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Barras A, Pagneux Q, Sane F, Wang Q, Boukherroub R, Hober D, Szunerits S. High Efficiency of Functional Carbon Nanodots as Entry Inhibitors of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:9004-13. [PMID: 27015417 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b01681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Nanostructures have been lately identified as an efficient therapeutic strategy to modulate viral attachment and entry. The high concentrations of ligands present on nanostructures can considerably enhance affinities toward biological receptors. We demonstrate here the potential of carbon nanodots (C-dots) surface-functionalized with boronic acid or amine functions to interfere with the entry of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). C-dots formed from 4-aminophenylboronic acid hydrochloride (4-AB/C-dots) using a modified hydrothermal carbonization are shown to prevent HSV-1 infection in the nanograms per milliliter concentration range (EC50 = 80 and 145 ng mL(-1) on Vero and A549 cells, respectively), whereas the corresponding C-dots formed from phenylboronic acid (B/C-dots) have no effects even at high concentrations. Some of the presented results also suggest that C-dots are specifically acting on the early stage of virus entry through an interaction with the virus and probably the cells at the same time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Barras
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Quentin Pagneux
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Famara Sane
- Laboratoire de Virologie EA3610, Université Lille 2 et CHU Lille, Batiment P Boulanger Hôpital A Calmette CHRU de Lille , Boulevard du Professeur Jules Leclerc, 59037 Lille, France
| | - Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University , Jinan 250061, P. R. China
| | - Rabah Boukherroub
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Didier Hober
- Laboratoire de Virologie EA3610, Université Lille 2 et CHU Lille, Batiment P Boulanger Hôpital A Calmette CHRU de Lille , Boulevard du Professeur Jules Leclerc, 59037 Lille, France
| | - Sabine Szunerits
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Modulation of Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans Initiation of HeLa 299 Cell-Associated Biofilm. Curr Microbiol 2016; 72:529-37. [PMID: 26758707 PMCID: PMC4828481 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-015-0975-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Although herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), and type-2 (HSV-2), Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans co-habit the oral and genital mucosa, their interaction is poorly understood. We determined the effect HSV has on bacterial and/or fungal adherence, the initial step in biofilm formation. HeLa229 cells were infected with HSV-1 (KOS) gL86 or HSV-2 (KOS) 333gJ− at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 50 and 10. S. aureus (ATCC 25923) and/or C. albicans (yeast forms or germ tube forms) were co-incubated for 30 min (37 °C; 5 % CO2; 5:1 organism: HeLa cell ratio; n = 16) with virus-infected HeLa cells or uninfected HeLa cell controls. Post-incubation, the monolayers were washed (3x; PBS), lysed (RIPA), and the lysate plated onto Fungisel and/or mannitol salts agar for standard colony count. The level of HeLa-associated S. aureus was significantly decreased (P < 0.05) for both HSV-1- and HSV-2-infected cells, as compared to virus-free HeLa cell controls (38 and 59 % of control, respectively). In contrast, HSV-1 and HSV-2 significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced HeLa cell association of C. albicans yeast forms and germ tube approximately two-fold, respectively. The effect of S. aureus on germ tube and yeast form adherence to HSV-1- and HSV-2-infected cells was specific for the Candida phenotype tested. Our study suggests that HSV, while antagonist towards S. aureus adherence enhances Candida adherence. Furthermore, the combination of the three pathogens results in S. aureus adherence that is either unaffected, or partially restored depending on both the herpes viral species and the fungal phenotype present.
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Szczubiałka K, Pyrć K, Nowakowska M. In search for effective and definitive treatment of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infections. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra22896d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a nuclear replicating enveloped virus.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Krzysztof Pyrć
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology
- Jagiellonian University
- 30-387 Kraków
- Poland
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Neuroblastomas vary widely in their sensitivities to herpes simplex virotherapy unrelated to virus receptors and susceptibility. Gene Ther 2015; 23:135-43. [PMID: 26583803 PMCID: PMC4742391 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2015.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Although most high-risk neuroblastomas are responsive to chemotherapy, relapse is common and long-term survival is less than 40%, underscoring the need for more effective treatments. We evaluated the responsiveness of 12 neuroblastoma cell lines to the Δγ134.5 attenuated oncolytic HSV, Seprehvir (HSV1716), which is currently used in pediatric phase I trials. We found that entry of Seprehvir in neuroblastoma cells is independent of the expression of nectin-1 and the sum of all four known major HSV entry receptors. We observed varying levels of sensitivity and permissivity to Seprehvir, suggesting that the cellular anti-viral response, not virus entry, is the key determinant of efficacy with this virus. In vivo, we found significant anti-tumor efficacy following Seprehvir treatment, which ranged from 6/10 complete responses in the CHP-134 model to a mild prolonged median survival in the SK-N-AS model. Taken together, these data suggest that anti-tumor efficacy cannot be solely predicted based on in vitro response. Whether or not this discordance holds true for other viruses or tumor types is unknown. Our results also suggest that profiling the expression of known viral entry receptors on neuroblastoma cells may not be entirely predictive of their susceptibility to Seprehvir therapy.
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55
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Agelidis AM, Shukla D. Cell entry mechanisms of HSV: what we have learned in recent years. Future Virol 2015; 10:1145-1154. [PMID: 27066105 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.15.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
HSV type-1 and -2 are widespread pathogens producing lifelong infection with multiple sequelae, including oral, ocular and genital disease. The process of herpesvirus entry is a highly complex process involving numerous viral and cellular factors. Entry begins with attachment of virus to the cell surface followed by interactions between viral glycoproteins and cellular receptors to facilitate capsid penetration. The nucleocapsid is then transported along microtubules to the nuclear membrane, where viral DNA is released for replication in the nucleus. The work reviewed here comprises the most recent advancements in our understanding of the mechanism involved in the herpesvirus entry process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Agelidis
- Ocular Virology Laboratory, Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1855 West Taylor Street, M/C 648, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, E-704 Medical Sciences Building, University of Illinois at Chicago, M/C 790, 835 South Wolcott Avenue, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Ocular Virology Laboratory, Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1855 West Taylor Street, M/C 648, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, E-704 Medical Sciences Building, University of Illinois at Chicago, M/C 790, 835 South Wolcott Avenue, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Desai DV, Kulkarni SS. Herpes Simplex Virus: The Interplay Between HSV, Host, and HIV-1. Viral Immunol 2015; 28:546-55. [PMID: 26331265 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2015.0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus proteins interact with host (human) proteins and create an environment conducive for its replication. Genital ulceration due to herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infections is an important clinical manifestation reported to increase the risk of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) acquisition and replication in HIV-1/HSV-2 coinfection. Dampening the innate and adaptive immune responses of the skin-resident dendritic cells, HSV-2 not only helps itself, but creates a "yellow brick road" for one of the most dreaded viruses HIV, which is transmitted mainly through the sexual route. Although, data from clinical trials show that HSV-2 suppression reduces HIV-1 viral load, there are hardly any reports presenting conclusive evidence on the impact of HSV-2 coinfection on HIV-1 disease progression. Be that as it may, understanding the interplay between these three characters (HSV, host, and HIV-1) is imperative. This review endeavors to collate studies on the influence of HSV-derived proteins on the host response and HIV-1 replication. Studying such complex interactions may help in designing and developing common strategies for the two viruses to keep these "partners in crime" at bay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipen Vijay Desai
- Department of Virology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute , Pune, India
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Role of Nectin-1 and Herpesvirus Entry Mediator as Cellular Receptors for Herpes Simplex Virus 1 on Primary Murine Dermal Fibroblasts. J Virol 2015; 89:9407-16. [PMID: 26136572 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01415-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The cellular proteins nectin-1 and herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM) can both mediate the entry of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1). We have recently shown how these receptors contribute to infection of skin by investigating HSV-1 entry into murine epidermis. Ex vivo infection studies reveal nectin-1 as the primary receptor in epidermis, whereas HVEM has a more limited role. Although the epidermis represents the outermost layer of skin, the contribution of nectin-1 and HVEM in the underlying dermis is still open. Here, we analyzed the role of each receptor during HSV-1 entry in murine dermal fibroblasts that were deficient in expression of either nectin-1 or HVEM or both receptors. Because infection was not prevented by the absence of either nectin-1 or HVEM, we conclude that they can act as alternative receptors. Although HVEM was found to be highly expressed on fibroblasts, entry was delayed in nectin-1-deficient cells, suggesting that nectin-1 acts as the more efficient receptor. In the absence of both receptors, entry was strongly delayed leading to a much reduced viral spread and virus production. These results suggest an unidentified cellular component that acts as alternate but inefficient receptor for HSV-1 on dermal fibroblasts. Characterization of the cellular entry mechanism suggests that HSV-1 can enter dermal fibroblasts both by direct fusion with the plasma membrane and via endocytic vesicles and that this is not dependent on the presence or absence of nectin-1. Entry was also shown to require dynamin and cholesterol, suggesting comparable entry pathways in keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a human pathogen which infects its host via mucosal surfaces or abraded skin. To understand how HSV-1 overcomes the protective barrier of mucosa or skin and reaches its receptors in tissue, it is essential to know which receptors contribute to the entry into individual skin cells. Previously, we have explored the contribution of nectin-1 and herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM) as receptors for HSV-1 entry into murine epidermis, where keratinocytes form the major cell type. Since the underlying dermis consists primarily of fibroblasts, we have now extended our study of HSV-1 entry to dermal fibroblasts isolated from nectin-1- or HVEM-deficient mice or from mice deficient in both receptors. Our results demonstrate a role for both nectin-1 and HVEM as receptors and suggest a further receptor which appears much less efficient.
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Tiwari V, Tarbutton MS, Shukla D. Diversity of heparan sulfate and HSV entry: basic understanding and treatment strategies. Molecules 2015; 20:2707-27. [PMID: 25665065 PMCID: PMC6272628 DOI: 10.3390/molecules20022707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A modified form of heparan sulfate (HS) known as 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate (3-OS HS) generates fusion receptor for herpes simplex virus (HSV) entry and spread. Primary cultures of corneal fibroblasts derived from human eye donors have shown the clinical significance of this receptor during HSV corneal infection. 3-OS HS- is a product of a rare enzymatic modification at C3 position of glucosamine residue which is catalyzed by 3-O-sulfotransferases (3-OSTs) enzymes. From humans to zebrafish, the 3-OST enzymes are highly conserved and widely expressed in cells and tissues. There are multiple forms of 3-OSTs each producing unique subset of sulfated HS making it chemically diverse and heterogeneous. HSV infection of cells or zebrafish can be used as a unique tool to understand the structural-functional activities of HS and 3-OS HS and likewise, the infection can be used as a functional assay to screen phage display libraries for identifying HS and 3-OS HS binding peptides or small molecule inhibitors. Using this approach over 200 unique 12-mer HS and 3-OS HS recognizing peptides were isolated and characterized against HSV corneal infection where 3-OS HS is known to be a key receptor. In this review we discuss emerging role of 3-OS HS based therapeutic strategies in preventing viral infection and tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
| | - Morgan S Tarbutton
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA.
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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Huang Y, Mao Y, Zong C, Lin C, Boons GJ, Zaia J. Discovery of a heparan sulfate 3-O-sulfation specific peeling reaction. Anal Chem 2014; 87:592-600. [PMID: 25486437 PMCID: PMC4287833 DOI: 10.1021/ac503248k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Heparan sulfate (HS) 3-O-sulfation determines
the binding specificity of HS/heparin for antithrombin III and plays
a key role in herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. However, the low
natural abundance of HS 3-O-sulfation poses a serious
challenge for functional studies other than the two cases mentioned
above. By contrast, multiple distinct isoforms of 3-O-sulfotranserases exist in mammals (up to seven isoenzymes). Here
we describe a novel peeling reaction that specifically degrades HS
chains with 3-O-sulfated glucosamine at the reducing-end.
When HS/heparin is enzymatically depolymerized for compositional analysis,
3-O-sulfated glucosamine at the reducing ends appears
to be susceptible to degradation under mildly basic conditions. We
propose a 3-O-desulfation initiated peeling reaction
mechanism based on the intermediate and side-reaction products observed.
Our discovery calls for the re-evaluation of the natural abundance
and functions of HS 3-O-sulfation by taking into
consideration the negative impact of this novel peeling reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University Medical Campus , 670 Albany Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, United States
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60
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Comprehensive analysis of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) entry mediated by zebrafish 3-O-Sulfotransferase isoforms: implications for the development of a zebrafish model of HSV-1 infection. J Virol 2014; 88:12915-22. [PMID: 25142596 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02071-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Binding of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) envelope glycoprotein D (gD) to the receptor 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate (3-OS HS) mediates viral entry. 3-O-Sulfation of HS is catalyzed by the 3-O-sulfotransferase (3-OST) enzyme. Multiple isoforms of 3-OST are differentially expressed in tissues of zebrafish (ZF) embryos. Here, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the role of ZF 3-OST isoforms (3-OST-1, 3-OST-5, 3-OST-6, and 3-OST-7) in HSV-1 entry. We found that a group of 3-OST gene family isoforms (3-OST-2, -3, -4, and -6) with conserved catalytic and substrate-binding residues of the enzyme mediates HSV-1 entry and spread, while the other group (3-OST-1, -5, and -7) lacks these properties. These results demonstrate that HSV-1 entry can be recapitulated by certain ZF 3-OST enzymes, a significant step toward the establishment of a ZF model of HSV-1 infection and tissue-specific tropism.
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61
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Nadanaka S, Purunomo E, Takeda N, Tamura JI, Kitagawa H. Heparan sulfate containing unsubstituted glucosamine residues: biosynthesis and heparanase-inhibitory activity. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:15231-43. [PMID: 24753252 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.545343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Degradation of heparan sulfate (HS) in the extracellular matrix by heparanase is linked to the processes of tumor invasion and metastasis. Thus, a heparanase inhibitor can be a potential anticancer drug. Because HS with unsubstituted glucosamine residues accumulates in heparanase-expressing breast cancer cells, we assumed that these HS structures are resistant to heparanase and can therefore be utilized as a heparanase inhibitor. As expected, chemically synthetic HS-tetrasaccharides containing unsubstituted glucosamine residues, GlcAβ1-4GlcNH3 (+)(6-O-sulfate)α1-4GlcAβ1-4GlcNH3 (+)(6-O-sulfate), inhibited heparanase activity and suppressed invasion of breast cancer cells in vitro. Bifunctional NDST-1 (N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase-1) catalyzes the modification of N-acetylglucosamine residues within HS chains, and the balance of N-deacetylase and N-sulfotransferase activities of NDST-1 is thought to be a determinant of the generation of unsubstituted glucosamine. We also report here that EXTL3 (exostosin-like 3) controls N-sulfotransferase activity of NDST-1 by forming a complex with NDST-1 and contributes to generation of unsubstituted glucosamine residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satomi Nadanaka
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1 Motoyamakita-machi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 658-8558, Japan
| | - Eko Purunomo
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1 Motoyamakita-machi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 658-8558, Japan
| | - Naoko Takeda
- the Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyamacho-Minami, Tottori 680-8552, Japan, and
| | - Jun-ichi Tamura
- the Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyamacho-Minami, Tottori 680-8552, Japan, and the Department of Regional Environment, Faculty of Regional Sciences, Tottori University, Tottori, Tottori 680-8551, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kitagawa
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1 Motoyamakita-machi, Higashinada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 658-8558, Japan,
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Thacker BE, Xu D, Lawrence R, Esko JD. Heparan sulfate 3-O-sulfation: a rare modification in search of a function. Matrix Biol 2013; 35:60-72. [PMID: 24361527 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Many protein ligands bind to heparan sulfate, which results in their presentation, protection, oligomerization or conformational activation. Binding depends on the pattern of sulfation and arrangement of uronic acid epimers along the chains. Sulfation at the C3 position of glucosamine is a relatively rare, yet biologically significant modification, initially described as a key determinant for binding and activation of antithrombin and later for infection by type I herpes simplex virus. In mammals, a family of seven heparan sulfate 3-O-sulfotransferases installs sulfate groups at this position and constitutes the largest group of sulfotransferases involved in heparan sulfate formation. However, to date very few proteins or biological systems have been described that are influenced by 3-O-sulfation. This review describes our current understanding of the prevalence and structure of 3-O-sulfation sites, expression and substrate specificity of the 3-O-sulfotransferase family and the emerging roles of 3-O-sulfation in biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan E Thacker
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0687, United States; Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0687, United States
| | - Ding Xu
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0687, United States
| | - Roger Lawrence
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0687, United States
| | - Jeffrey D Esko
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0687, United States; Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0687, United States.
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Antoine TE, Jones KS, Dale RM, Shukla D, Tiwari V. Zebrafish: modeling for herpes simplex virus infections. Zebrafish 2013; 11:17-25. [PMID: 24266790 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2013.0920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
For many years, zebrafish have been the prototypical model for studies in developmental biology. In recent years, zebrafish has emerged as a powerful model system to study infectious diseases, including viral infections. Experiments conducted with herpes simplex virus type-1 in adult zebrafish or in embryo models are encouraging as they establish proof of concept with viral-host tropism and possible screening of antiviral compounds. In addition, the presence of human homologs of viral entry receptors in zebrafish such as 3-O sulfated heparan sulfate, nectins, and tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 14-like receptor bring strong rationale for virologists to test their in vivo significance in viral entry in a zebrafish model and compare the structure-function basis of virus zebrafish receptor interaction for viral entry. On the other end, a zebrafish model is already being used for studying inflammation and angiogenesis, with or without genetic manipulations, and therefore can be exploited to study viral infection-associated pathologies. The major advantage with zebrafish is low cost, easy breeding and maintenance, rapid lifecycle, and a transparent nature, which allows visualizing dissemination of fluorescently labeled virus infection in real time either at a localized region or the whole body. Further, the availability of multiple transgenic lines that express fluorescently tagged immune cells for in vivo imaging of virus infected animals is extremely attractive. In addition, a fully developed immune system and potential for receptor-specific knockouts further advocate the use of zebrafish as a new tool to study viral infections. In this review, we focus on expanding the potential of zebrafish model system in understanding human infectious diseases and future benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thessicar Evadney Antoine
- 1 Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences & Microbiology/Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago, Illinois
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Choudhary S, Burnham L, Thompson JM, Shukla D, Tiwari V. Role of Filopodia in HSV-1 Entry into Zebrafish 3-O-Sulfotransferase-3-Expressing Cells. Open Virol J 2013; 7:41-8. [PMID: 23667409 PMCID: PMC3648776 DOI: 10.2174/1874357901307010041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Revised: 01/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) modified by zebrafish (ZF) encoded glucosaminyl 3-O sulfotransferase-3 (3-OST-3) generate a receptor for herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) entry and spread. In order to elucidate the mechanism by which HSV-1 enters into ZF-3-OST-3 cells, we investigated the mode of viral entry. Results: Under high resolution scanning electron microscopy (SEM), actin cytoskeleton changes were observed by a dramatic increase in the number of filopodia formed during early interactions of HSV-1 with the target cells. While the increase in number was common among all the infected cells, the highest numbers of filopodia was observed in cells expressing the 3-OST-3 modified form of heparan sulfate (HS) encoded either by human or ZF. The levels of viral infection and filopodia induction were reduced with the actin polymerization inhibitors, Cytochalasin-D and Lantriculin B, suggesting an important role for actin reorganization during ZF-3-OST-3 mediated HSV-1 entry. Supporting an interesting possibility of filopodia usage during HSV-1 spread, pre-treatment of cytochalasin D in ZF-3-OST-3 cells drastically reduced virus glycoprotein induced cell fusion. Conclusions: Taken together, our results provide new evidence on the involvement of filopodia during HSV-1 infection of ZF-3-OST-3 cells and confirm a role for modified heparan sulfate in cytoskeleton rearrangement during HSV-1 entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samiksha Choudhary
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
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65
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Park PJ, Shukla D. Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases. Exp Eye Res 2013; 110:1-9. [PMID: 23410824 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 01/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS), a ubiquitous and structurally diverse cell surface polysaccharide and extracellular matrix component, is a factor common to several major eye pathologies. Its multitude of functions and variable distribution among the different ocular tissues makes it an important contributor to a variety of disease states. Although HS facilitates the pathogenesis of many disorders, its role in each varies. Unique functions of HS have been particularly noted in viral and bacterial keratitis and age-related macular degeneration. Combined, these pathologies comprise a large portion of conditions leading to visual impairment worldwide. Given this prevalence of diseases facilitated by HS, it is prudent to take an in-depth look at this compound in the context of these pathologic states. While the initial part of the review will discuss the pathogenic aspects of HS, it is also important to consider the wider implications of such roles for HS. The remainder of the article will specifically address one such implication, the possibility for future use of novel HS-based therapeutics to combat these eye pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Park
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Baldwin J, Shukla D, Tiwari V. Members of 3-O-Sulfotransferases (3-OST) Family: A Valuable Tool from Zebrafish to Humans for Understanding Herpes Simplex Virus Entry. Open Virol J 2013; 7:5-11. [PMID: 23358893 PMCID: PMC3553493 DOI: 10.2174/1874357901307010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Revised: 09/28/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The journey of many viruses to infect cells begins when the virus first binds to cell surface heparan sulfate (HS). The initial step of cell attachment or binding during herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) entry is mediated by envelope glycoprotein B (gB) and C (gC). The binding is followed by fusion between virus envelope and cell membrane during which HSV-1 glycoprotein D (gD) interacts with a modified form of HS know as 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate (3-OS HS). The rare modification of 3-O-sulfation on HS chain is governed by enzymes known as 3-O-sulfotransferase (3-OST). Currently, there are seven isoforms of human 3-OSTs that have been identified, and with the exception of 3-OST-1, all other 3-OST isoforms allow HSV-1 entry and spread. Recently, the product of the zebrafish (ZF)-encoded 3-OST-3 was also recognized as a gD receptor, which mediates HSV-1 entry and cell-cell fusion similar to human 3-OST-3. Interestingly, the ZF system expresses multiple isoforms of 3-OST which could be very useful for studying the involvement of HS and 3-OS HS in virus tropism and virus-induced inflammation. In addition, therapeutic targeting of 3-OST generated HS is likely to bring about novel interventions against HSV-1. In this review we have taken a closer look at the potential of both human and ZF encoded 3-OSTs as valuable tools in HSV entry and inflammation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Baldwin
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
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67
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Langeslay DJ, Beecher CN, Naggi A, Guerrini M, Torri G, Larive CK. Characterizing the microstructure of heparin and heparan sulfate using N-sulfoglucosamine 1H and 15N NMR chemical shift analysis. Anal Chem 2013; 85:1247-55. [PMID: 23240897 PMCID: PMC3974173 DOI: 10.1021/ac3032788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Heparin and heparan sulfate (HS) are members of a biologically important group of highly anionic linear polysaccharides called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Because of their structural complexity, the molecular-level characterization of heparin and HS continues to be a challenge. The work presented herein describes an emerging approach for the analysis of unfractionated and low molecular weight heparins, as well as porcine and human-derived HS. This approach utilizes the untapped potential of (15)N NMR to characterize these preparations through detection of the NH resonances of N-sulfo-glucosamine residues. The sulfamate group (1)H and (15)N chemical shifts of six GAG microenvironments were assigned based on the critical comparison of selectively modified heparin derivatives, NMR measurements for a library of heparin-derived oligosaccharide standards, and an in-depth NMR analysis of the low molecular weight heparin enoxaparin through systematic investigation of the chemical exchange properties of NH resonances and residue-specific assignments using the [(1)H,(15)N] HSQC-TOCSY experiment. The sulfamate microenvironments characterized in this study include GlcNS(6S)-UA(2S), ΔUA(2S)-GlcNS(6S), GlcNS(3S)(6S)-UA(2S), GlcNS-UA, GlcNS(6S)-red(α), and 1,6-anhydro GlcNS demonstrating the utility of [(1)H,(15)N] HSQC NMR spectra to provide a spectroscopic fingerprint reflecting the composition of intact GAGs and low molecular weight heparin preparations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek J Langeslay
- Department of Chemistry, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
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68
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Expression of HSV-1 receptors in EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disease determines susceptibility to oncolytic HSV. Gene Ther 2012; 20:761-9. [PMID: 23254370 PMCID: PMC3609913 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2012.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Revised: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated B cell lymphoproliferative disease (LPD) after hematopoietic stem cell or solid organ transplantation remains a life-threatening complication. Expression of the virus-encoded gene product, EBER, has been shown to prevent apoptosis via blockade of PKR activation. Because PKR is a major cellular defense against Herpes simplex virus, and oncolytic HSV-1 (oHSV) mutants have shown promising anti-tumor efficacy in preclinical models, we sought to determine whether EBV-LPD cells are susceptible to infection by oHSVs. We tested three primary EBV-infected lymphocyte cell cultures from neuroblastoma (NB) patients as models of naturally acquired EBV-LPD. NB12 was most susceptible, NB122R was intermediate, and NB88R2 was essentially resistant. Despite EBER expression, PKR was activated by oHSV infection. Susceptibility to oHSV correlated with the expression of the HSV receptor, nectin-1. The resistance of NB88R2 was reversed by exogenous nectin-1 expression, whereas down-regulation of nectin-1 on NB12 decreased viral entry. Xenografts derived from the EBV-LPDs exhibited only mild (NB12) or no (NB88R2) response to oHSV injection, compared with a neuroblastoma cell line that showed a significant response. We conclude that EBV-LPDs are relatively resistant to oHSV virotherapy, in some cases due to low virus receptor expression but also due to intact anti-viral PKR signaling.
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69
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Tiwari V, Maus E, Sigar IM, Ramsey KH, Shukla D. Role of heparan sulfate in sexually transmitted infections. Glycobiology 2012; 22:1402-12. [PMID: 22773448 PMCID: PMC3481906 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cws106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell surface heparan sulfate (HS), a polysaccharide composed of alternating uronic acid and glucosamine residues, represents a common link that many sexually transmitted infections (STIs) require for infection. Variable modifications within the monomeric units of HS chains together with their unique structural conformations generate heterogeneity, which expands the ability of HS to bind a diverse array of host and microbial proteins. Recent advances made in the field of glycobiology have critically enhanced our understanding of HS and its interactions with microbes and their significance in important human diseases. The role of HS has been elaborated for several STIs to include those caused by herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus, human papillomavirus, and Chlamydia. In addition, gonorrhea, syphilis, and yeast infections are also dependent on the presence of HS on human target cells. Critical steps such as pathogen adhesion or binding to host cells followed by internalization to enhance intracellular survival and possible spread to other cells are mediated by HS. In addition, HS guided cell signaling plays a role in the development of angiogenesis and inflammation associated with many STIs. Past and ongoing investigations are providing new push for the development of HS-mimetics and analogs as novel prevention strategies against many different STIs. This review article summarizes the significance of HS in STIs and describes how emerging new products that target HS can be used to control the spread of STIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
| | - Erika Maus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Ira M Sigar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Kyle H Ramsey
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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70
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Hubbard S, Choudhary S, Maus E, Shukla D, Swenson S, Markland FS, Tiwari V. Contortrostatin, a homodimeric disintegrin isolated from snake venom inhibits herpes simplex virus entry and cell fusion. Antivir Ther 2012; 17:1319-26. [PMID: 22875654 DOI: 10.3851/imp2291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes significant health problems from periodical skin and corneal lesions to encephalitis. HSV entry provides a unique opportunity for therapeutic intervention. In this study, we evaluated contortrostatin (CN), an Arg-Gly-Asp motif containing disintegrin isolated from snake venom, as a novel therapeutic agent with ability to block HSV entry and related membrane fusion. METHODS In vitro efficacy of CN against HSV was determined using an HSV type-1 (HSV-1) entry assay based on the measurement of β-galactosidase reporter activity originating from the genome of a recombinant strain of HSV-1(KOS) gL86. HSV-1 glycoprotein-mediated cell-to-cell fusion was used to study the effect of CN on polykaryocyte formation. Primary as well as transformed cell lines were used for this study. RESULTS Pre-treatment of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells expressing HSV-1 glycoprotein D receptors and primary cultures of human corneal fibroblasts (CF) with CN resulted in the inhibition of entry, cell-to-cell fusion, and polykaryocyte formation. Interestingly, a more pronounced anti-HSV-1 effect was observed in naturally susceptible CF than CHO-K1 cells. CONCLUSIONS CN, a novel venom-derived peptide, exhibits the ability to block two key steps, entry and cell-to-cell fusion, in HSV infection. Showing strong promise for development as an anti-HSV agent, it also demonstrates better prophylactic efficacy in primary cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Hubbard
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, USA
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71
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Langeslay DJ, Young RP, Beni S, Beecher CN, Mueller LJ, Larive CK. Sulfamate proton solvent exchange in heparin oligosaccharides: evidence for a persistent hydrogen bond in the antithrombin-binding pentasaccharide Arixtra. Glycobiology 2012; 22:1173-82. [PMID: 22593556 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cws085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfamate groups (NHSO(3)(-)) are important structural elements in the glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) heparin and heparan sulfate (HS). In this work, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) line-shape analysis is used to explore the solvent exchange properties of the sulfamate NH groups within heparin-related mono-, di-, tetra- and pentasaccharides as a function of pH and temperature. The results of these experiments identified a persistent hydrogen bond within the Arixtra (fondaparinux sodium) pentasaccharide between the internal glucosamine sulfamate NH and the adjacent 3-O-sulfo group. This discovery provides new insights into the solution structure of the Arixtra pentasaccharide and suggests that 3-O-sulfation of the heparin N-sulfoglucosamine (GlcNS) residues pre-organize the secondary structure in a way that facilitates binding to antithrombin-III. NMR studies of the GlcNS NH groups can provide important information about heparin structure complementary to that available from NMR spectral analysis of the carbon-bound protons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek J Langeslay
- Department of Chemistry, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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72
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Nonprofessional phagocytosis can facilitate herpesvirus entry into ocular cells. Clin Dev Immunol 2012; 2012:651691. [PMID: 22481969 PMCID: PMC3312246 DOI: 10.1155/2012/651691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Phagocytosis is a major mechanism by which the mediators of innate immunity thwart microbial infections. Here we demonstrate that human herpesviruses may have evolved a common mechanism to exploit a phagocytosis-like entrapment to gain entry into ocular cells. While herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) causes corneal keratitis, cytomegalovirus (CMV) is associated with retinitis in immunocompromised individuals. A third herpesvirus, human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8), is crucial for the pathogenesis of Kaposi's sarcoma, a common AIDS-related tumor of eyelid and conjunctiva. Using laser scanning confocal microscopy, we show that successful infection of ocular cell types by all the three viruses, belonging to three divergent subfamilies of herpesviruses, is facilitated by induction of F-actin rich membrane protrusions. Inhibitors of F-actin polymerization and membrane protrusion formation, cytochalasin D and latrunculin B, were able to block infection by all three viruses. Similar inhibition was seen by blocking phosphoinositide 3 kinase signaling, which is required for microbial phagocytosis. Transmission electron microscopy data using human corneal fibroblasts for HSV-1, human retinal pigment epithelial cells for CMV, and human conjunctival epithelial cells for HHV-8 are consistent with the possibility that pseudopod-like membrane protrusions facilitate virus uptake by the ocular cells. Our findings suggest a novel mechanism by which the nonprofessional mediators of phagocytosis can be infected by human herpesviruses.
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73
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Phage display against corneal epithelial cells produced bioactive peptides that inhibit Aspergillus adhesion to the corneas. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33578. [PMID: 22428072 PMCID: PMC3299800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dissection of host-pathogen interactions is important for both understanding the pathogenesis of infectious diseases and developing therapeutics for the infectious diseases like various infectious keratitis. To enhance the knowledge about pathogenesis infectious keratitis, a random 12-mer peptide phage display library was screened against cultured human corneal epithelial cells (HCEC). Fourteen sequences were obtained and BLASTp analysis showed that most of their homologue counterparts in GenBank were for defined or putative proteins in various pathogens. Based on known or predicted functions of the homologue proteins, ten synthetic peptides (Pc-A to Pc-J) were measured for their affinity to bind cells and their potential efficacy to interfere with pathogen adhesion to the cells. Besides binding to HCEC, most of them also bound to human corneal stromal cells and umbilical endothelial cells to different extents. When added to HCEC culture, the peptides induced expression of MyD88 and IL-17 in HCEC, and the stimulated cell culture medium showed fungicidal potency to various extents. While peptides Pc-C and Pc-E inhibited Aspergillus fumigatus (A.f) adhesion to HCEC in a dose-dependent manner, the similar inhibition ability of peptides Pc-A and Pc-B required presence of their homologue ligand Alb1p on A.f. When utilized in an eyeball organ culture model and an in vivo A.f keratitis model established in mouse, Pc-C and Pc-E inhibited fungal adhesion to corneas, hence decreased corneal disruption caused by inflammatory infiltration. Affinity pull-down of HCEC membrane proteins with peptide Pc-C revealed several molecules as potential receptors for this peptide. In conclusion, besides proving that phage display-selected peptides could be utilized to interfere with adhesion of pathogens to host cells, hence could be exploited for managing infectious diseases including infectious keratitis, we also proposed that the phage display technique and the resultant peptides could be used to explore host-pathogen interactions at molecular levels.
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74
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Navaratnarajah CK, Miest TS, Carfi A, Cattaneo R. Targeted entry of enveloped viruses: measles and herpes simplex virus I. Curr Opin Virol 2011; 2:43-9. [PMID: 22440965 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2011.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Revised: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
We compare the receptor-based mechanisms that a small RNA virus and a larger DNA virus have evolved to drive the fusion of viral and cellular membranes. Both systems rely on tight control over triggering the concerted refolding of a trimeric fusion protein. While measles virus entry depends on a receptor-binding protein and a fusion protein only, the herpes simplex virus (HSV) is more complex and requires four viral proteins. Nevertheless, in both viruses a receptor-binding protein is required for triggering the membrane fusion process. Moreover, specificity domains can be appended to these receptor-binding proteins to target virus entry to cells expressing a designated receptor. We discuss how principles established with measles and HSV can be applied to targeting other enveloped viruses, and alternatively how retargeted envelopes can be fitted on foreign capsids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanakha K Navaratnarajah
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Virology and Gene Therapy Track, Mayo Graduate School, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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75
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Herpes simplex virus infects most cell types in vitro: clues to its success. Virol J 2011; 8:481. [PMID: 22029482 PMCID: PMC3223518 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-8-481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) type-1 and type-2 have evolved numerous strategies to infect a wide range of hosts and cell types. The result is a very successful prevalence of the virus in the human population infecting 40-80% of people worldwide. HSV entry into host cell is a multistep process that involves the interaction of the viral glycoproteins with various cell surface receptors. Based on the cell type, HSV enter into host cell using different modes of entry. The combination of various receptors and entry modes has resulted in a virus that is capable of infecting virtually all cell types. Identifying the common rate limiting steps of the infection may help the development of antiviral agents that are capable of preventing the virus entry into host cell. In this review we describe the major features of HSV entry that have contributed to the wide susceptibility of cells to HSV infection.
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76
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Di Giovine P, Settembre EC, Bhargava AK, Luftig MA, Lou H, Cohen GH, Eisenberg RJ, Krummenacher C, Carfi A. Structure of herpes simplex virus glycoprotein D bound to the human receptor nectin-1. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002277. [PMID: 21980294 PMCID: PMC3182920 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Binding of herpes simplex virus (HSV) glycoprotein D (gD) to a cell surface receptor is required to trigger membrane fusion during entry into host cells. Nectin-1 is a cell adhesion molecule and the main HSV receptor in neurons and epithelial cells. We report the structure of gD bound to nectin-1 determined by x-ray crystallography to 4.0 Å resolution. The structure reveals that the nectin-1 binding site on gD differs from the binding site of the HVEM receptor. A surface on the first Ig-domain of nectin-1, which mediates homophilic interactions of Ig-like cell adhesion molecules, buries an area composed by residues from both the gD N- and C-terminal extensions. Phenylalanine 129, at the tip of the loop connecting β-strands F and G of nectin-1, protrudes into a groove on gD, which is otherwise occupied by C-terminal residues in the unliganded gD and by N-terminal residues in the gD/HVEM complex. Notably, mutation of Phe129 to alanine prevents nectin-1 binding to gD and HSV entry. Together these data are consistent with previous studies showing that gD disrupts the normal nectin-1 homophilic interactions. Furthermore, the structure of the complex supports a model in which gD-receptor binding triggers HSV entry through receptor-mediated displacement of the gD C-terminal region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Di Giovine
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, IRBM P. Angeletti, Pomezia, Rome, Italy
| | - Ethan C. Settembre
- Protein Biochemistry, Novartis Vaccine and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Arjun K. Bhargava
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Micah A. Luftig
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, IRBM P. Angeletti, Pomezia, Rome, Italy
| | - Huan Lou
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Gary H. Cohen
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Roselyn J. Eisenberg
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Claude Krummenacher
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail: (CK); (AC)
| | - Andrea Carfi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, IRBM P. Angeletti, Pomezia, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail: (CK); (AC)
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Mishra YK, Adelung R, Röhl C, Shukla D, Spors F, Tiwari V. Virostatic potential of micro-nano filopodia-like ZnO structures against herpes simplex virus-1. Antiviral Res 2011; 92:305-12. [PMID: 21893101 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2011.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Revised: 08/15/2011] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) entry into target cell is initiated by the ionic interactions between positively charged viral envelop glycoproteins and a negatively charged cell surface heparan sulfate (HS). This first step involves the induction of HS-rich filopodia-like structures on the cell surface that facilitate viral transport during cell entry. Targeting this initial first step in HSV-1 pathogenesis, we generated different zinc oxide (ZnO) micro-nano structures (MNSs) that were capped with multiple nanoscopic spikes mimicking cell induced filopodia. These MNSs were predicted to target the virus to compete for its binding to cellular HS through their partially negatively charged oxygen vacancies on their nanoscopic spikes, to affect viral entry and subsequent spread. Our results demonstrate that the partially negatively charged ZnO-MNSs efficiently trap the virions via a novel virostatic mechanism rendering them unable to enter into human corneal fibroblasts - a natural target cell for HSV-1 infection. The anti-HSV-1 activity of ZnO MNSs was drastically enhanced after creating additional oxygen vacancies under UV-light illumination. Our results provide a novel insight into the significance of ZnO MNSs as the potent HSV-1 inhibitor and rationalize their development as a novel topical agent for the prevention of HSV-1 infection.
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78
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Chen J, Yamada S, Hama Y, Shetty AK, Kobayashi T, Oda H, Seiki K, Kim E, Kimura T, Takahashi N, Hidari KI, Suzuki T, Suzuki Y, Sugahara K. Unique heparan sulfate from shrimp heads exhibits a strong inhibitory effect on infections by dengue virus and Japanese encephalitis virus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 412:136-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.07.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Asparagine 405 of heparin lyase II prevents the cleavage of glycosidic linkages proximate to a 3-O-sulfoglucosamine residue. FEBS Lett 2011; 585:2461-6. [PMID: 21741976 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2011] [Revised: 06/20/2011] [Accepted: 06/21/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Heparin and heparan sulfate contain a rare 3-O-sulfoglucosamine residue critical for anticoagulation and virus recognition, respectively. The glycosidic linkage proximate to this 3-O-sulfoglucosamine is resistant to cleavage by all heparin lyases (Heps). HepII has a broad specificity. The crystal structure of the wild type HepII identified its active site and showed a close spatial proximity between Asn405 and the 3-OH group of the bound glucosamine residue. In this study, we mutated Asn405 to the less sterically demanding Ala405 or Gly405, which broadened the substrate specificity of HepII and caused it to cleave the resistant linkage proximate to the 3-O-sulfoglucosamine residue.
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80
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Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) entry into human mesenchymal stem cells is heavily dependent on heparan sulfate. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:264350. [PMID: 21799659 PMCID: PMC3134178 DOI: 10.1155/2011/264350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hematopoietic stem cells recipients remain susceptible to opportunistic viral infections including herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1). The purpose of this investigation was to analyze susceptibility of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) to HSV-1 infection and identify the major entry receptor. Productive virus infection in hMSCs was confirmed by replication and plaque formation assays using a syncytial HSV-1 KOS (804) virus. To examine the significance of entry receptors, RT-PCR and antibody-blocking assays were performed. RT-PCR data showed the expression of gD receptors: nectin-1, 3-O sulfotransferase-3 (3-OST-3), and HVEM. Antibody-blocking assay together with heparinase treatment suggested an important role for HS and 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate (3-OS HS), but not nectin-1 or HVEM, in mediating HSV-1 entry and spread in hMSCs. Taken together, our results provide strong evidence demonstrating that HSV-1 is capable of infecting hMSCs and HS and 3-OS HS serve as its entry receptors during this process.
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81
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Tiwari V, Liu J, Valyi-Nagy T, Shukla D. Anti-heparan sulfate peptides that block herpes simplex virus infection in vivo. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:25406-15. [PMID: 21596749 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.201103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) and its highly modified form, 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate (3-OS HS), contribute strongly to herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) infection in vitro. Here we report results from a random M13-phage display library screening to isolate 12-mer peptides that bind specifically to HS, 3-OS HS, and block HSV-1 entry. The screening identified representative candidates from two-different groups of anti-HS peptides with high positive charge densities. Group 1, represented by G1 peptide (LRSRTKIIRIRH), belongs to a class with alternating charges (XRXRXKXXRXRX), and group 2, represented by G2 peptide (MPRRRRIRRRQK), shows repetitive charges (XXRRRRXRRRXK). Viral entry and glycoprotein D binding assays together with fluorescent microscopy data indicated that both G1 and G2 were potent in blocking HSV-1 entry into primary cultures of human corneal fibroblasts and CHO-K1 cells transiently expressing different glycoprotein D receptors. Interestingly, G2 peptide isolated against 3-OS HS displayed wider ability to inhibit entry of clinically relevant strains of HSV-1 and some divergent members of herpesvirus family including cytomegalovirus and human herpesvirus-8. To identify functional residues within G1 and G2, we performed point mutations and alanine-scanning mutagenesis. Several arginine and a lysine residues were needed for anti-HSV-1 activity, suggesting the importance of the positively charged residues in virus-cell binding and virus-induced membrane fusion. In vivo administration of G1 or G2 peptide as a prophylactic eye drop completely blocked HSV-1 spread in the mouse cornea as evident by immunohistochemistry. This result also highlights an in vivo significance of HS and 3-OS HS during ocular herpes infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
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82
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Bacsa S, Karasneh G, Dosa S, Liu J, Valyi-Nagy T, Shukla D. Syndecan-1 and syndecan-2 play key roles in herpes simplex virus type-1 infection. J Gen Virol 2010; 92:733-43. [PMID: 21148276 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.027052-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is an important human pathogen and a leading cause of infectious blindness in the developed world. HSV-1 exploits heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG) for attachment to cells. While the significance of heparan sulphate (HS) moieties in HSV-1 infection is well established, the role of specific proteoglycan core proteins in the infection process remains poorly understood. The objective of this study was to assess the roles of syndecan-1 and syndecan-2 core proteins in HSV-1 infection, both of which are expressed by many HSV-1 target cell types. Our results demonstrate that syndecan-1 and syndecan-2 gene silencing by RNA interference reduces HSV-1 entry, plaque formation and facilitates cell survival. Furthermore, HSV-1 infection increases syndecan-1 and syndecan-2 protein synthesis and a resultant increase in cell surface expression of HS. Our observations suggest that changes in syndecan-1 and syndecan-2 expression levels may be related to active viral infection. Taken together, our findings provide new insights into HSPG functions during HSV-1 entry and spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarolta Bacsa
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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83
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Tiwari V, Shukla D. Phosphoinositide 3 kinase signalling may affect multiple steps during herpes simplex virus type-1 entry. J Gen Virol 2010; 91:3002-9. [PMID: 20810749 PMCID: PMC3052565 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.024166-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Early interactions of herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) with cells lead to cytoskeletal changes facilitating filopodia formation and membrane fusion. Here, we demonstrate that phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K) signalling may affect multiple steps during HSV-1 entry. An inhibitor of PI3K (LY294002) blocked HSV-1 entry and the blockage was cell-type- and gD receptor-independent. Entry inhibition was also observed with primary cultures of the human corneal fibroblasts and unrelated β- and γ-herpesviruses. Immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated that LY294002 negatively affected HSV-1-induced filopodia formation. Similar effects of the inhibitor were seen on HSV-1 glycoprotein-induced cell-to-cell fusion. Cells expressing HSV-1 glycoproteins (gB, gD, gH and gL) showed significantly less fusion with target cells in the presence of the inhibitor. Expression of a dominant-negative PI3K mutant negatively affected both entry and fusion. We also show that inhibition of PI3K signalling also affected RhoA activation required for HSV-1 entry into certain cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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84
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Shah A, Farooq AV, Tiwari V, Kim MJ, Shukla D. HSV-1 infection of human corneal epithelial cells: receptor-mediated entry and trends of re-infection. Mol Vis 2010; 16:2476-86. [PMID: 21139972 PMCID: PMC2994737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2010] [Accepted: 11/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The human cornea is a primary target for herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) infection. The goals of the study were to determine the cellular modalities of HSV-1 entry into human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells. Specific features of the study included identifying major entry receptors, assessing pH dependency, and determining trends of re-infection. METHODS A recombinant HSV-1 virus expressing beta-galactosidase was used to ascertain HSV-1 entry into HCE cells. Viral replication within cells was confirmed using a time point plaque assay. Lysosomotropic agents were used to test for pH dependency of entry. Flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry were used to determine expression of three cellular receptors--nectin-1, herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM), and paired immunoglobulin-like 2 receptor alpha (PILR-a). The necessity of these receptors for viral entry was tested using antibody-blocking. Finally, trends of re-infection were investigated using viral entry assay and flow cytometry post-primary infection. RESULTS Cultured HCE cells showed high susceptibility to HSV-1 entry and replication. Entry was demonstrated to be pH dependent as blocking vesicular acidification decreased entry. Entry receptors expressed on the cell membrane include nectin-1, HVEM, and PILR-α. Receptor-specific antibodies blocked entry receptors, reduced viral entry and indicated nectin-1 as the primary receptor used for entry. Cells re-infected with HSV-1 showed a decrease in entry, which was correlated to decreased levels of nectin-1 as demonstrated by flow cytometry. CONCLUSIONS HSV-1 is capable of developing an infection in HCE cells using a pH dependent entry process that involves primarily nectin-1 but also the HVEM and PILR-α receptors. Re-infected cells show decreased levels of entry, correlated with a decreased level of nectin-1 receptor expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpeet Shah
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Asim V. Farooq
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Min-Jung Kim
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL
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85
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Hubbard S, Darmani NA, Thrush GR, Dey D, Burnham L, Thompson JM, Jones K, Tiwari V. Zebrafish-encoded 3-O-sulfotransferase-3 isoform mediates herpes simplex virus type 1 entry and spread. Zebrafish 2010; 7:181-7. [PMID: 20441522 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2009.0621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans modified by human glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase-3 (3-OST-3) isoform generates the cellular receptor for herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). Interestingly, the ability of zebrafish (ZF)-encoded 3-OST-3 isoform to modify heparan sulfate to mediate HSV-1 entry and cell-cell fusion has not been determined although it is predominantly expressed in ZF, a popular model organism to study viral infections. Here, we demonstrate that expression of ZF-encoded 3-OST-3 isoform renders the resistant Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells to become susceptible for HSV-1 entry. The following lines of evidence support the important role of ZF-encoded 3-OST-3 isoform as the mediator of HSV-1 entry into CHO-K1 cells: (1) ZF 3-OST-3-expressing CHO-K1 cells were able to preferentially bind HSV-1 glycoprotein D, and (2) CHO-K1 cells expressing ZF-encoded 3-OST-3 acquire the ability to fuse with cells expressing HSV-1 glycoproteins. Finally, knocking down 3-OST-3 receptor by siRNA in ZF fibroblasts cells significantly reduced HSV-1 entry and glycoprotein D binding to cells. Taken together, our results provide novel insight into the significance of ZF 3-OST-3 isoform as an HSV-1 entry and fusion receptor and its potential involvement in the HSV-1 disease model of ZF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Hubbard
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California 91766, USA
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86
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Tiwari V, Darmani NA, Yue BYJT, Shukla D. In vitro antiviral activity of neem (Azardirachta indica L.) bark extract against herpes simplex virus type-1 infection. Phytother Res 2010; 24:1132-40. [PMID: 20041417 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.3085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) causes significant health problems from periodical skin and corneal lesions to encephalitis. We report here that an aqueous extract preparation from the barks of neem plant Azardirachta indica acts as a potent entry inhibitor against HSV-1 infection into natural target cells. The neem bark extract (NBE) significantly blocked HSV-1 entry into cells at concentrations ranging from 50 to 100 microg/ml. The blocking activity of NBE was observed when the extract was pre-incubated with the virus but not with the target cells, suggesting a direct antiHSV-1 property of the neem bark. Further, virions treated with NBE failed to bind the cells which implicate a role of NBE as an attachment step blocker. Cells treated with NBE also inhibited HSV-1 glycoprotein-mediated cell-cell fusion and polykaryocytes formation suggesting an additional role of NBE at the viral fusion step. These findings open a potential new avenue for the development of NBE as a novel antiherpetic microbicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
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87
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Farooq AV, Valyi-Nagy T, Shukla D. Mediators and mechanisms of herpes simplex virus entry into ocular cells. Curr Eye Res 2010; 35:445-50. [PMID: 20465436 DOI: 10.3109/02713681003734841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The entry of herpes simplex virus into cells was once thought to be a general process. It is now understood that the virus is able to use multiple mechanisms for entry and spread, including the use of receptors and co-receptors that have been determined to be cell-type specific. This is certainly true for ocular cell types, which is important as the virus may use different mechanisms to gain access to multiple anatomic structures in close proximity, leading to various ocular diseases. There are some patterns that may be utilized by the virus in the eye and elsewhere, including surfing along filopodia in moving from cell to cell. There are common themes as well as intriguing differences in the entry mechanisms of herpes simplex virus into ocular cells. We discuss these issues in the context of conjunctivitis, keratitis, acute retinal necrosis, and other ocular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asim V Farooq
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
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88
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Kovacs SK, Tiwari V, Prandovszky E, Dosa S, Bacsa S, Valyi-Nagy K, Shukla D, Valyi-Nagy T. Expression of herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM) in the cornea and trigeminal ganglia of normal and HSV-1 infected mice. Curr Eye Res 2010; 34:896-904. [PMID: 19895317 DOI: 10.3109/02713680903184250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM) plays a critical role in the regulation of inflammation through interaction with its natural ligands LIGHT and lymphotoxin alpha and also serves as one of the entry receptors of herpes simplex virus (HSV). The purpose of this study was to better understand the expression of HVEM in the cornea and trigeminal ganglia (TG), which are important targets of HSV infection. MATERIALS AND METHODS Immunohistochemistry was used to define HVEM expression in the cornea and TG of normal and HSV-1 infected mice euthanized 2 to 5 days or 7 months following corneal inoculation of virus. RESULTS We found that HVEM is widely expressed in the normal corneal epithelium and endothelium, is weakly and focally expressed in the corneal stroma, and is expressed in a portion of neurons and non-neuronal cells in the TG. Acute HSV-1 keratitis and ganglionitis were associated with increased HVEM expression in the corneal epithelium and stroma and in neurons and non-neuronal cells of TG, and many inflammatory cells in these tissues also expressed HVEM. TG derived from mice 7 months after virus inoculation demonstrated latent HSV-1 infection that was associated with increased HVEM expression in neurons and non-neuronal cells relative to uninfected control tissues. Latent TG also contained focal infiltrates of mononuclear inflammatory cells, many of which expressed HVEM. Corneas derived from latently infected mice demonstrated chronic keratitis, with no evidence of virus replication or increased HVEM expression in the corneal epithelium, and inflammatory cells present showed only weak HVEM expression. CONCLUSIONS HVEM is expressed in the cornea and TG and therefore may serve as an HSV entry receptor in these tissues. Furthermore, these findings raise the possibility that changes in HVEM expression following ocular HSV-1 infection can modulate HSV spread and infection-induced inflammation in the cornea and TG.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Krisztian Kovacs
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
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89
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Proteoglycans in host-pathogen interactions: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Expert Rev Mol Med 2010; 12:e5. [PMID: 20113533 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399409001367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Many microbial pathogens subvert proteoglycans for their adhesion to host tissues, invasion of host cells, infection of neighbouring cells, dissemination into the systemic circulation, and evasion of host defence mechanisms. Where studied, specific virulence factors mediate these proteoglycan-pathogen interactions, which are thus thought to affect the onset, progression and outcome of infection. Proteoglycans are composites of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains attached covalently to specific core proteins. Proteoglycans are expressed ubiquitously on the cell surface, in intracellular compartments, and in the extracellular matrix. GAGs mediate the majority of ligand-binding activities of proteoglycans, and many microbial pathogens elaborate cell-surface and secreted factors that interact with GAGs. Some pathogens also modulate the expression and function of proteoglycans through known virulence factors. Several GAG-binding pathogens can no longer attach to and invade host cells whose GAG expression has been reduced by mutagenesis or enzymatic treatment. Furthermore, GAG antagonists have been shown to inhibit microbial attachment and host cell entry in vitro and reduce virulence in vivo. Together, these observations underscore the biological significance of proteoglycan-pathogen interactions in infectious diseases.
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90
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Akhtar J, Shukla D. Viral entry mechanisms: cellular and viral mediators of herpes simplex virus entry. FEBS J 2010; 276:7228-36. [PMID: 19878306 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07402.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type-1 and type-2 are highly prevalent human pathogens causing life-long infections. The process of infection begins when the virions bind heparan sulfate moieties present on host cell surfaces. This initial attachment then triggers a cascade of molecular interactions involving multiple viral and host cell proteins and receptors, leading to penetration of the viral nucleocapsid and tegument proteins into the cytoplasm. The nucleocapsid is then transported to the nuclear membrane and the viral DNA is released for replication in the nucleus. Recent studies have revealed that herpes simplex virus entry or penetration into cells may be a highly complex process and the mechanism of entry may demonstrate unique cell-type specificities. Although specificities clearly exist, past and ongoing studies demonstrate that herpes simplex virus may share certain common receptors and pathways that are also used by many other human viruses. This minireview helps to shed light on recent revelations on the herpes simplex virus entry process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihan Akhtar
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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91
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O'Donnell CD, Kovacs M, Akhtar J, Valyi-Nagy T, Shukla D. Expanding the role of 3-O sulfated heparan sulfate in herpes simplex virus type-1 entry. Virology 2009; 397:389-98. [PMID: 20004926 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2009] [Revised: 09/09/2009] [Accepted: 11/06/2009] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans are commonly exploited by multiple viruses for initial attachment to host cells. Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) is unique because it can use HS for both attachment and penetration, provided specific binding sites for HSV-1 envelope glycoprotein gD are present. The interaction with gD is mediated by specific HS moieties or 3-O sulfated HS (3-OS HS), which are generated by all but one of the seven isoforms of 3-O sulfotransferases (3-OSTs). Here we demonstrate that several common experimental cell lines express unique sets of 3-OST isoforms. While the isoforms 3-OST-3, -5 and -6 were most commonly expressed, isoforms 3-OST-2 and -4 were undetectable in the cell lines examined. Since most cell lines expressed multiple 3-OST isoforms, we addressed the significance of 3-OS HS in HSV-1 entry by down-regulating 2-O-sulfation, a prerequisite for 3-OS HS formation, by knocking down 2-OST expression by RNA interference (RNAi). 2-OST knockdown was verified by reverse-transcriptase PCR and Western blot analysis, while 3-OS HS knockdown was verified by immunofluorescence. Cells showed a significant decrease in viral entry, suggesting an important role for 3-OS HS. Implicating 3-OS HS further, cells knocked down for 2-OST expression also demonstrated decreased cell-cell fusion when cocultivated with effector cells transfected with HSV-1 glycoproteins. Our findings suggest that 3-OS HS may play an important role in HSV-1 entry into many different cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D O'Donnell
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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92
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Tiwari V, Shukla SY, Shukla D. A sugar binding protein cyanovirin-N blocks herpes simplex virus type-1 entry and cell fusion. Antiviral Res 2009; 84:67-75. [PMID: 19665490 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2009.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2009] [Revised: 07/21/2009] [Accepted: 07/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) causes significant health problems from periodic skin and corneal lesions to encephalitis. It is also considered a cofactor in the development of age-related secondary glaucoma. Inhibition of HSV-1 at the stage of viral entry generates a unique opportunity for preventative and/or therapeutic intervention. Here we provide evidence that a sugar binding antiviral protein, cyanovirin-N (CV-N), can act as a potent inhibitor of HSV-1 entry into natural target cells. Inhibition of entry was independent of HSV-1 gD receptor usage and it was observed in transformed as well as primary cell cultures. Evidence presented herein suggests that CV-N can not only block virus entry to cells but also, it is capable of significantly inhibiting membrane fusion mediated by HSV glycoproteins. While CV-N treated virions were significantly deficient in entering into cells, HSV-1 glycoproteins-expressing cells pretreated with CV-N demonstrated reduced cell-to-cell fusion and polykaryocytes formation. The observation that CV-N can block both entry as well as membrane fusion suggests a stronger potential for this compound in antiviral therapy against HSV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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93
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Meissen JK, Sweeney MD, Girardi M, Lawrence R, Esko JD, Leary JA. Differentiation of 3-O-sulfated heparin disaccharide isomers: identification of structural aspects of the heparin CCL2 binding motif. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009; 20:652-7. [PMID: 19185514 PMCID: PMC2758813 DOI: 10.1016/j.jasms.2008.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2008] [Revised: 11/29/2008] [Accepted: 12/01/2008] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The presence of 3-O-sulfated glucosamine residues in heparin or heparan sulfate plays a role in binding to antithrombin III and HSV infection. In this study, tandem mass spectrometry was used to differentiate between two heparin disaccharide isomers containing variable sulfate at C6 in a common disaccharide and C3 in a more rare one. The dissociation patterns shown by MS(2) and MS(3) were clearly distinguishable between the isomers, allowing their differentiation and quantitation. Using this technique, we show that an octasaccharide with 11 sulfate groups with high affinity for inflammatory chemokine CCL2 does not contain 3-O-sulfated disaccharides.
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Affiliation(s)
- John K. Meissen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Matthew Girardi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Roger Lawrence
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Jeffrey D. Esko
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Julie A. Leary
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, California, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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94
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Tiwari V, Oh MJ, Kovacs M, Shukla SY, Valyi-Nagy T, Shukla D. Role for nectin-1 in herpes simplex virus 1 entry and spread in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. FEBS J 2008; 275:5272-85. [PMID: 18803666 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06655.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) demonstrates a unique ability to infect a variety of host cell types. Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells form the outermost layer of the retina and provide a potential target for viral invasion and permanent vision impairment. Here we examine the initial cellular and molecular mechanisms that facilitate HSV-1 invasion of human RPE cells. High-resolution confocal microscopy demonstrated initial interaction of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged virions with filopodia-like structures present on cell surfaces. Unidirectional movement of the virions on filopodia to the cell body was detected by live cell imaging of RPE cells, which demonstrated susceptibility to pH-dependent HSV-1 entry and replication. Use of RT-PCR indicated expression of nectin-1, herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM) and 3-O-sulfotransferase-3 (as a surrogate marker for 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate). HVEM and nectin-1 expression was subsequently verified by flow cytometry. Nectin-1 expression in murine retinal tissue was also demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. Antibodies against nectin-1, but not HVEM, were able to block HSV-1 infection. Similar blocking effects were seen with a small interfering RNA construct specifically directed against nectin-1, which also blocked RPE cell fusion with HSV-1 glycoprotein-expressing Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells. Anti-nectin-1 antibodies and F-actin depolymerizers were also successful in blocking the cytoskeletal changes that occur upon HSV-1 entry into cells. Our findings shed new light on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that help the virus to enter the cells of the inner eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
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95
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Construction of a fully retargeted herpes simplex virus 1 recombinant capable of entering cells solely via human epidermal growth factor receptor 2. J Virol 2008; 82:10153-61. [PMID: 18684832 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01133-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A novel frontier in the treatment of tumors that are difficult to treat is oncolytic virotherapy, in which a replication-competent virus selectively infects and destroys tumor cells. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) represents a particularly attractive system. Effective retargeting to tumor-specific receptors has been achieved by insertion in gD of heterologous ligands. Previously, our laboratory generated an HSV retargeted to human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), a receptor overexpressed in about one-third of mammary tumors and in some ovarian tumors. HER2 overexpression correlates with increased metastaticity and poor prognosis. Because HER2 has no natural ligand, the inserted ligand was a single-chain antibody to HER2. The objective of this work was to genetically engineer an HSV that selectively targets the HER2-expressing tumor cells and that has lost the ability to enter cells through the natural gD receptors, HVEM and nectin1. Detargeting from nectin1 was attempted by two different strategies, point mutations and insertion of the single-chain antibody at a site in gD different from previously described sites of insertion. We report that point mutations at gD amino acids 34, 215, 222, and 223 failed to generate a nectin1-detargeted HSV. An HSV simultaneously detargeted from nectin1 and HVEM and retargeted to HER2 was successfully engineered by moving the site of single-chain antibody insertion at residue 39, i.e., in front of the nectin1-interacting surface and not lateral to it, and by deleting amino acid residues 6 to 38. The resulting recombinant, R-LM113, entered cells and spread from cell to cell solely via HER2.
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96
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Copeland R, Balasubramaniam A, Tiwari V, Zhang F, Bridges A, Linhardt RJ, Shukla D, Liu J. Using a 3-O-sulfated heparin octasaccharide to inhibit the entry of herpes simplex virus type 1. Biochemistry 2008; 47:5774-83. [PMID: 18457417 PMCID: PMC2504729 DOI: 10.1021/bi800205t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a highly sulfated polysaccharide and is present in large quantities on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) utilizes a specialized cell surface HS, known as 3-O-sulfated HS, as an entry receptor to establish infection. Here, we exploit an approach to inhibiting HSV-1 infection by using a 3-O-sulfated octasaccharide, mimicking the active domain of the entry receptor. The 3-O-sulfated octasaccharide was synthesized by incubating a heparin octasaccharide (3-OH octasaccharide) with HS 3-O-sulfotransferase isoform 3. The resultant 3-O-sulfated octasaccharide has a structure of Delta UA2S-GlcNS6S-IdoUA2S-GlcNS6S-IdoUA2S-GlcNS3S6S-IdoUA2S-GlcNS6S (where Delta UA is 4-deoxy-alpha-L-threo-hex-4-enopyranosyluronic acid, GlcN is D-glucosamine, and IdoUA is L-iduronic acid). Results from cell-based assays revealed that the 3-O-sulfated octasaccharide has stronger activity in blocking HSV-1 infection than that of the 3-OH octasaccharide, suggesting that the inhibition of HSV-1 infection requires a unique sulfation moiety. Our results suggest the feasibility of inhibiting HSV-1 infection by blocking viral entry with a specific oligosaccharide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Copeland
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Arun Balasubramaniam
- Departments of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences and Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Departments of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences and Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Fuming Zhang
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Biology and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, 12180
| | - Arlene Bridges
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
| | - Robert J Linhardt
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Biology and Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, 12180
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Departments of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences and Microbiology & Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Jian Liu
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599
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Akhtar J, Tiwari V, Oh MJ, Kovacs M, Jani A, Kovacs SK, Valyi-Nagy T, Shukla D. HVEM and nectin-1 are the major mediators of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) entry into human conjunctival epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49:4026-35. [PMID: 18502984 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.08-1807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The human conjunctiva is a natural target for herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 infection. The goals of this study were to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms of HSV-1 entry into human conjunctival epithelial (HCjE) cells. Specific features of entry studied included the method of initial viral binding to cells, pH dependency, and expression and usage of specific HSV-1 entry receptors. METHODS To observe HSV-1 initial binding, live cell imaging was performed on HSV-1-infected HCjE cells. Reporter HSV-1 virions expressing beta-galactosidase were used to determine entry of wild-type HSV-1(KOS) and a mutant, HSV-1(KOS)Rid1, into HCjE cells. HSV-1 replication in HCjE cells was determined by plaque assays. Lysosomotropic agents were used to determine whether viral entry was pH dependent. Reverse transcription (RT)-PCR, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry were used to determine the expression of receptors. Receptor-specific siRNAs were used to define the role of individual entry receptors. RESULTS HSV-1 virions attach to filopodia present on HCjE cells and use them to reach the cell body for entry. Cultured HCjE cells demonstrate susceptibility to HSV-1 entry and form plaques confirming viral replication. Blocking vesicular acidification significantly reduces entry, implicating a pH-dependent mode of entry. Multiple assays confirm the expression of entry receptors nectin-1, HVEM, and 3-O-sulfated heparan sulfate (3-OS HS) on the HCjE cell membrane. Knocking down of gD receptors by siRNAs interference implicates nectin-1 and HVEM as the major mediators of entry. CONCLUSIONS HSV-1 entry into HCjE cells is a pH-dependent process that is aided by targeted virus travel on filopodia. HCjE cells express all three major entry receptors, with nectin-1 and HVEM playing the predominant role in mediating entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihan Akhtar
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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98
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Oliveira FORD, Alves CR, Calvet CM, Toma L, Bouças RI, Nader HB, Castro Côrtes LMD, Krieger MA, Meirelles MDNSL, Souza Pereira MCD. Trypanosoma cruzi heparin-binding proteins and the nature of the host cell heparan sulfate-binding domain. Microb Pathog 2007; 44:329-38. [PMID: 18037261 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2007.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2007] [Revised: 10/15/2007] [Accepted: 10/16/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi invasion is mediated by receptor-ligand recognition between the surfaces of both parasite and target cell. We have previously demonstrated the role of heparan sulfate proteoglycan in the attachment and invasion of T. cruzi in cardiomyocytes. Herein, we have isolated the T. cruzi heparin-binding proteins (HBP-Tc) and investigated the nature of cardiomyocyte heparan sulfate (HS)-binding site to the parasite surface ligand. Two major heparin-binding proteins with molecular masses of 65.8 and 59 kDa were observed in total extract of amastigote and trypomastigote forms of T. cruzi. Hydrophobic [S(35)]methionine labeled proteins eluted from heparin-sepharose affinity chromatography also revealed both proteins in trypomastigotes but only the 59 kDa is strongly recognized by biotin-conjugated glycosaminoglycans. Competition assays were performed to analyze the role of sulfated proteoglycans, including heparin, keratan sulfate and both acetylated and highly sulfated domains of heparan sulfate, in the recognition and invasion process of T. cruzi. Significant inhibitions of 84% and 35% in the percentage of infection were revealed after treatment of the parasites with heparin and the N-acetylated/ N-sulfated heparan sulfate domain, respectively, suggesting the important role of the glycuronic acid and NS glucosamine domain of the HS chain in the recognition of the HBP-Tc during the T. cruzi-cardiomyocyte interaction.
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99
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Tiwari V, Shukla SY, Yue BYJT, Shukla D. Herpes simplex virus type 2 entry into cultured human corneal fibroblasts is mediated by herpesvirus entry mediator. J Gen Virol 2007; 88:2106-2110. [PMID: 17622611 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82830-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infections in the eye are becoming increasingly common in adults. The most likely point of entry for HSV-2 into the eye is through the cornea. By using primary cultures of human corneal fibroblasts (CFs), a natural target-cell type for infection, it was demonstrated that CFs are highly susceptible to HSV-2 entry and replication. RT-PCR and flow-cytometry analyses demonstrated expression of herpesvirus entry mediator (HVEM), a known mediator for HSV-2 entry into cells. Blocking of virus entry into CFs by anti-HVEM antibody implicated HVEM as a potential receptor for HSV-2 infection. These results indicate that HVEM may play a crucial role in HSV-2-induced corneal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Shripaad Y Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Beatrice Y J T Yue
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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100
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Spear PG, Manoj S, Yoon M, Taylor JM, Lin E, Susmarski N. Alternative entry receptors for herpes simplex virus and their roles in infection and disease. Future Virol 2007. [DOI: 10.2217/17460794.2.5.509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are highly prevalent in human populations. Clinical manifestations are often not apparent or are limited to mucocutaneous lesions, at least in persons other than neonates or the immunocompromised. The virus establishes latent infections in peripheral neurons, cannot be eliminated by the immune system once acquired and can periodically reactivate to cause recurrent skin lesions even in persons with apparently normal immune systems. Additionally, the virus can spread to the CNS, causing life-threatening encephalitis. Multiple alternative entry receptors for HSV have been identified. This review will focus on recent studies designed to investigate which of these receptors are exploited by the virus for infection of its various target cell types, whether each receptor contributes equally to disease, and whether HSV strains differ in receptor usage, perhaps influencing their pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia G Spear
- Northwestern University, Department of Microbiology – Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Sharmila Manoj
- The University of Chicago, MKL 057, 910 E. 58th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Miri Yoon
- Northwestern University, Department of Microbiology – Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Joann M Taylor
- Northwestern University, Department of Microbiology – Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Erick Lin
- Northwestern University, Department of Microbiology – Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Nanette Susmarski
- Northwestern University, Department of Microbiology – Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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