzalkonium chloride. The predictive performance of five genes was examined with eight skin sensitizers (e.g., cinnamic aldehyde), four non-sensitizers (e.g., sodium lauryl sulfate) and four pre-/pro-haptens (e.g., p-phenylenediamine, isoeugenol). When the positive criteria were set to obtain the highest accuracy with the animal testing (LLNA), ATF3, DNAJB4 and GCLM exhibited a high predictive accuracy (100%, 93.8% and 87.5%, respectively). All tested pre-/pro-haptens were correctly predicted by both ATF3 and DNAJB4. These results suggested that the RhE-based assay, termed epidermal sensitization assay (EpiSensA), could be an useful skin sensitization assay with a broad applicability domain including pre-/pro-haptens.
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72
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Fabian E, Vogel D, Blatz V, Ramirez T, Kolle S, Eltze T, van Ravenzwaay B, Oesch F, Landsiedel R. Xenobiotic metabolizing enzyme activities in cells used for testing skin sensitization in vitro. Arch Toxicol 2013; 87:1683-96. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1090-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Esser C, Bargen I, Weighardt H, Haarmann-Stemmann T, Krutmann J. Functions of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the skin. Semin Immunopathol 2013; 35:677-91. [PMID: 23949496 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-013-0394-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Among other functions, the skin serves as the barrier against the environment and provides vital protection from physical or chemical harm and from infection. Skin cells express the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), a ligand-activated transcription factor and sensor of environmental chemicals; at the same time, AHR ligands are abundant in skin from exogenous or endogenous sources. For example, solar radiation, in particular ultraviolet (UV) B, generates AHR ligands from tryptophan in the skin. Recent evidence has shown that AHR is involved in the (patho)physiology of skin including the regulation of skin pigmentation, photocarcinogenesis, and skin inflammation. We here provide a state-of-the-art summary of work which relates to the role of the AHR in (1) adaptive responses against environmental challenges such as UVB or topical chemicals and (2) intrinsic developmental roles for homeostasis of skin cells and (3) skin immunity. We also discuss the existing evidence that AHR antagonists or AHR ligands may be used for the prevention and/or treatment of skin disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Esser
- Leibniz-Research Institute for Environmental Medicine (IUF), Auf'm Hennekamp 50, 40225, Dusseldorf, Germany,
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74
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Bätz FM, Klipper W, Korting HC, Henkler F, Landsiedel R, Luch A, von Fritschen U, Weindl G, Schäfer-Korting M. Esterase activity in excised and reconstructed human skin – Biotransformation of prednicarbate and the model dye fluorescein diacetate. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2012.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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75
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Kathawala MH, Xiong S, Richards M, Ng KW, George S, Loo SCJ. Emerging in vitro models for safety screening of high-volume production nanomaterials under environmentally relevant exposure conditions. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2013; 9:1504-1520. [PMID: 23019115 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201201452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The rising production of nanomaterial-based consumer products has raised safety concerns. Testing these with animal and other direct models is neither ethically nor economically viable, nor quick enough. This review aims to discuss the strength of in vitro testing, including the use of 2D and 3D cultures, stem cells, and tissue constructs, etc., which would give fast and repeatable answers of a highly specific nature, while remaining relevant to in vivo outcomes. These results can then be combined and the overall toxicity predicted with relative accuracy. Such in vitro models can screen potentially toxic nanomaterials which, if required, can undergo further stringent studies in animals. The cyto- and phototoxicity of some high-volume production nanomaterials, using in vitro models, is also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Hussain Kathawala
- Nanyang Technological University, School of Materials Science and Engineering, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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76
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Hewitt NJ, Edwards RJ, Fritsche E, Goebel C, Aeby P, Scheel J, Reisinger K, Ouédraogo G, Duche D, Eilstein J, Latil A, Kenny J, Moore C, Kuehnl J, Barroso J, Fautz R, Pfuhler S. Use of Human In Vitro Skin Models for Accurate and Ethical Risk Assessment: Metabolic Considerations. Toxicol Sci 2013; 133:209-17. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kft080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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77
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Frankart A, Malaisse J, De Vuyst E, Minner F, de Rouvroit CL, Poumay Y. Epidermal morphogenesis during progressive in vitro 3D reconstruction at the air-liquid interface. Exp Dermatol 2013; 21:871-5. [PMID: 23163654 DOI: 10.1111/exd.12020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Keratinocyte monolayers, cultured in immersed conditions, constitute a frequently used in vitro model system to study keratinocytes behaviour in response to environmental assaults. However, monolayers lack the keratinocyte terminal differentiation and the organization of the epidermal tissue, which are observed in vivo. Advancements of in vitro techniques were used to reconstruct three-dimensional equivalents that mimic human epidermis in terms of layering, differentiation and barrier function. Here, we update a published method and illustrate the progressive morphogenesis responsible for in vitro reconstruction. The analysis of cell proliferation, expression of differentiation markers and barrier efficacy demonstrate the excellent similarity of the reconstructed tissue with normal human epidermis. Availability of epidermal tissue during its reconstruction phase in culture appears crucial for studies intending to challenge the barrier function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Frankart
- Research Unit for Molecular Physiology, Cell and Tissue Laboratory, NARILIS, University of Namur, Namur, Belgium
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78
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Filling the gaps: need for research on cell-specific xenobiotic metabolism in the skin. Arch Toxicol 2013; 87:1873-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1031-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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79
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Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Repressor (AhRR) Function Revisited: Repression of CYP1 Activity in Human Skin Fibroblasts Is Not Related to AhRR Expression. J Invest Dermatol 2013; 133:87-96. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2012.259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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80
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Zorlutuna P, Vrana NE, Khademhosseini A. The expanding world of tissue engineering: the building blocks and new applications of tissue engineered constructs. IEEE Rev Biomed Eng 2012; 6:47-62. [PMID: 23268388 DOI: 10.1109/rbme.2012.2233468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The field of tissue engineering has been growing in the recent years as more products have made it to the market and as new uses for the engineered tissues have emerged, motivating many researchers to engage in this multidisciplinary field of research. Engineered tissues are now not only considered as end products for regenerative medicine, but also have emerged as enabling technologies for other fields of research ranging from drug discovery to biorobotics. This widespread use necessitates a variety of methodologies for production of tissue engineered constructs. In this review, these methods together with their non-clinical applications will be described. First, we will focus on novel materials used in tissue engineering scaffolds; such as recombinant proteins and synthetic, self assembling polypeptides. The recent advances in the modular tissue engineering area will be discussed. Then scaffold-free production methods, based on either cell sheets or cell aggregates will be described. Cell sources used in tissue engineering and new methods that provide improved control over cell behavior such as pathway engineering and biomimetic microenvironments for directing cell differentiation will be discussed. Finally, we will summarize the emerging uses of engineered constructs such as model tissues for drug discovery, cancer research and biorobotics applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinar Zorlutuna
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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81
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Evaluation of chemicals requiring metabolic activation in the EpiDerm™ 3D human reconstructed skin micronucleus (RSMN) assay. Mutat Res 2012; 750:40-9. [PMID: 23022594 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2012.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2011] [Revised: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The in vitro human reconstructed skin micronucleus (RSMN) assay in EpiDerm™ is a promising new assay for evaluating genotoxicity of dermally applied chemicals. A global pre-validation project sponsored by the European Cosmetics Association (Cosmetics Europe - formerly known as COLIPA), and the European Center for Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM), is underway. Results to date demonstrate international inter-laboratory and inter-experimental reproducibility of the assay for chemicals that do not require metabolism [Aardema et al., Mutat. Res. 701 (2010) 123-131]. We have expanded these studies to investigate chemicals that do require metabolic activation: 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide (4NQO), cyclophosphamide (CP), dimethylbenzanthracene (DMBA), dimethylnitrosamine (DMN), dibenzanthracene (DBA) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP). In this study, the standard protocol of two applications over 48h was compared with an extended protocol involving three applications over 72h. Extending the treatment period to 72h changed the result significantly only for 4NQO, which was negative in the standard 48h dosing regimen, but positive with the 72h treatment. DMBA and CP were positive in the standard 48h assay (CP induced a more reproducible response with the 72h treatment) and BaP gave mixed results; DBA and DMN were negative in both the 48h and the 72h dosing regimens. While further work with chemicals that require metabolism is needed, it appears that the RMSN assay detects some chemicals that require metabolic activation (4 out of 6 chemicals were positive in one or both protocols). At this point in time, for general testing, the use of a longer treatment period in situations where the standard 48h treatment is negative or questionable is recommended.
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82
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Heilmann S, Küchler S, Schäfer-Korting M. Morphine Metabolism in Human Skin Microsomes. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2012; 25:319-22. [DOI: 10.1159/000342067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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83
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van Eijl S, Zhu Z, Cupitt J, Gierula M, Götz C, Fritsche E, Edwards RJ. Elucidation of xenobiotic metabolism pathways in human skin and human skin models by proteomic profiling. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41721. [PMID: 22848577 PMCID: PMC3406074 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human skin has the capacity to metabolise foreign chemicals (xenobiotics), but knowledge of the various enzymes involved is incomplete. A broad-based unbiased proteomics approach was used to describe the profile of xenobiotic metabolising enzymes present in human skin and hence indicate principal routes of metabolism of xenobiotic compounds. Several in vitro models of human skin have been developed for the purpose of safety assessment of chemicals. The suitability of these epidermal models for studies involving biotransformation was assessed by comparing their profiles of xenobiotic metabolising enzymes with those of human skin. Methodology/Principal Findings Label-free proteomic analysis of whole human skin (10 donors) was applied and analysed using custom-built PROTSIFT software. The results showed the presence of enzymes with a capacity for the metabolism of alcohols through dehydrogenation, aldehydes through dehydrogenation and oxidation, amines through oxidation, carbonyls through reduction, epoxides and carboxylesters through hydrolysis and, of many compounds, by conjugation to glutathione. Whereas protein levels of these enzymes in skin were mostly just 4–10 fold lower than those in liver and sufficient to support metabolism, the levels of cytochrome P450 enzymes were at least 300-fold lower indicating they play no significant role. Four epidermal models of human skin had profiles very similar to one another and these overlapped substantially with that of whole skin. Conclusions/Significance The proteomics profiling approach was successful in producing a comprehensive analysis of the biotransformation characteristics of whole human skin and various in vitro skin models. The results show that skin contains a range of defined enzymes capable of metabolising different classes of chemicals. The degree of similarity of the profiles of the in vitro models indicates their suitability for epidermal toxicity testing. Overall, these results provide a rational basis for explaining the fate of xenobiotics in skin and will aid chemical safety testing programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven van Eijl
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Division of Experimental Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Zheying Zhu
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Division of Experimental Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Cupitt
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Division of Experimental Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Magdalena Gierula
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Division of Experimental Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Götz
- Leibniz Institut für Umweltmedizinische Forschung, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ellen Fritsche
- Leibniz Institut für Umweltmedizinische Forschung, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University Clinic RWTH, Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert J. Edwards
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Division of Experimental Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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