Nuclear targeting of incoming human foamy virus Gag proteins involves a centriolar step

Cell cycle requirements for transduction by foamy virus vectors compared to those of oncovirus and lentivirus vectors

Retroviral vectors based on foamy viruses (FV) are efficient gene delivery vehicles for therapeutic and research applications. While previous studies have shown that FV vectors transduce quiescent cell cultures more efficiently than oncoviral vectors, their specific cell cycle requirements have not been determined. Here we compare the transduction frequencies of FV vectors with those of onco- and lentiviral vectors in nondividing and dividing normal human fibroblasts by several methods. FV vectors transduced serum-deprived fibroblast cultures more efficiently than oncoretroviral vectors and at rates comparable to those of lentiviral vectors. However, in these cultures FV vectors only transduced a subpopulation of proliferating cells, as determined by bromodeoxyuridine staining for DNA synthesis. In contrast to lentiviral vectors, FV vectors were unable to transduce human fibroblasts arrested by aphidicolin (G(1)/S phase) or gamma-irradiation (G(2) phase), and a partial cell cycle that included mitosis but not DNA synthesis was required. We could not determine if mitosis facilitated nuclear entry of FV vectors, since cell-free vector preparations contained long terminal repeat circles, precluding their use as nuclear markers. In contrast to oncoviral vectors, both FV and lentiviral vectors efficiently transduced G(0) fibroblasts that were later stimulated to divide. In the case of FV vectors, this was due to the persistence of a stable transduction intermediate in quiescent cells. Our findings support the use of FV vectors as a safe and effective alternative to lentiviral vectors for ex vivo transduction of stem cells that are quiescent during culture but divide following transplantation.

Non-primate foamy viruses

Foamy viruses (PFVs), also called spumaviruses, are complex retroviruses inducing a characteristic cytopathic effect in cell culture, leading rapidly to cell lysis. These viruses have been isolated mostly in non-human primates, but three non primate PFVs were characterized, namely the bovine foamy virus, the feline foamy virus and more recently the equine foamy virus. In their hosts, PFVs seem to be apathogenic, mirroring an efficient control of virus replication in vivo. Comparing the biology of the different virus isolates will certainly help to unravel the biology of these retroviruses.

Foamy virus vectors

Gene therapy is a promising novel treatment for a variety of human diseases. Successful application of gene therapy requires the availability of vehicles with the ability to efficiently deliver and express genes. Viral vectors are efficient means of transferring a gene of interest into target cells. Current available vehicles for gene transfer are either inefficient or potentially unsafe for human gene therapy applications. Foamy viruses offer a fresh alternative vector system for gene transfer with the potential to overcome the concerns of the current vectors. Foamy viruses are nonpathogenic and have a broad host range with the ability to infect various types of cells from different species. Foamy virus replication is distinct and may provide an edge for foamy virus vector usage over other retroviral vectors. These features offer the foamy vectors unique opportunities to deliver several genes into a number of different cell types in vivo safely and efficiently. The principal problems for the design of foamy virus vectors have been solved, and several foamy virus vectors that efficiently transduce a variety of cell types are available. This chapter reviews specific features of foamy virus vector systems and recent advances in the development and use of these vectors.

Particle assembly and genome packaging

Foamy virus (FV) replication is distinct from that of all other retroviruses in many respects, including viral assembly. In fact, the viral assembly pathway is rather similar to that of hepadnaviruses such as hepatitis B virus. Foamy virus Gag does not contain landmark retroviral assembly domains such as the major homology region, Cys-His boxes, or a defined M domain. Like hepadnaviruses, the FV Gag protein is not cleaved and contains arginine-rich regions at the carboxyl terminus. In addition, egress of FV particles requires presence of the envelope glycoproteins. Finally, the cis-acting sequences in the FV genome required for genome incorporation, although poorly defined, differ in location from other retroviruses.

Targeting of incoming retroviral Gag to the centrosome involves a direct interaction with the dynein light chain 8

The role of cellular proteins in the replication of retroviruses, especially during virus assembly, has been partly unraveled by recent studies. Paradoxically, little is known about the route taken by retroviruses to reach the nucleus at the early stages of infection. To get insight into this stage of virus replication, we have studied the trafficking of foamy retroviruses and have previously shown that incoming viral proteins reach the microtubule organizing center (MTOC) prior to nuclear translocation of the viral genome. Here, we show that incoming viruses concentrate around the MTOC as free and structured capsids. Interestingly, the Gag protein, the scaffold component of viral capsids, targets the pericentrosomal region in transfected cells in the absence of any other viral components but in a microtubule- and dynein/dynactin-dependent manner. Trafficking of Gag towards the centrosome requires a minimal 30 amino acid coiled-coil motif in the N-terminus of the molecule. Finally, we describe a direct interaction between Gag and dynein light chain 8 that probably accounts for the specific routing of the incoming capsids to the centrosome prior to nuclear import of the viral genome.

Biphasic DNA synthesis in spumaviruses

Spumaviruses are complex retroviruses whose replication cycle resembles that of hepadnaviruses, especially by a late-occurring reverse transcription step. The possible existence of an early reverse transcription as observed in other retroviruses was not documented. Using real-time quantitative PCR, we addressed directly the kinetics of DNA synthesis during spumavirus infection. An early phase of viral DNA synthesis developed until 3 h postinfection, followed by a second phase, culminating 10 h postinfection. Both phases were abolished by the reverse transcriptase inhibitor 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine. Similar to other retroviruses, circular forms of viral DNA harboring two long terminal repeats were mainly found in the nucleus of infected cells. Interestingly, a fraction of these circular forms were detected in the cytoplasm and in extracellular virions, a feature shared with hepadnaviruses. Combined with packaging of both viral DNA and RNA genomes in virions, early and late reverse transcription might allow spumavirus to maximize its genome replication.

Intracellular targeting of Gag proteins of the Drosophila telomeric retrotransposons

Drosophila has two non-long-terminal-repeat (non-LTR) retrotransposons that are unique because they have a defined role in chromosome maintenance. These elements, HeT-A and TART, extend chromosome ends by successive transpositions, producing long arrays of head-to-tail repeat sequences. These arrays appear to be analogous to the arrays produced by telomerase on chromosomes of other organisms. While other non-LTR retrotransposons transpose to many chromosomal sites, HeT-A and TART transpose only to chromosome ends. Although HeT-A and TART belong to different subfamilies of non-LTR retrotransposons, they encode very similar Gag proteins, which suggests that Gag proteins are involved in their unique transposition targeting. We have recently shown that both Gags localize efficiently to nuclei where HeT-A Gag forms structures associated with telomeres. TART Gag does not associate with telomeres unless HeT-A Gag is present, suggesting a symbiotic relationship in which HeT-A Gag provides telomeric targeting. We now report studies to identify amino acid regions responsible for different aspects of the intracellular targeting of these proteins. Green fluorescent protein-tagged deletion derivatives were expressed in cultured Drosophila cells. The intracellular localization of these proteins shows the following. (i) Several regions that direct subcellular localizations or cluster formation are found in both Gags and are located in equivalent regions of the two proteins. (ii) Regions important for telomere association are present only in HeT-A Gag. These are present at several places in the protein, are not redundant, and cannot be complemented in trans. (iii) Regions containing zinc knuckle and major homology region motifs, characteristic of retroviral Gags, are involved in protein-protein interactions of the telomeric Gags, as they are in retroviral Gags.

Break ins and break outs: viral interactions with the cytoskeleton of Mammalian cells

The host cytoskeleton plays important roles in the entry, replication, and egress of viruses. An assortment of viruses hijack cellular motor proteins to move on microtubules toward the cell interior during the entry process; others reverse this transport during egress to move assembling virus particles toward the plasma membrane. Polymerization of actin filaments is sometimes used to propel viruses from cell to cell, while many viruses induce the destruction of select cytoskeletal filaments apparently to effect efficient egress. Indeed, the tactics used by any given virus to achieve its infectious life cycle are certain to involve multiple cytoskeletal interactions. Understanding these interactions, and their orchestration during viral infections, is providing unexpected insights into basic virology, viral pathogenesis, and the biology of the cytoskeleton.

Comparison of three retroviral vector systems for transduction of nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency mice repopulating human CD34+ cord blood cells

The use of recombinant vectors based on wild-type viruses that are absent in humans and are not associated with any disease in their natural animal hosts or in accidentally infected humans would add an additional level of safety for human somatic gene therapy approaches. These criteria are fulfilled by foamy viruses (FVs), a family of complex retroviruses whose members are widely found among mammals and are apathogenic in all hosts. Here, we show by comparison of identically designed vector constructs that recombinant retroviral vectors based on FVs were as efficient as lentiviral vectors in transducing nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mice repopulating human CD34(+) cord blood (CB) cells. The FV vector was able to achieve gene transfer levels up to 84% of engrafted human cells in a short overnight transduction protocol. In contrast, without prestimulation of the target cells, a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-based lentiviral vector pseudotyped with gibbon ape leukemia virus envelope (GALV Env) was nearly as inefficient as murine leukemia virus (MLV)-based oncoretroviral vectors in transducing NOD/SCID repopulating cells. The same HIV vector pseudotyped with the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G (VSV-G) achieved high marking efficiency. Clonality analysis of bone marrow samples showed oligoclonal hematopoiesis with single to multiple insertions per cell, both for FV and HIV vectors. These data demonstrate that vectors based on FVs warrant further investigation and development for medical use.

Current developments in the design of onco-retrovirus and lentivirus vector systems for hematopoietic cell gene therapy

Over the past dozen years, the majority of clinical gene therapy trials for inherited genetic diseases and cancer therapy have been performed using murine onco-retrovirus as the gene delivery vector. The earliest systems used were relatively inefficient in both the rates of transduction and expression of the transgene. Formidable obstacles inherent in the cell biology and/or the immunology of the target cell systems limited the efficacy of gene therapy for many target diseases. Development of novel retrovirus gene transfer systems that are in progress have begun to overcome these obstacles. Evidence of this progress is the recent successful functional correction of the immune T and B lymphocyte deficiency in patients with X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (X-SCID) and adenosine deaminase (ADA)-deficient SCID following onco-retrovirus vector ex vivo transduction of autologous marrow stem cells [Science 296 (2002) 2410; Science 288 (2000) 669; N. Engl. J. Med. 346 (2002) 1185]. These achievements of prolonged clinical benefit from gene therapy were tempered by the finding of insertional mutageneses in two of the treated X-SCID patients [N. Engl. J. Med. 348 (2003) 255].

Foamy virus envelope glycoprotein-mediated entry involves a pH-dependent fusion process

In general, enveloped viruses use two different entry strategies and are classified accordingly into pH-dependent and pH-independent viruses. Different members of the retrovirus family use one or the other strategy. Little is known about the uptake of foamy viruses (FV), a special group of retroviruses, into the target cells. In this study, we examined the pH dependence of FV entry by analyzing FV envelope glycoprotein (Env)-mediated infection of target cells with murine leukemia virus or FV vector pseudotypes in the presence of various lysosomotropic agents. Similar to vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G (VSV-G)-mediated uptake, FV Env-mediated entry was inhibited by various lysosomotropic agents, suggesting a pH-dependent endocytic pathway. However, in contrast to its effect on VSV-G pseudotypes, chloroquine failed to reduce the infectivity of FV Env pseudotypes, implying that the pathway is different from that of VSV-G. Glycoproteins of various other FV species showed inhibition profiles similar to that of the prototype FV (PFV) Env. Analysis of the pH dependence of the FV Env-mediated fusion process in a cell-to-cell fusion assay revealed an induction of syncytium formation by a short exposure to acidic pH, peaking around pH 5.5. Interestingly, of all FV Env species analyzed, only the PFV Env had a significant fusion activity at neutral pH. Taken together, these data suggest a pH-dependent endocytic pathway for infection of target cells by FV.

Nuclear import of viral DNA genomes

The genomes of many viruses traffic into the nucleus, where they are either integrated into host chromosomes or maintained as episomal DNA and then transcriptionally activated or silenced. Here, we discuss the existing evidence on how the lentiviruses, adenoviruses, herpesviruses, hepadnaviruses and autonomous parvoviruses enter the nucleus. Depending on the size of the capsid enclosing the genome, three principles of viral nucleic acids import are discussed. The first principle is that the capsid disassembles in the cytosol or in a docked state at the nuclear pore complex and a subviral genomic complex is trafficked through the pore. Second, the genome is injected from a capsid that is docked to the pore complex, and third, import factors are recruited to cytosolic capsids to increase capsid affinity to the pore complex, mediate translocation and allow disassembly in the nucleoplasm.

Transduction of umbilical cord blood CD34+ NOD/SCID-repopulating cells by simian foamy virus type 1 (SFV-1) vector

Foamy viruses are nonpathogenic retroviruses that offer unique opportunities for gene transfer into various cell types including hematopoietic stem cells. We used a simian foamy virus type 1 vector (SFV-1) containing a LacZ reporter gene with a titer of 1-5 x 10(6) viral particles/ml that was free of replication-competent retrovirus to transduce human umbilical cord blood CD34+ cells. Transduced CD34+ cord blood cells were transplanted into NOD/SCID mice and plated in serum-free methylcellulose culture to determine the transduction efficiency of human hematopoietic progenitor cells. A transduction efficiency of about 20% was obtained. At 6-10 weeks posttransplantation, human hematopoietic cell engraftment and marking were determined. Marrow from transplanted mice demonstrated human cell engraftment by the presence of human (CD45+) cells containing both CD19+ lymphoid and CD33+ myeloid cells. Serial sampling of NOD/SCID bone marrow revealed the presence of 6.7-14.0% CD45+ cells at 6 weeks posttransplant as compared to 3.6-27.2% CD45+ cells at 9-10 weeks posttransplant. Human progenitors examined from NOD/SCID bone marrow cells 9 weeks posttransplant revealed from 7.4 to 25.9% of the colonies exhibiting X-gal staining. Our study demonstrates the ability of a simian foamy virus vector to transduce the SCID-repopulating cell and offers a promising new gene delivery system for use in hematopoietic stem cell gene therapy.

Further characterization of equine foamy virus reveals unusual features among the foamy viruses

Foamy viruses (FVs) are nonpathogenic, widely spread complex retroviruses which have been isolated in nonhuman primates, cattle, cats, and more recently in horses. The equine foamy virus (EFV) was isolated from healthy horses and was characterized by molecular cloning and nucleotide sequence analysis. Here, to further characterize this new FV isolate, the location of the transcriptional cap and poly(A) addition sites as well as the main splice donor and acceptor sites were determined, demonstrating the existence of the specific subgenomic pol mRNA, one specific feature of FVs. Moreover, similar to what has been described for the human foamy virus (HFV), the prototype of FVs, a replication-defective EFV genome was identified during persistent infection. At the protein level, the use of specific antibodies allowed us to determine the size and the subcellular localization of EFV Gag, Env, and Tas, the viral transactivators. While EFV Gag was detected in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus, EFV Env mainly localized in the Golgi complex, in contrast to HFV Env, which is sequestered in the endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, electron microscopy analysis demonstrated that EFV budding occurs at the plasma membrane and not intracellularly, as is the case for primate FVs. Interestingly, EFV Tas was detected both in the nucleus and the cytoplasm of Tas-transfected cells, in contrast to the strict nuclear localization of other FV Tas but similar to the equine infectious anemia virus Tat gene product. Taken together, our results reveal that this new FV isolate exhibits remarkable features among FVs, bringing new insights into the biology of these unconventional retroviruses.

Transduction of human NOD/SCID-repopulating cells with both lymphoid and myeloid potential by foamy virus vectors

The efficiency of gene transfer into human hematopoietic stem cells by oncoretroviral vectors is too low for effective gene therapy of most hematologic diseases. Retroviral vectors based on the nonpathogenic foamy viruses (FV) are an alternative gene-transfer system. In this study, human umbilical cord blood CD34(+) cells were transduced with FV vectors by a single 10-h exposure to vector stocks and then injected into sublethally irradiated nonobese diabetic-severe combined immunodeficiency (NOD/SCID) mice. At 5-7 weeks after transplantation, high transgene expression rates were observed in engrafted human hematopoietic cells, including over 60% of clonogenic progenitors. Significant transgene silencing did not occur. We developed an approach for expanding human cell populations derived from transplanted mice to show that multiple SCID repopulating cells (SRCs) had been transduced, including some that were capable of both lymphoid and myeloid differentiation. These findings demonstrate for the first time that human pluripotent (lympho-myeloid) hematopoietic stem cells repopulate NOD/SCID mice and can be efficiently transduced by FV vectors.

HIV-1 integrase interacts with yeast microtubule-associated proteins

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) integrase (IN) mediates the insertion of viral DNA into the human genome. In addition to IN, cellular and viral proteins are associated to proviral DNA in the so-called preintegration complex (PIC). We previously reported that the expression of HIV-1 IN in yeast leads to the emergence of a lethal phenotype. This effect may be linked to the IN activity on infected human cells where integration requires the cleavage of genomic DNA. To isolate and characterize potential cellular partners of HIV-1 IN, we used it as a bait in a two-hybrid system with a yeast genomic library. IN interacted with proteins belonging to the microtubule network, or involved in the protein synthesis apparatus. We focused our interest on one of the selected inserts, L2, which corresponds to the C-end half of the yeast STU2p, a microtubule-associated protein (MAP). STU2p is an essential component of the yeast spindle pole body (SPB), which is able to bind microtubules in vitro. After expressing and purifying L2 as a recombinant protein, we showed its binding to IN by ELISA immunodetection. L2 was also able to inhibit IN activity in vitro. In addition, the effect of L2 was tested using the "lethal yeast phenotype". The coexpression of IN and the L2 peptide abolished the lethal phenotype, thus showing important in vivo interactions between IN and L2. The identification of components of the microtubule network associated with IN suggest a role of this complex in the transport of HIV-1 IN present in the PIC to the nucleus, as already described for other human viruses.

Intra- and intercellular trafficking of the foamy virus auxiliary bet protein

The Bet protein of foamy viruses (FVs) is an auxiliary protein encoded by the 3' end of the viral genome. Although its function during the viral replication cycle is still unknown, Bet seems to play a key role in the establishment and/or maintenance of viral persistence, representing the predominant viral protein detected during chronic infection. To clarify the function of this viral protein, the subcellular distribution of Bet from the prototypic human foamy virus (HFV) was examined. We report here that this protein is distributed in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus of HFV-infected or Bet-transfected cells. The nuclear targeting results from the presence of a bipartite nuclear localization signal at the C-terminal region, sufficient to direct heterologous reporter proteins to the nucleus. Since HFV Bet spreads between cells, we show here that the secreted protein targets the nuclei of recipient cells. HFV Bet follows an unconventional route to exit the cell since its secretion is not affected by brefeldin A, a drug which disrupts the trafficking between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex. Finally, these inter- and intracellular movements were also observed for the equine foamy virus Bet protein, strongly suggesting that these remarkable features are conserved among FVs.

Element-specific localization of Drosophila retrotransposon Gag proteins occurs in both nucleus and cytoplasm

Many Drosophila non-long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons actively transpose into internal, gene-rich regions of chromosomes but do not transpose onto chromosome ends. HeT-A and TART are remarkable exceptions; they form telomeres of Drosophila by repeated transpositions onto the ends of chromosomes and never transpose to internal regions of chromosomes. Both telomeric and nontelomeric, non-LTR elements transpose by target-primed reverse transcription, and their targets are not determined simply by DNA sequence, so it is not clear why these two kinds of elements have nonoverlapping transposition patterns. To explore roles of retrotransposon-encoded proteins in transposition, we analyzed intracellular targeting of Gag proteins from five non-LTR retrotransposons, HeT-A, TART, jockey, Doc, and I factor. All were expressed as green fluorescent protein-tagged proteins in cultured Drosophila cells. These Gag proteins have high levels of sequence similarity, but they have dramatic differences in intracellular targeting. As expected, HeT-A and TART Gags are transported efficiently to nuclei, where they show specific patterns of localization. These patterns are cell cycle-dependent, disappearing during mitosis. In contrast, only a fraction of jockey Gag moves into nuclei, whereas neither Doc nor I factor Gag is detected in the nucleus. Gags of the nontelomeric retrotransposons form characteristic clusters in the cytoplasm. These experiments demonstrate that closely related retrotransposon Gag proteins can have different intracellular localizations, presumably because they interact differently with cellular components. We suggest that these interactions reflect mechanisms by which the cell influences the level of transposition of an element.

Intracellular trafficking of retroviral genomes during the early phase of infection: viral exploitation of cellular pathways

Retroviruses enter cells through specific cell-surface receptors and then embark on a journey that ultimately leads to the establishment of the integrated proviral DNA. The steps of the journey include the reverse transcription of the viral RNA into DNA, the trafficking of the viral protein-DNA complex through the cytoplasm, the entry of the complex into the nucleus, and the insertion of the linear viral DNA into the host genome. All these steps are likely to involve specific interactions of viral proteins with host machinery. Our knowledge of the details of these interactions is very limited but is rapidly expanding, and should provide a deeper understanding of the pathways and components used by the different classes of retroviruses. This knowledge in turn should enable the development of better and more efficient retroviral vectors for use in gene therapy protocols in vivo.

Infection of nondividing cells by Rous sarcoma virus

A direct comparison demonstrates that Rous sarcoma virus is capable of infecting aphidicolin-arrested cells 10-fold more efficiently than murine leukemia virus but less efficiently than human immunodeficiency virus. The efficiency of infection of nondividing cells by the three viruses correlates with the respective ability of each viral DNA to enter the nucleus.

Identification of a conserved residue of foamy virus Gag required for intracellular capsid assembly

In contrast to all retroviruses but similar to the hepatitis B virus, foamy viruses (FV) require expression of the envelope protein for budding of intracellular capsids from the cell, suggesting a specific interaction between the Gag and Env proteins. Capsid assembly occurs in the cytoplasm of infected cells in a manner similar to that for the B- and D-type viruses; however, in contrast to these retroviruses, FV Gag lacks an N-terminal myristylation signal and capsids are not targeted to the plasma membrane (PM). We have found that mutation of an absolutely conserved arginine (Arg) residue at position 50 to alanine (R50A) of the simian foamy virus SFV cpz(hu) inhibits proper capsid assembly and abolishes viral budding even in the presence of the envelope (Env) glycoproteins. Particle assembly and extracellular release of virus can be restored to this mutant with the addition of an N-terminal Src myristylation signal (Myr-R50A), presumably by providing an alternate site for assembly to occur at the PM. In addition, the strict requirement of Env expression for capsid budding can be bypassed by addition of a PM-targeting signal to Gag. These results suggest that intracellular capsid assembly may be mediated by a signal akin to the cytoplasmic targeting and retention signal CTRS found in Mason-Pfizer monkey virus and that FV Gag has the inherent ability to assemble capsids at multiple sites like conventional retroviruses. The necessity of Env expression for particle egress is most probably due to the lack of a membrane-targeting signal within FV Gag to direct capsids to the PM for release and indicates that Gag-Env interactions are essential to drive particle budding.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vif protein is packaged into the nucleoprotein complex through an interaction with viral genomic RNA

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Vif protein plays a critical role in the production of infectious virions. Previous studies have demonstrated the presence of small amounts of Vif in virus particles. However, Vif packaging was assumed to be nonspecific, and its functional significance has been questioned. We now report that packaging of Vif is dependent on the packaging of viral genomic RNA in both permissive and restrictive HIV-1 target cells. Mutations in the nucleocapsid zinc finger domains that abrogate packaging of viral genomic RNA abolished packaging of Vif. Additionally, an RNA packaging-defective virus exhibited significantly reduced packaging of Vif. Finally, deletion of a putative RNA-interacting domain in Vif abolished packaging of Vif into virions. Virion-associated Vif was resistant to detergent extraction and copurified with components of the viral nucleoprotein complex and functional reverse transcription complexes. Thus, Vif is specifically packaged into virions as a component of the viral nucleoprotein complex. Our data suggest that the specific association of Vif with the viral nucleoprotein complex might be functionally significant and could be a critical requirement for infectivity of viruses produced from restrictive host cells.

Gene transfer into murine hematopoietic stem cells with helper-free foamy virus vectors

Gene transfer into hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is an ideal treatment strategy for many genetic and hematologic diseases. However, progress has been limited by the low HSC transduction rates obtained with retroviral vectors based on murine leukemia viruses. This study examined the potential of vectors derived from the nonpathogenic human foamy virus (HFV) to transduce human CD34(+) cells and murine HSCs. More than 80% of human hematopoietic progenitors present in CD34(+) cell preparations derived from cord blood were transduced by a single overnight exposure to HFV vector stocks. Mice that received transduced bone marrow cells expressed the vector-encoded transgene long term in all major hematopoietic cell lineages and in over 50% of cells in some animals. Secondary bone marrow transplants and integration site analysis confirmed that gene transfer occurred at the stem cell level. Transgene silencing was not observed. Thus vectors based on foamy viruses represent a promising approach for HSC gene therapy. (Blood. 2001;98:604-609)

Human foamy virus capsid formation requires an interaction domain in the N terminus of Gag

Retroviral Gag expression is sufficient for capsid assembly, which occurs through interaction between distinct Gag domains. Human foamy virus (HFV) capsids assemble within the cytoplasm, although their budding, which mainly occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum, requires the presence of homologous Env. Yet little is known about the molecular basis of HFV Gag precursor assembly. Using fusions between HFV Gag and a nuclear reporter protein, we have identified a strong interaction domain in the N terminus of HFV Gag which is predicted to contain a conserved coiled-coil motif. Deletion within this region in an HFV provirus abolishes viral production through inhibition of capsid assembly.

The efficiency of simian foamy virus vector type-1 (SFV-1) in nondividing cells and in human PBLs

Current retroviral vectors based on murine leukemia virus (MuLV) are unable to efficiently transduce nondividing cells. Lentiviruses, such as the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) are efficient at transducing nondividing, growth-arrested, and post-mitotic cells, but due to complex safety considerations, they may have limited potential for human clinical gene transfer. For this reason, alternatives to MuLV and HIV-1 vectors need to be explored. In this paper, we have found that simian foamy virus vector (SFV-1) containing a CMV-LacZ expression cassette is able to efficiently transduce multiple cell types of various species that include epithelial, lymphoid, and hematopoietic-derived human cell lines and fibroblast cell lines of several species. Previously it was reported that foamy virus replication is cell cycle dependent (P. D. Bieniasz, R. A. Weiss, and M. O. McClure, 1995. J. Virol. 69, 7295-7299). However, others studies demonstrated nuclear import of viral DNA in arrested cells (A. Saibi, F. Puvion-Dutilleul, M. Schmid, J. Peries, and H. d. The 1997. J. Virol. 71, 1155-1161). Here, we show efficient LacZ transduction by SFV-1 vectors in several chemically arrested cell lines and terminally differentiated human neurons. SFV-1 vector can transduce cell lines arrested in G1/S phase of the cell cycle by aphidicolin treatment with similar efficiencies to that of dividing cells. The terminally differentiated human neural cell line, NT2N, was transduced with 30-50% efficiency, corroborating our data obtained with the arrested cell lines. To further examine whether the SFV-1 vector can efficiently deliver a gene into clinically important cells for gene therapy, we transduced primary human peripheral blood cells (PBLs) in the presence and absence of phytohemagglutanin (PHA) stimulation. We observed 81% transduction efficiency in non-stimulated PBLs and 87% in PHA-stimulated PBLs with vector infection carried out twice in 8 hours intervals at a multiplicity of infection of 1. Together, these data indicate that SFV-1 based retroviral vectors may provide a safe, efficient alternative to current onco- and lentiviral vectors for gene transfer in cells from a broad spectrum of lineages across species boundaries.

Viral transport and the cytoskeleton

In the past decade, studies into the way in which intracellular bacterial pathogens hijack and subvert their hosts have provided many important insights into regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and cell motility, in addition to increasing our understanding of the infection process. Viral pathogens, however, may ultimately unlock more cellular secrets as they are even more dependent on their hosts during their life cycle.

Primate foamy virus Pol proteins are imported into the nucleus

Mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that specifically detect the 127 kDa Pol precursor and the 85 kDa reverse transcriptase/RNase H (RT/RN) or pr127 and the 40 kDa integrase (IN) in immunoblot and immunofluorescence assays (IFA) were used to investigate the subcellular localization of primate foamy virus (PFV) proteins. IFA of cells infected with PFV using the anti-Pol MAbs and rabbit anti-capsid (Gag) serum revealed that both the Gag and Pol proteins are transported into the nucleus. Transfection of cells with eukaryotic expression constructs for pr127(Pol), p85(RT/RN) and p40(IN) served to show Gag-independent subcellular localization of Pol proteins. Interestingly, not only the Pol precursor and IN molecules were found to be localized to the nucleus, but also the RT/RN subdomain. It is therefore suggested that PFV cores bear at least three separate nuclear localization signals, one in Gag and two in Pol. The latter appear to be localized to the two Pol subdomains.

Vaccinia virus infection disrupts microtubule organization and centrosome function

We examined the role of the microtubule cytoskeleton during vaccinia virus infection. We found that newly assembled virus particles accumulate in the vicinity of the microtubule-organizing centre in a microtubule- and dynein-dynactin complex-dependent fashion. Microtubules are required for efficient intracellular mature virus (IMV) formation and are essential for intracellular enveloped virus (IEV) assembly. As infection proceeds, the microtubule cytoskeleton becomes dramatically reorganized in a fashion reminiscent of overexpression of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). Consistent with this, we report that the vaccinia proteins A10L and L4R have MAP-like properties and mediate direct binding of viral cores to microtubules in vitro. In addition, vaccinia infection also results in severe reduction of proteins at the centrosome and loss of centrosomal microtubule nucleation efficiency. This represents the first example of viral-induced disruption of centrosome function. Further studies with vaccinia will provide insights into the role of microtubules during viral pathogenesis and regulation of centrosome function.

Intracellular Virus Trafficking Reveals Physiological Characteristics of the Cytoskeleton

Virus particles that infect eukaryotic cells can take advantage of the cytoskeleton and associated motors to translocate through the cytoplasm. Depending on the virus, motor proteins are recruited or, alternatively, cytoskeletal elements are induced to polymerize onto viral structures. Here we review recent advances toward understanding the roles of the cytoskeleton in virus trafficking.

Nuclear import of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 preintegration complexes

Following infection-mediated entry into the cytoplasm, retroviral cores form large nucleoprotein complexes (PICs) which undergo reverse transcription and, ultimately, catalyze provirus formation. The ability of these complexes to be specifically imported into the nucleus via NPCs explains why nondividing cells can be productively infected with lentiviruses such as HIV-1, whereas productive infection by the oncoretrovirus MLV is restricted to proliferating cells. Current evidence suggests that virally encoded protein components of the HIV-1 PIC, in particular IN and Vpr, act in concert to target these complexes for nuclear import by recruiting cellular import factors and interacting with the NPCs. Here have we reviewed recent advances made in this complex and fascinating area of HIV-1 biology and have discussed them in relation to models for postentry nuclear import in other retroviral and nonretroviral systems.

Packaging cell lines for simian foamy virus type 1 vectors

Foamy viruses are nonpathogenic retroviruses that offer several unique opportunities for gene transfer in various cell types from different species. We have previously demonstrated the utility of simian foamy virus type 1 (SFV-1) as a vector system by transient expression assay (M. Wu et al., J. Virol. 72:3451-3454, 1998). In this report, we describe the first stable packaging cell lines for foamy virus vectors based on SFV-1. We developed two packaging cell lines in which the helper DNA is placed under the control of either a constitutive cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate-early gene or inducible tetracycline promoter for expression. Although the constitutive packaging expressing cell line had a higher copy number of packaging DNA, the inducible packaging cell line produced four times more vector particles. This result suggested that the structural gene products in the constitutively expressing packaging cell line were expressed at a level that is not toxic to the cells, and thus vector production was reduced. The SFV-1 vector in the presence of vesicular stomatitis virus envelope protein G (VSV-G) produced an insignificant level of transduction, indicating that foamy viruses could not be pseudotyped with VSV-G to generate high-titer vectors. The availability of stable packaging cell lines represents a step toward the use of an SFV-1 vector delivery system that will allow scaled-up production of vector stocks for gene therapy.

Modulation of phosphate uptake and amphotropic murine leukemia virus entry by posttranslational modifications of PIT-2

PIT-2 is a type III sodium phosphate cotransporter and the receptor for amphotropic murine leukemia viruses. We have investigated the expression and the functions of a tagged version of PIT-2 in CHO cells. PIT-2 remained equally abundant at the cell surface within 6 h following variation of the phosphate supply. In contrast, the efficiency of phosphate uptake and retrovirus entry was inversely related to the extracellular phosphate concentration, indicating that PIT-2 activities are modulated by posttranslational modifications of cell surface molecules induced by phosphate. Conformational changes of PIT-2 contribute to both activities, as shown by the inhibitory effect of sulfhydryl reagents known as inhibitors of type II cotransporters. A physical association of PIT-2 with actin was demonstrated. Modifications of the actin network were induced by variations of the concentrations of extracellular phosphate, cytochalasin D, or lysophosphatidic acid. They revealed that the formation of actin stress fibers determines the cell surface distribution of PIT-2, the internalization of the receptor in response to virus binding, and the capacity to process retrovirus entry. Thus, the presence of PIT-2 at the cell surface is not sufficient to ensure phosphate transport and susceptibility to amphotropic retrovirus infection. Further activation of cell surface PIT-2 molecules is required for these functions.

Establishment of a functional human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcription complex involves the cytoskeleton

After interaction of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) virions with cell surface receptors, a series of poorly characterized events results in establishment of a viral reverse transcription complex in the host cell cytoplasm. This process is coordinated in such a way that reverse transcription is initiated shortly after formation of the viral reverse transcription complex. However, the mechanism through which virus entry and initiation of reverse transcription are coordinated and how these events are compartmentalized in the infected cell are not known. In this study, we demonstrate that viral reverse transcription complexes associate rapidly with the host cell cytoskeleton during HIV-1 infection and that reverse transcription occurs almost entirely in the cytoskeletal compartment. Interruption of actin polymerization before virus infection reduced association of viral reverse transcription complexes with the cytoskeleton. In addition, efficient reverse transcription was dependent on intact actin microfilaments. The localization of reverse transcription to actin microfilaments was mediated by the interaction of a reverse transcription complex component (gag MA) with actin but not vimentin (intermediate filaments) or tubulin (microtubules). In addition, fusion, but not endocytosis-mediated HIV-1 infectivity, was impaired when actin depolymerizing agents were added to target cells before infection but not when added after infection. These results point to a previously unsuspected role for the host cell cytoskeleton in HIV-1 entry and suggest that components of the cytoskeleton promote establishment of the reverse transcription complex in the host cell and also the process of reverse transcription within this complex.

Nuclear localization of the functional Bel 1 transactivator but not of the gag proteins of the feline foamy virus

Interactions between host cells and foamy or spumaretroviruses are different from those of other known retroviruses. Previous work has suggested that the Gag and high-affinity DNA-binding Bel 1 transactivator of human foamy virus are localized in the nuclei of infected cells. Using two independent detection methods, we show here that the functionally active Bel 1 transactivator protein of feline foamy virus is of nuclear localization. In contrast to that reported for the human foamy virus Gag protein, the cat foamy virus Gag proteins exclusively localized in the cytoplasm close to perinuclear regions.

Human foamy virus reverse transcription that occurs late in the viral replication cycle

Foamy viruses (FVs) are retroid viruses which use a replication strategy unlike those of other retroviruses and hepadnaviruses (S. F. Yu, D. N. Baldwin, S. R. Gwynn, S. Yendapilli, and M. L. Linial, Science 271:1579-1582, 1996). One of the striking differences between FVs and retroviruses is the presence of large amounts of linear genome-length DNA in FV-infected cells and in virions. We report here that large quantities of genome-length linear FV DNA accumulate in cells infected with FV, as determined by Southern blotting. To determine whether these unintegrated virus DNAs result solely from superinfection, we analyzed the occurrence of virus cDNA of the so-called human FV isolate (HFV) in cells transfected with a virus mutant deficient in the envelope gene and in cells which are resistant to superinfection due to stable expression of the envelope protein. We show that the synthesis of viral cDNA is independent of superinfection and that HFV synthesizes cDNA intracellularly as a late event in the replication cycle. To further confirm this finding, we performed inhibition studies with the reverse transcriptase inhibitor zidovudine (AZT). While AZT had no effect or only a minor effect on virus titers when added to cells prior to virus infection, viral titers were reduced by 3 or 4 orders of magnitude when the virus was produced from cells in the presence of AZT. Our results are most compatible with the hypothesis that the functional nucleic acid of the extracellular HFV consists of largely double-stranded linear DNA.

Carboxy-terminal cleavage of the human foamy virus Gag precursor molecule is an essential step in the viral life cycle

Foamy viruses (FVs) express the Gag protein as a precursor with a molecular mass of 74 kDa (pr74) from which a 70-kDa protein (p70) is cleaved by the viral protease. To gain a better understanding of FV Gag protein processing and function, we have generated and analyzed mutants in the C-terminal gag region of an infectious molecular clone. Our results show that p70 is an N-terminal cleavage product of pr74. However, we were unable to identify a p4 molecule. A virus mutant expressing p70 only was found to be replication competent, albeit at very low titers compared to those of wild-type virus. A strong tendency to synthesize and cleave a pr74 molecule was deduced from the occurrence of revertants upon transfection of this mutant. Substitution of the p6gag domain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 for the p4 domain of FV resulted in a stable chimeric virus which replicated to titers 10 times lower than those of wild-type virus. FV Gag protein was found to be phosphorylated at serine residues. Mutagenesis of serines conserved in the p4 domain had no influence on viral replication in cell culture. The p70/p74 Gag cleavage was found to be required for viral infectivity, since mutagenesis of the putative cleavage site led to replication-incompetent virus. Interestingly, the cleavage site mutants were defective in the intracellular cDNA synthesis of virion DNA, which indicates that correct FV particle formation and the generation of virion DNA are functionally linked.