The genome sequence and evolution of baculoviruses

Persistent expression of Cotesia plutellae bracovirus genes in parasitized host, Plutella xylostella

Cotesia plutellae (= vestalis) bracovirus (CpBV) is symbiotic to an endoparasitoid wasp, C. plutellae, and plays crucial roles in parasitism against the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella. CpBV virion genome consists of 35 circular DNAs encoding 157 putative open reading frames (ORFs). This study re-annotated 157 ORFs with update genome database and analyzed their gene expressions at early and late parasitic stages. Re-annotation has established 15 different viral gene families, to which 83 ORFs are assigned with remaining 74 hypothetical genes. Among 157 ORFs, 147 genes were expressed at early or late parasitic stages, among which 141 genes were expressed in both parasitic stages, indicating persistent nature of gene expression. Relative frequencies of different viral circles present in the ovarian lumen did not explain the expression variation of the viral ORFs. Furthermore, expression level of each viral gene was varied during parasitism along with host development. Highly up-regulated CpBV genes at early parasitic stage included BEN (BANP, E₅R and NAC₁), ELP (EP1-like protein), IkB (inhibitor kB), P494 (protein 494 kDa) family genes, while those at late stage were mostly hypothetical genes. Along with the viral gene expression, 362 host genes exhibited more than two fold changes in expression levels at early parasitic stage compared to nonparasitized host. At late stage, more number (1,858) of host genes was regulated. These results suggest that persistent expression of most CpBV genes may be necessary to regulate host physiological processes during C. plutellae parasitism.

The interaction between baculoviruses and their insect hosts

Baculoviruses are double-stranded circular DNA viruses that infect arthropods via the midgut. Because of their superiority as eukaryotic expression systems and their importance as biopesticides, extensive research on the functions of baculovirus genes as well as on the host response to baculovirus infection has been carried out, including transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of the midgut. The morphological and cellular changes caused by baculovirus infection are also important to better understand the infection pathway. Thanks to these previous studies, we now have a clearer picture of the mechanisms of action of the virus and of host immunity. In this paper, we systematically reviewed studies on the interaction between baculoviruses and their insect hosts. By better understanding these interactions, baculoviruses can be developed for use as more efficient biopesticides to improve agricultural development in the future.

The 38K-Mediated Specific Dephosphorylation of the Viral Core Protein P6.9 Plays an Important Role in the Nucleocapsid Assembly of Autographa californica Multiple Nucleopolyhedrovirus

Encapsidation of the viral genomes, leading to the assembly of the nucleocapsids to form infectious progeny virions, is a key step in many virus life cycles. Baculovirus nucleocapsid assembly is a complex process that involves many proteins. Our previous studies showed that the deletion of the core gene 38K (ac98) interrupted the nucleocapsid assembly by producing capsid sheaths devoid of viral genomes by an unknown mechanism. All homologs of 38K contain conserved motifs of the haloacid dehalogenase superfamily, which are involved in phosphoryl transfer. The requirements of these motifs for nucleocapsid assembly, confirmed in the present study, suggest that 38K may be a functioning haloacid dehalogenase. P6.9 is also encoded by a core gene (ac100) and is required for viral genome encapsidation. It has been reported that multiple phosphorylated species of P6.9 are present in virus-infected cells, while only an unphosphorylated species is detected in the budded virus. Therefore, whether 38K mediates the dephosphorylation of P6.9 was investigated. An additional phosphorylated species of P6.9 in 38K-deleted or -mutated virus-transfected cells was detected, and the dephosphorylated sites mediated by 38K were determined by mass spectrometry. To assess the effects of dephosphorylation of P6.9 mediated by 38K on virus replication, these sites were mutated to glutamic acids (phosphorylation-mimic mutant) or to alanines (phosphorylation-deficient mutant). Studies showed that the nucleocapsid assembly was interrupted in phosphorylation-mimic mutant virus-transfected cells. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that 38K mediates the dephosphorylation of specific sites at the C terminus of P6.9, which is essential for viral genome encapsidation.IMPORTANCE Genome packaging is a fundamental process in the virus life cycle, and viruses have different strategies to perform this step. For several double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, the procapsid is formed before genome encapsidation, which may require basic proteins that help to neutralize the nucleic acid charge repulsion to facilitate the compaction of the genome within the confined capsid space. Baculovirus encodes a small basic protein, P6.9, which is required for a variety of processes in the virus infection cycle. The phosphorylation of P6.9 is thought to result in nucleocapsid uncoating, while the dephosphorylation of P6.9 is involved in viral DNA encapsidation during nucleocapsid assembly. Here, we demonstrate that a haloacid dehalogenase homolog encoded by baculovirus core gene 38K is involved in nucleocapsid assembly by mediating the dephosphorylation of 5 specific sites at the C terminus of P6.9. This finding contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms of virus nucleocapsid assembly.

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus orf133 and orf134 are involved in the embedding of occlusion-derived viruses into polyhedra

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) orf133 (bm133) and orf134 (bm134), the orthologues of Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) ac4 and ac5, are two adjacent genes with opposite transcriptional orientations and are highly conserved in all sequenced group I nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs). A double bm133-bm134 knockout bacmid was generated to enable the functional study of each gene independently or together. Compared with wild-type and double-repair viruses, deletion of both bm133 and bm134 did not affect budded virus (BV) production or viral DNA replication in transfected BmN cells. Electron microscopy revealed that the double knockout did not affect nucleocapsid assembly, virus-induced intranuclear microvesicle formation or occlusion-derived virus (ODV) production, but the number of virions embedded in the polyhedra decreased significantly. Further investigations showed that disruption of either gene was unable to recover the defect of ODV occlusion, suggesting that Bm133 and Bm134 are indispensable to the embedding of ODVs into polyhedra. Confocal microscopy analysis showed that Bm133 and Bm134 distributed throughout the whole cell during viral infection and Bm134 concentrated on the mature polyhedra in lysed cells. These results suggest that although Bm133 and Bm134 are not essential for BV or ODV development, they play vital roles in polyhedra morphogenesis.

The complete genome sequence of the first hesperiid-infecting alphabaculovirus isolated from the leguminous pest Urbanus proteus (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae)

Baculoviruses are insect viruses largely used as expression vectors and biopesticides. These viruses can efficiently infect the larval stage of several agricultural pests worldwide causing a lethal disease. In this work, we found a novel baculovirus isolated from the larval stage of Urbanus proteus (L.), the bean leafroller and characterized its complete genome. This is an important pest of several leguminous plants in Brazil and belongs to the butterfly family Hesperiidae, from where no baculovirus genome sequence has been described. This new virus was shown to have the smallest genome among all alphabaculoviruses sequenced to date, with 105,555 bp and 119 putative ORFs. We found ten unique genes, seven bro, and the 38 baculovirus core genes. UrprNPV was found to be related to the Adoxophyes-infecting baculoviruses AdorNPV and AdhoNPV with high genetic distance and a long branch length. Interestingly, few individual core gene-based phylogenies were found to support the relationship of UrprNPV to both AdorNPV and AdhoNPV. Importantly, the increase in number of completely sequenced baculovirus points to a very exciting way to understand baculovirus and its evolution and could potentially help the use of baculovirus as both biopesticides and expression vectors.

A Novel Betabaculovirus Isolated from the Monocot Pest Mocis latipes (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and the Evolution of Multiple-Copy Genes

In this report, we described the genome of a novel baculovirus isolated from the monocot insect pest Mocis latipes, the striped grass looper. The genome has 134,272 bp in length with a G + C content of 38.3%. Based on the concatenated sequence of the 38 baculovirus core genes, we found that the virus is a betabaculovirus closely related to the noctuid-infecting betabaculoviruses including Pseudaletia unipuncta granulovirus (PsunGV), Trichoplusia ni granulovirus (TnGV), Helicoverpa armigera granulovirus (HearGV), and Xestia c-nigrum granulovirus (XecnGV). The virus may constitute a new Betabaculovirus species tentatively named Mocis latipes granulovirus (MolaGV). After gene content analysis, five open reading frames (ORFs) were found to be unique to MolaGV and several auxiliary genes were found including iap-3, iap-5, bro-a, bro-b, and three enhancins. The virus genome lacked both chitinase and cathepsin. We then looked at the evolutionary history of the enhancin gene and found that betabaculovirus acquired this gene from an alphabaculovirus followed by several duplication events. Gene duplication also happened to an endonuclease-like gene. Genomic and gene content analyses revealed both a strict collinearity and gene expansion into the genome of the MolaGV-related species. We also characterized the granulin gene using a recombinant Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) and found that occlusion bodies were produced into the nucleus of infected cells and presented a polyhedral shape and no occluded virions within. Overall, betabaculovirus genome sequencing is of importance to the field as few genomes are publicly accessible. Mocislatipes is a secondary pest of maize, rice, and wheat crops in Brazil. Certainly, both the discovery and description of novel baculoviruses may lead to development of greener and safer pesticides in order to counteract and effectively control crop damage-causing insect populations

Networks of protein-protein interactions among structural proteins of budded virus of Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus

The structural proteins of baculovirus are well studied, but the interactions between them remain unclear. In order to reveal protein-protein interactions among viral structural proteins and their associated proteins of the budded virus of Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV), the yeast two hybrid (Y2H) system was used to evaluate the interactions of 27 viral genes products. Fifty-seven interactions were identified with 51 binary interactions and 6 self-associations. Among them, 10 interactions were further confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation assays. Five interaction networks were formed based on the direct-cross Y2H assays. VP39, 38 K, and FP were identified to interact with most of the viral proteins, and may form major structural elements of the viral architecture. In addition, each envelope protein was detected to interact with more than one capsid protein. These results suggest how viral structural and structural associated proteins may assemble to form a complete virus through interacting with each other.

Overview of the Baculovirus Expression System

This unit provides information on the replication cycle of insect baculovirus to provide an understanding of how this virus has been adapted for use as an expression vector for recombinant proteins in insect cells. We provide an overview of the virus structure and its unique bi-phasic replication cycle, which has been exploited in developing the virus as an expression vector. We also review the development of the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS), from the mid-1980s to the present day in which the BEVS is now an established tool for the production of a range of recombinant proteins and multi-protein complexes including virus-like particles. We describe advances made to the BEVS to allow the rapid and easy production of recombinant viruses and developments to improve protein yield. We finish by describing the application of recombinant BacMam as vectors for the delivery of genes into mammalian and human cells. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Genome analysis of a novel Group I alphabaculovirus obtained from Oxyplax ochracea

Oxyplax ochracea (Moore) is a pest that causes severe damage to a wide range of crops, forests and fruit trees. The complete genome sequence of Oxyplax ochracea nucleopolyhedrovirus (OxocNPV) was determined using a Roche 454 pyrosequencing system. OxocNPV has a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome of 113,971 bp with a G+C content of 31.1%. One hundred and twenty-four putative open reading frames (ORFs) encoding proteins of >50 amino acids in length and with minimal overlapping were predicted, which covered 92% of the whole genome. Six baculoviral typical homologous regions (hrs) were identified. Phylogenetic analysis and gene parity plot analysis showed that OxocNPV belongs to clade “a” of Group I alphabaculoviruses, and it seems to be close to the most recent common ancestor of Group I alphabaculoviruses. Three unique ORFs (with no homologs in the National Center for Biotechnology Information database) were identified. Interestingly, OxocNPV lacks three auxiliary genes (lef7, ie-2 and pcna) related to viral DNA replication and RNA transcription. In addition, OxocNPV has significantly different sequences for several genes (including ie1 and odv-e66) in comparison with those of other baculoviruses. However, three dimensional structure prediction showed that OxocNPV ODV-E66 contain the conserved catalytic residues, implying that it might possess polysaccharide lyase activity as AcMNPV ODV-E66. All these unique features suggest that OxocNPV represents a novel species of the Group I alphabaculovirus lineage.

The dynamic evolution of Drosophila innubila Nudivirus

Viruses coevolve with their hosts to overcome host resistance and gain the upper hand in the evolutionary arms race. Drosophila innubila nudivirus (DiNV) is a double stranded DNA virus, closely related to Oryctes rhinoceros nudivirus (OrNV) and Kallithea virus. DiNV is the first DNA virus found to naturally infect Drosophila and therefore has the potential to be developed as a model for DNA virus immune defense and host/virus coevolution within its well-studied host system. Here we sequence and annotate the genome of DiNV and identify signatures of adaptation, revealing clues for genes involved in host-parasite coevolution. The circular genome is 155,555bp and contains 107 coding open reading frames (ORFs) and a wealth of AT-rich simple sequence repeats. While synteny is highly conserved between DiNV and Kallithea virus, it drops off rapidly as sequences become more divergent, consistent with rampant rearrangements across nudiviruses. Overall, we show that evolution of DiNV is likely due to adaptation of a very few genes coupled with high gene turnover.

Baculovirus Molecular Evolution via Gene Turnover and Recurrent Positive Selection of Key Genes

Hosts and viruses are locked in an evolutionary arms race. Hosts are constantly evolving to suppress virulence and replication, while viruses, which are reliant on host machinery for survival and reproduction, develop counterstrategies to escape this immune defense. Viruses must also adapt to novel conditions while establishing themselves in a host species. Both processes provide strong selection for viral adaptation. Understanding adaptive evolution in insect viruses can help us to better understand adaptive evolution in general and is important due to the use of these viruses as biocontrol agents and for protecting ecologically or economically important species from outbreaks. Here we examine the molecular evolution of baculoviruses and nudiviruses, a group of insect-infecting viruses with key roles in biocontrol. We looked for signatures of selection between genomes of baculoviruses infecting a range of species and within a population of baculoviruses. Both analyses found only a few strong signatures of positive selection, primarily in replication- and transcription-associated genes and several structural protein genes. In both analyses, we detected a conserved complex of genes, including the helicase gene, showing consistently high levels of adaptive evolution, suggesting that they may be key in antagonistic coevolution to escape host suppression. These genes are integral to the baculovirus life cycle and may be good focal genes for developing baculoviruses as effective biocontrol agents or for targeting baculoviruses infecting ecologically relevant species. Recombination and complex genomes make evolution in these double-stranded DNA viruses more efficient than that in smaller RNA viruses with error-prone replication, as seen via signatures of selection in specific genes within a population of baculoviruses.

IMPORTANCE Most viral evolutionary studies focus on RNA viruses. While these viruses cause many human and animal diseases, such studies leave us with a lesser understanding of how DNA viruses adapt to hosts and how the host responds to these pathogens. In this paper, we focus on the evolution of baculoviruses, a group of insect-infecting DNA viruses, many of which have been used in biocontrol. We find that most of the genome is under purifying selection, with only a few key genes evolving adaptively. Our results provide a glimpse into how DNA viruses differ from RNA viruses in their evolutionary dynamics and identify genes that are key to DNA virus adaptation, improving our understanding of how this group of pathogens evolves.

Evidence for the role of BmNPV Bm65 protein in the repair of ultraviolet-induced DNA damage

It is unclear how, or to what extent, baculovirus DNA that has been damaged by ultraviolet (UV) light is repaired during infection and replication. In our previous study, expression of Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) ORF Bm65, a homolog of Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) ac79, correlated with decreased inactivation of virus by UV irradiation. In the current study, we accumulated more evidence pointing to a role for Bm65 in repair of UV-induced DNA damage. The localization of Bm65 was studied using enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fusion constructs expressed in BmN cells transfected with a Bm65 expression plasmid. The results indicate that Bm65-EGFP accumulates in the nucleus. A host cell reactivation assay showed that Bm65 significantly increased the expression of UV-damaged mCherry reporter gene. An assay measuring cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) in UV-irradiated BmN cells found that CPD quantity was decreased in cells transfected with a Bm65 expression plasmid. We also showed that after UVC treatment, the viability of Bm65-transfected cells was higher than that of egfp-transfected cells. These results suggest that Bm65 may be involved in the repair of baculovirus DNA that has been damaged by UV light.

Baculovirus infection induces disruption of the nuclear lamina

Baculovirus nucleocapsids egress from the nucleus primarily via budding at the nuclear membrane. The nuclear lamina underlying the nuclear membrane represents a substantial barrier to nuclear egress. Whether the nuclear lamina undergoes disruption during baculovirus infection remains unknown. In this report, we generated a clonal cell line, Sf9-L, that stably expresses GFP-tagged Drosophila lamin B. GFP autofluorescence colocalized with immunofluorescent anti-lamin B at the nuclear rim of Sf9-L cells, indicating GFP-lamin B was incorporated into the nuclear lamina. Meanwhile, virus was able to replicate normally in Sf9-L cells. Next, we investigated alterations to the nuclear lamina during baculovirus infection in Sf9-L cells. A portion of GFP-lamin B localized diffusely at the nuclear rim, and some GFP-lamin B was redistributed within the nucleus during the late phase of infection, suggesting the nuclear lamina was partially disrupted. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed associations between GFP-lamin B and the edges of the electron-dense stromal mattes of the virogenic stroma, intranuclear microvesicles, and ODV envelopes and nucleocapsids within the nucleus, indicating the release of some GFP-lamin B from the nuclear lamina. Additionally, GFP-lamin B phosphorylation increased upon infection. Based on these data, baculovirus infection induced lamin B phosphorylation and disruption of the nuclear lamina.

The genome sequence of Condylorrhiza vestigialis NPV, a novel baculovirus for the control of the Alamo moth on Populus spp. in Brazil

Condylorrhiza vestigialis (Lepidoptera: Cambridae), commonly known as the Brazilian poplar moth or Alamo moth, is a serious defoliating pest of poplar, a crop of great economic importance for the production of wood, fiber, biofuel and other biomaterials as well as its significant ecological and environmental value. The complete genome sequence of a new alphabaculovirus isolated from C. vestigialis was determined and analyzed. Condylorrhiza vestigialis nucleopolyhedrovirus (CoveNPV) has a circular double-stranded DNA genome of 125,767bp with a GC content of 42.9%. One hundred and thirty-eight putative open reading frames were identified and annotated in the CoveNPV genome, including 38 core genes and 9 bros. Four homologous regions (hrs), a feature common to most baculoviruses, and 19 perfect and imperfect direct repeats (drs) were found. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that CoveNPV is a Group I Alphabaculovirus and is most closely related to Anticarsia gemmatalis multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AgMNPV) and Choristoneura fumiferana DEF multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus CfDEFMNPV. The gp37 gene was not detected in the CoveNPV genome, although this gene is found in many NPVs. Two other common NPV genes, chitinase (v-chiA) and cathepsin (v-cath), that are responsible for host insect liquefaction and melanization, were also absent, where phylogenetic analysis suggests that the loss these genes occurred in the common ancestor of AgMNPV, CfDEFMNPV and CoveNPV, with subsequent reacquisition of these genes by CfDEFMNPV. The molecular biology and genetics of CoveNPV was formerly very little known and our expectation is that the findings presented here should accelerate research on this baculovirus, which will facilitate the use of CoveNPV in integrated pest management programs in Poplar crops.

HCF-1 encoded by baculovirus AcMNPV is required for productive nucleopolyhedrovirus infection of non-permissive Tn368 cells

Baculovirus Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) replicates in both Spodoptera frugiperda Sf21 and Trichoplusia ni Tn368 cells, whereas AcMNPV defective in hcf-1 (host cell-factor 1) gene productively infects only Sf21 cells, indicating that HCF-1 is indispensable for the AcMNPV productive infection of Tn368 cells. Here, we demonstrated that HCF-1 protein transiently expressed in Tn368 cells promotes the DNA synthesis of Hyphantria cunea MNPV (HycuMNPV), Orygia pseudotsugata MNPV and Bombyx mori NPV, which are normally unable to replicate in Tn368 cells. We also demonstrated that a recombinant HycuMNPV harboring the hcf-1 gene successfully replicates in Tn368 cells, generating substantial yields of progeny viruses and polyhedra. These results indicate that HCF-1 encoded by AcMNPV is an essential viral factor for productive NPV infection of Tn368 cells. Taken together with the previous findings on HRF-1 (host range factor 1), the present results provide strong evidence that viral genes acquired through horizontal gene transfer play an important role in baculovirus evolution, serving to expand the host range of baculoviruses.

Protein-protein interactions of the baculovirus per os infectivity factors (PIFs) in the PIF complex

After ingestion of occlusion bodies, the occlusion-derived viruses (ODVs) of the baculoviruses establish the first round of infection within the larval host midgut cells. Several ODV envelope proteins, called per os infectivity factors (PIFs), have been shown to be essential for oral infection. Eight PIFs have been identified to date, including P74, PIFs 1-6 and Ac110. At least six PIFs, P74, PIFs 1-4 and PIF6, together with three other ODV-specific proteins, Ac5, P95 (Ac83) and Ac108, have been reported to form a complex on the ODV surface. In this study, in order to understand the interactions of these PIFs, the direct protein-protein interactions of the nine components of the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus PIF complex were investigated using yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screening combined with bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assay. Six direct interactions, comprising PIF1-PIF2, PIF1-PIF3, PIF1-PIF4, PIF1-P95, PIF2-PIF3 and PIF3-PIF4, were identified in the Y2H analysis, and these results were further verified by BiFC. For P74, PIF6, Ac5 and Ac108, no direct interaction was identified. P95 (Ac83) was identified to interact with PIF1, and further Y2H analysis of the truncation and deletion mutants showed that the predicted P95 chitin-binding domain and amino acids 100-200 of PIF1 were responsible for P95 interaction with PIF1. Furthermore, a summary of the protein-protein interactions of PIFs reported so far, comprising 10 reciprocal interactions and two self-interactions, is presented, which will facilitate our understanding of the characteristics of the PIF complex.

Lacanobia oleracea nucleopolyhedrovirus (LaolNPV): A new European species of alphabaculovirus with a narrow host range

During an insect sampling program in alfalfa crops near Montpellier, France in 2011, Lacanobia oleracea larvae were collected that died due to nucleopolyhedrovirus infection (LaolNPV). This virus was subjected to molecular and biological characterization. The virus was a multiple nucleocapsid NPV that showed similar restriction profiles to Mamestra configurata NPV-A (MacoNPV-A) but with significant differences. Polypeptide analysis demonstrated similar proteins in occlusion bodies and occlusion derived virions, to those observed in NPVs from Mamestra spp. Terminal sequencing revealed that the genome organization shared similarity with that of MacoNPV-A. The most homologous virus was MacoNPV-A 90/2 isolate (95.63% identity and 96.47% similarity), followed by MacoNPV-A 90/4 strain (95.37% and 96.26%), MacoNPV-B (89.21% and 93.53%) and M. brassicae MNPV (89.42% and 93.74%). Phylogenetic analysis performed with lef-8, lef-9, polh and a concatenated set of genes showed that LaolNPV and the Mamestra spp. NPVs clustered together with HaMNPV, but with a closer genetic distance to MacoNPV-A strains. The Kimura 2-parameter (K-2-P) distances of the complete genes were greater than 0.05 between LaolNPV and the MbMNPV/MacoNPV-B/HaMNPV complex, which indicates that LaolNPV is a distinct species. K-2-P distances were in the range 0.015–0.050 for comparisons of LaolNPV with MacoNPV-A strains, such that additional biological characteristics should be evaluated to determine species status. While MacoNPV-A was pathogenic to seven lepidopteran species tested, LaolNPV was only pathogenic to Chrysodeixis chalcites. Given these findings, Lacanobia oleracea nucleopolyhedrovirus should be considered as a new species in the Alphabaculovirus genus.

Baculovirus LEF-11 Hijack Host ATPase ATAD3A to Promote Virus Multiplication in Bombyx mori cells

Research on molecular mechanisms that viruses use to regulate the host apparatus is important in virus infection control and antiviral therapy exploration. Our previous research showed that the Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) LEF-11 localized to dense regions of the cell nucleus and is required for viral DNA replication. Herein, we examined the mechanism of LEF-11 on BmNPV multiplication and demonstrated that baculovirus LEF-11 interacts with Bombyx mori ATAD3A and HSPD1 (HSP60) protein. Furthermore, we showed that LEF-11 has the ability to induce and up-regulate the expression of ATAD3A and HSPD1, phenomena that were both reversed upon knockdown of lef-11. Our findings showed that ATAD3A and HSPD1 were necessary and contributed to BmNPV multiplication in Bombyx mori cells. Moreover, ATAD3A was found to directly interact with HSPD1. Interestingly, ATAD3A was required for the expression of HSPD1, while the knockdown of HSPD1 had no obvious effect on the expression level of ATAD3A. Taken together, the data presented in the current study demonstrated that baculovirus LEF-11 hijacks the host ATPase family members, ATAD3A and HSPD1, efficiently promote the multiplication of the virus. This study furthers our understanding of how baculovirus modulates energy metabolism of the host and provides a new insight into the molecular mechanisms of antiviral research.

Autographa californica Multiple Nucleopolyhedrovirus AC83 is a Per Os Infectivity Factor (PIF) Protein Required for Occlusion-Derived Virus (ODV) and Budded Virus Nucleocapsid Assembly as well as Assembly of the PIF Complex in ODV Envelopes

Baculovirus occlusion-derived virus (ODV) initiates infection of lepidopteran larval hosts by binding to the midgut epithelia, which is mediated by per os infectivity factors (PIFs). Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) encodes seven PIF proteins, of which PIF1 to PIF4 form a core complex in ODV envelopes to which PIF0 and PIF6 loosely associate. Deletion of any pif gene results in ODV being unable to bind or enter midgut cells. AC83 also associates with the PIF complex, and this study further analyzed its role in oral infectivity to determine if it is a PIF protein. It had been proposed that AC83 possesses a chitin binding domain that enables transit through the peritrophic matrix; however, no chitin binding activity has ever been demonstrated. AC83 has been reported to be found only in the ODV envelopes, but in contrast, the Orgyia pseudotsugata MNPV AC83 homolog is associated with both ODV nucleocapsids and envelopes. In addition, unlike known pif genes, deletion of ac83 eliminates nucleocapsid formation. We propose a new model for AC83 function and show AC83 is associated with both ODV nucleocapsids and envelopes. We also further define the domain required for nucleocapsid assembly. The cysteine-rich region of AC83 is also shown not to be a chitin binding domain but a zinc finger domain required for the recruitment or assembly of the PIF complex to ODV envelopes. As such, AC83 has all the properties of a PIF protein and should be considered PIF8. In addition, pif7 (ac110) is reported as the 38th baculovirus core gene.IMPORTANCE ODV is essential for the per os infectivity of the baculovirus AcMNPV. To initiate infection, ODV binds to microvilli of lepidopteran midgut cells, a process which requires a group of seven virion envelope proteins called PIFs. In this study, we reexamined the function of AC83, a protein that copurifies with the ODV PIFs, to determine its role in the oral infection process. A zinc finger domain was identified and a new model for AC83 function was proposed. In contrast to previous studies, AC83 was found to be physically located in both the envelope and nucleocapsid of ODV. By deletion analysis, the AC83 domain required for nucleocapsid assembly was more finely delineated. We show that AC83 is required for PIF complex formation and conclude that it is a true per os infectivity factor and should be called PIF8.

Characterization of two monoclonal antibodies, 38F10 and 44D11, against the major envelope fusion protein of Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus

The envelope fusion protein F of baculoviruses is a class I viral fusion protein which play a significant role during virus entry into insect cells. F is initially synthesized as a precursor (F₀) and then cleaved into a disulfide-linked F₁ and F₂ subunits during the process of protein maturation and secretion. To facilitate further investigation into the structure and function of F protein during virus infection, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the F₂ subunit of Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HearNPV) (HaF) were generated. Two kinds of mAbs were obtained according to their different recognition epitopes: one kind of mAbs, as represented by 38F10, recognizes amino acid (aa) 85 to 123 of F₂ and the other kind, represented by 44D11, recognizes aa 148 to 173 of F₂. Western blot and immunofluorescence assay confirmed that both of the mAbs recognized the F protein expressed in HearNPV infected cells, however, only 44D11 could neutralize HearNPV infection. The results further showed that 44D11 may not interact with a receptor binding epitope, rather it was demonstrated to inhibit syncytium formation in cells expressing the HaF protein. The results imply that the monoclonal antibody 44D11 recognizes a region within HaF2 that may be involved in the F-mediated membrane fusion process.

Effects of deletion of the ac109 gene of Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus on interactions with mammalian cells

Baculoviruses are able to enter into mammalian cells, where they can express a transgene that is placed under an appropriate promoter, without producing infectious progeny. ORF109 encodes an essential baculovirus protein that participates in the interaction of the baculovirus with mammalian cells. To date, the mechanisms underlying this interaction are not yet known. We demonstrated that although a Ac109 knock out virus maintained its ability to enter into BHK-21 cells, there was a marked reduction in the expression efficiency of the nuclear transgene. Moreover, the amount of free cytoplasmic viral DNA, which was detected by transcription of a reporter gene, was severely diminished. These results suggest Ac109 could be involved in maintaining the integrity of the viral nucleic acid.

Rabies Control and Treatment: From Prophylaxis to Strategies with Curative Potential

Rabies is an acute, fatal, neurological disease that affects almost all kinds of mammals. Vaccination (using an inactivated rabies vaccine), combined with administration of rabies immune globulin, is the only approved, effective method for post-exposure prophylaxis against rabies in humans. In the search for novel rabies control and treatment strategies, live-attenuated viruses have recently emerged as a practical and promising approach for immunizing and controlling rabies. Unlike the conventional, inactivated rabies vaccine, live-attenuated viruses are genetically modified viruses that are able to replicate in an inoculated recipient without causing adverse effects, while still eliciting robust and effective immune responses against rabies virus infection. A number of viruses with an intrinsic capacity that could be used as putative candidates for live-attenuated rabies vaccine have been intensively evaluated for therapeutic purposes. Additional novel strategies, such as a monoclonal antibody-based approach, nucleic acid-based vaccines, or small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) interfering with virus replication, could further add to the arena of strategies to combat rabies. In this review, we highlight current advances in rabies therapy and discuss the role that they might have in the future of rabies treatment. Given the pronounced and complex impact of rabies on a patient, a combination of these novel modalities has the potential to achieve maximal anti-rabies efficacy, or may even have promising curative effects in the future. However, several hurdles regarding clinical safety considerations and public awareness should be overcome before these approaches can ultimately become clinically relevant therapies.

Codon usage in Alphabaculovirus and Betabaculovirus hosted by the same insect species is weak, selection dominated and exhibits no more similar patterns than expected

Mutations shape synonymous codon usage bias in certain organism genomes, while selection shapes it in others. Lepidopteran-specific Alphabaculovirus and Betabaculovirus are two large genera in the family of Baculoviridae. In this study, we analyzed the codon usage patterns in 17 baculoviruses, including 10 alphabaculoviruses and 7 betabaculoviruses, which were isolated from seven insect species, and we characterized the codon usage patterns between Alphabaculovirus and Betabaculovirus. Our results show that all the baculoviruses possessed a general weak trend of codon bias. The differences of ENc (effective number of codons) values, nucleotide contents and the impacts of nucleotide content on ENc value within alpha-/betabaculovirus pairs were independent of whether the host species are the same or different. Furthermore, the majority of amino acid sequences adopted codons unequally in all viruses, but the numbers of common preferred codons between alpha- and betabaculoviruses hosted by the same insect species were not significantly different from the differences observed between alpha- and betabaculoviruses hosted by different insect species. In addition, the amino acids that adopt the same synonymous codon composition between alpha- and betabaculoviruses hosted by the same insect species were statistically as few as those between alpha- and betabaculoviruses hosted by different insect species. Correspondence analysis revealed that no major factors resulted in the codon bias in these baculoviruses, implying multiple minor influential factors exist. Neutrality plot analysis indicated that selection pressure dominated mutations in shaping the codon usage. However, the levels of selection pressure were not significantly different among viruses hosted by the same insect species. We expect that evolution would cause the alpha- and betabaculoviruses hosted by the same insect species to share more patterns, but this effect was not observed.

A DNA Binding Protein Is Required for Viral Replication and Transcription in Bombyx mori Nucleopolyhedrovirus

A DNA-binding protein (DBP) [GenBank accession number: M63416] of Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV) has been reported to be a regulatory factor in BmNPV, but its detailed functions remain unknown. In order to study the regulatory mechanism of DBP on viral proliferation, genome replication, and gene transcription, a BmNPV dbp gene knockout virus dbp-ko-Bacmid was generated by the means of Red recombination system. In addition, dbp-repaired virus dbp-re-Bacmid was constructed by the means of the Bac to Bac system. Then, the Bacmids were transfected into BmN cells. The results of this viral titer experiment revealed that the TCID50 of the dbp-ko-Bacmid was 0; however, the dbp-re-Bacmid was similar to the wtBacmid (p>0.05), indicating that the dbp-deficient would lead to failure in the assembly of virus particles. In the next step, Real-Time PCR was used to analyze the transcriptional phases of dbp gene in BmN cells, which had been infected with BmNPV. The results of the latter experiment revealed that the transcript of dbp gene was first detected at 3 h post-infection. Furthermore, the replication level of virus genome and the transcriptional level of virus early, late, and very late genes in BmN cells, which had been transfected with 3 kinds of Bacmids, were analyzed by Real-Time PCR. The demonstrating that the replication level of genome was lower than that of wtBacmid and dbp-re-Bacmid (p<0.01). The transcriptional level of dbp-ko-Bacmid early gene lef-3, ie-1, dnapol, late gene vp39 and very late gene p10 were statistically significantly lower than dbp-re-Bacmid and wtBacmid (p<0.01). The results presented are based on Western blot analysis, which indicated that the lack of dbp gene would lead to low expressions of lef3, vp39, and p10. In conclusion, dbp was not only essential for early viral replication, but also a viral gene that has a significant impact on transcription and expression during all periods of baculovirus life cycle.

Topoisomerase II Inhibitors Can Enhance Baculovirus-Mediated Gene Expression in Mammalian Cells through the DNA Damage Response

BacMam is an insect-derived recombinant baculovirus that can deliver genes into mammalian cells. BacMam vectors carrying target genes are able to enter a variety of cell lines by endocytosis, but the level of expression of the transgene depends on the cell line and the state of the transduced cells. In this study, we demonstrated that the DNA damage response (DDR) could act as an alternative pathway to boost the transgene(s) expression by BacMam and be comparable to the inhibitors of histone deacetylase. Topoisomerase II (Top II) inhibitor-induced DDR can enhance the CMV-IE/enhancer mediated gene expression up to 12-fold in BacMam-transduced U-2OS cells. The combination of a Top II inhibitor, VM-26, can also augment the killing efficiency of a p53-expressing BacMam vector in U-2OS osteosarcoma cells. These results open a new avenue to facilitate the application of BacMam for gene delivery and therapy.

The complete genome of a baculovirus isolated from an insect of medical interest: Lonomia obliqua (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

Lonomia obliqua (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) is a species of medical importance due to the severity of reactions caused by accidental contact with the caterpillar bristles. Several natural pathogens have been identified in L. obliqua, and among them the baculovirus Lonomia obliqua multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (LoobMNPV). The complete genome of LoobMNPV was sequenced and shown to have 120,022 bp long with 134 putative open reading frames (ORFs). Phylogenetic analysis of the LoobMNPV genome showed that it belongs to Alphabaculovirus group I (lepidopteran-infective NPV). A total of 12 unique ORFs were identified with no homologs in other sequenced baculovirus genomes. One of these, the predicted protein encoded by loob035, showed significant identity to an eukaryotic transcription terminator factor (TTF2) from the Lepidoptera Danaus plexippus, suggesting an independent acquisition through horizontal gene transfer. Homologs of cathepsin and chitinase genes, which are involved in host integument liquefaction and viral spread, were not found in this genome. As L. obliqua presents a gregarious behavior during the larvae stage the impact of this deletion might be neglectable.

Genome sequence of Perigonia lusca single nucleopolyhedrovirus: insights into the evolution of a nucleotide metabolism enzyme in the family Baculoviridae

The genome of a novel group II alphabaculovirus, Perigonia lusca single nucleopolyhedrovirus (PeluSNPV), was sequenced and shown to contain 132,831 bp with 145 putative ORFs (open reading frames) of at least 50 amino acids. An interesting feature of this novel genome was the presence of a putative nucleotide metabolism enzyme-encoding gene (pelu112). The pelu112 gene was predicted to encode a fusion of thymidylate kinase (tmk) and dUTP diphosphatase (dut). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that baculoviruses have independently acquired tmk and dut several times during their evolution. Two homologs of the tmk-dut fusion gene were separately introduced into the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) genome, which lacks tmk and dut. The recombinant baculoviruses produced viral DNA, virus progeny, and some viral proteins earlier during in vitro infection and the yields of viral occlusion bodies were increased 2.5-fold when compared to the parental virus. Interestingly, both enzymes appear to retain their active sites, based on separate modeling using previously solved crystal structures. We suggest that the retention of these tmk-dut fusion genes by certain baculoviruses could be related to accelerating virus replication and to protecting the virus genome from deleterious mutation.

Genome Sequencing and Analysis of Catopsilia pomona nucleopolyhedrovirus: A Distinct Species in Group I Alphabaculovirus

The genome sequence of Catopsilia pomona nucleopolyhedrovirus (CapoNPV) was determined by the Roche 454 sequencing system. The genome consisted of 128,058 bp and had an overall G+C content of 40%. There were 130 hypothetical open reading frames (ORFs) potentially encoding proteins of more than 50 amino acids and covering 92% of the genome. Among all the hypothetical ORFs, 37 baculovirus core genes, 23 lepidopteran baculovirus conserved genes and 10 genes conserved in Group I alphabaculoviruses were identified. In addition, the genome included regions of 8 typical baculoviral homologous repeat sequences (hrs). Phylogenic analysis showed that CapoNPV was in a distinct branch of clade “a” in Group I alphabaculoviruses. Gene parity plot analysis and overall similarity of ORFs indicated that CapoNPV is more closely related to the Group I alphabaculoviruses than to other baculoviruses. Interesting, CapoNPV lacks the genes encoding the fibroblast growth factor (fgf) and ac30, which are conserved in most lepidopteran and Group I baculoviruses, respectively. Sequence analysis of the F-like protein of CapoNPV showed that some amino acids were inserted into the fusion peptide region and the pre-transmembrane region of the protein. All these unique features imply that CapoNPV represents a member of a new baculovirus species.

Characterization of the viral fibroblast growth factor homolog of Helicoverpa armigera single nucleopolyhedrovirus

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) is found throughout multicellular organisms; however, fgf homologs (vfgf) have only been identified among viruses in lepidopteran baculoviruses. The function of vFGFs from Group I alphabaculoviruses, including Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) and Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV), involves accelerated killing of infected larvae by both viruses. The vFGF of Group II alphabaculovirus is structurally different from that of Group I alphabaculovirus, with a larger C-terminal region and additional N-linked glycosylation sites. In this study, we characterized the Group II alphabaculovirus vFGF of Helicoverpa armigera single nucleopolyhedrovirus (HearNPV). The transcription and expression of vfgf was detected at 3 h and 16 h post-infection in HearNPV-infected cells. To further study vFGF function, we constructed vfgf-knockout and -repaired HearNPV bacmids and investigated their affect in both cultured cells and insects. Deletion of vfgf had no effect on budded-virus production or viral DNA replication in cultured HzAM1 cells. However, bioassays showed that HearNPV vfgf deletion significantly increased the median lethal dose and delayed the median lethal time by ∼12 h in the host insect when the virus was delivered orally. These results suggested that vFGF is an important virulent factor for HearNPV infection and propagation in vivo.

Polydnaviruses: Nature's Genetic Engineers

Virus-host associations are usually viewed as parasitic, but several studies in recent years have reported examples of viruses that benefit host organisms. The Polydnaviridae are of particular interest because these viruses are all obligate mutualists of insects called parasitoid wasps. Parasitoids develop during their immature stages by feeding inside the body of other insects, which serve as their hosts. Polydnaviruses are vertically transmitted as proviruses through the germ line of wasps but also function as gene delivery vectors that wasps rely upon to genetically manipulate the hosts they parasitize. Here we review the evolutionary origin of polydnaviruses, the organization and function of their genomes, and some of their roles in parasitism.

Transcriptome Analysis of the SL221 Cells at the Early Stage during Spodoptera litura Nucleopolyhedrovirus Infection

Spodoptera litura (S. litura) is one of the most destructive agricultural pests worldwide. There is urgent need for a nuclear polyhedrosis virus that is specific to S. litura. To date, there have been no reports regarding the responses of S. litura cells to early Spodoptera litura nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpltNPV) infection due to the lack of a reference genome and transcriptome for S. litura. In this study, a cell transcriptome from the host S. litura was assembled and used for Illumina strand-specific RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to generate 99180 unigenes, representing the 18 hour infection cycle. More than 2000 S. litura genes were significant differentially regulated throughout the infection. The levels of viral mRNAs began to increase dramatically at 6 hpi, and this increase continued throughout the remainder of the infection. We focused on the expression of genes related to stress responses, apoptosis, metabolic enzymes and host cell innate immune system. A small subset of genes related to host stress response, especially for 62 ones being able to annotated as enzyme, ligand and receptor genes, were observed to be specifically differentially expressed at 6 hpi. At 18 hpi, 104 unigenes were continuously significantly changing from 0 hpi to 18 hpi, considered to be viral multiplication related genes, including 3 annotated SL221 unigenes and 81 viral genes, such as tetraspanin and iap gene. This information and further studies on the regulation of host gene expression by baculovirus infection at early stage will provide the tools needed to enhance the utility of this virus as an effective insecticide.

Perylenediimide-cored cationic nanocarriers deliver virus DNA to kill insect pests

The narrow infection range of insect virus restricts its use for the control of broad range of pests. A cationic fluorescent nanocarrier delivery system was successfully applied to broaden the host range of an insecticidal virus DNA, which should contributes to the organic and green food production.

Genome sequencing and analysis of a granulovirus isolated from the Asiatic rice leafroller, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis

The complete genome of Cnaphalocrocis medinalis granulovirus (CnmeGV) from a serious migratory rice pest, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), was sequenced using the Roche 454 Genome Sequencer FLX system (GS FLX) with shotgun strategy and assembled by Roche GS De Novo assembler software. Its circular double-stranded genome is 111,246 bp in size with a high A+T content of 64.8% and codes for 118 putative open reading frames (ORFs). It contains 37 conserved baculovirus core ORFs, 13 unique ORFs, 26 ORFs that were found in all Lepidoptera baculoviruses and 42 common ORFs. The analysis of nucleotide sequence repeats revealed that the CnmeGV genome differs from the rest of sequenced GVs by a 23 kb and a 17kb gene block inversions, and does not contain any typical homologous region (hr) except for a region of non-hr-like sequence. Chitinase and cathepsin genes, which are reported to have major roles in the liquefaction of the hosts, were not found in the CnmeGV genome, which explains why CnmeGV infected insects do not show the phenotype of typical liquefaction. Phylogenetic analysis, based on the 37 core baculovirus genes, indicates that CnmeGV is closely related to Adoxophyes orana granulovirus. The genome analysis would contribute to the functional research of CnmeGV, and would benefit to the utilization of CnmeGV as pest control reagent for rice production.

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) Bm64 is required for BV production and per os infection

Background

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) orf64 (Bm64, a homologue of ac78) is a core baculovirus gene. Recently, Li et al. reported that Ac78 was not essential for budded viruses (BVs) production and occlusion-derived viruses (ODVs) formation (Virus Res 191:70–82, 2014). Conversely, Tao et al. demonstrated that Ac78 was localized to the BV and ODV envelopes and was required for BV production and ODV formation (J Virol 87:8441–50, 2013). In this study, the function of Bm64 was characterized to determine the role of Bm64 in the BmNPV infection cycle.

Method

The temporal expression of Bm64 was examined using total RNA extracted from BmNPV-infected BmN cells at different time points by reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR) and 5’ RACE analysis. To determine the functions of Bm64 in viral replication and the viral phenotype throughout the viral life cycle, a deletion virus (vBm^64KO) was generated via homologous recombination in Escherichia coli. Viral replication and BV production were determined by real-time PCR. Electron microscopy was used to detect virion morphogenesis. The subcellular localization of Bm64 was determined by microscopy, and per os infectivity was used to determine its role in the baculovirus oral infection cycle.

Results

Viral plaque and titer assay results showed that a few infectious BVs were produced by vBm^64KO, suggesting that deletion of Bm64 affected BV production. Viral DNA replication was detected and polyhedra were observed in vBm^64KO-transfected cells. Microscopy analysis revealed that Bm64 was predominantly localized to the ring zone of the nuclei during the infection cycle. Electron microscopy showed that Bm64 was not essential for the formation of ODVs or the subsequent occlusion of ODV into polyhedra. The per os infectivity results showed that the polyhedra of vBm^64KO were unable to infect silkworm larvae.

Conclusion

In conclusion, our results suggest that Bm64 plays an important role in BV production and per os infection, but is not required for viral DNA replication or ODV maturation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-015-0399-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Complete Genome Sequences of Helicoverpa armigera Single Nucleopolyhedrovirus Strains AC53 and H25EA1 from Australia

We report here the genome sequences of two alphabaculoviruses of Helicoverpa spp. from Australia: AC53, used in the biopesticides ViVUS and ViVUS Max, and H25EA1, used in in vitro production studies.

Comparative proteomics analysis of Spodoptera frugiperda cells during Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus infection

Background

Increasing evidence sugggest that in addition of balculovirus controling insect host, host cells also responds to balculovirus infection. However, compared to existing knowledge on virus gene, host cell responses are relatively poorly understood.

Methods

In this study, Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells were infected with Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV). The protein composition and protein changes of Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells of different infection stages were analysed by isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) techniques.

Results

A total of 4004 Sf9 proteins were identified by iTRAQ and 413 proteins were found as more than 1.5-fold changes in abundance. The 413 proteins were categorised according to GO classification for insects and were categorised into: biological process, molecular function and cellular component.

Conclusions

The determination of the protein changes in infected Sf9 cells would help to better understanding of host cell responses and facilitate better design of this virus-host cell interaction in pest insect control and other related fields.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12985-015-0346-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Complete Genome of a New Betabaculovirus from Clostera anastomosis

Clostera anastomosis (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) is a defoliating forest insect pest. Clostera anastomosis granulovirus-B (ClasGV-B) belonging to the genus Betabaculovirus of family Baculoviridae has been used for biological control of the pest. Here we reported the full genome sequence of ClasGV-B and compared it to other previously sequenced baculoviruses. The circular double-stranded DNA genome is 107,439 bp in length, with a G+C content of 37.8% and contains 123 open reading frames (ORFs) representing 93% of the genome. ClasGV-B contains 37 baculovirus core genes, 25 lepidopteran baculovirus specific genes, 19 betabaculovirus specific genes, 39 other genes with homologues to baculoviruses and 3 ORFs unique to ClasGV-B. Hrs appear to be absent from the ClasGV-B genome, however, two non-hr repeats were found. Phylogenetic tree based on 37 core genes from 73 baculovirus genomes placed ClasGV-B in the clade b of betabaculoviruses and was most closely related to Erinnyis ello GV (ErelGV). The gene arrangement of ClasGV-B also shared the strongest collinearity with ErelGV but differed from Clostera anachoreta GV (ClanGV), Clostera anastomosis GV-A (ClasGV-A, previously also called CaLGV) and Epinotia aporema GV (EpapGV) with a 20 kb inversion. ClasGV-B genome contains three copies of polyhedron envelope protein gene (pep) and phylogenetic tree divides the PEPs of betabaculoviruses into three major clades: PEP-1, PEP-2 and PEP/P10. ClasGV-B also contains three homologues of P10 which all harbor an N-terminal coiled-coil domain and a C-terminal basic sequence. ClasGV-B encodes three fibroblast growth factor (FGF) homologues which are conserved in all sequenced betabaculoviruses. Phylogenetic analysis placed these three FGFs into different groups and suggested that the FGFs were evolved at the early stage of the betabaculovirus expansion. ClasGV-B is different from previously reported ClasGV-A and ClanGV isolated from Notodontidae in sequence and gene arrangement, indicating the virus is a new notodontid betabaculovirus.

The unfulfilled promises of scorpion insectotoxins

Since the description and biochemical characterization of the first insect-specific neurotoxins from scorpion venoms, almost all contributions have highlighted their potential application as leads for the development of potent bioinsecticides. Their practical use, however, has been hindered by different factors, some of which are intrinsically related to the toxins and other external determinants. Recent developments in the understanding of the action mechanisms of the scorpion insectotoxins and their bioactive surfaces, coupled with the exploration of novel bioinsecticide delivery systems have renewed the expectations that the scorpion insectotoxins could find their way into commercial applications in agriculture, as part of integrated pest control strategies. Herein, we review the current arsenal of available scorpion neurotoxins with a degree of specificity for insects, the progress made with alternative delivery methods, and the drawbacks that still preclude their practical use.

Genomic Sequences of Five Helicoverpa armigera Nucleopolyhedrovirus Genotypes from Spain That Differ in Their Insecticidal Properties

Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HearNPV) has proved effective as the basis for various biological insecticides. Complete genome sequences of five Spanish HearNPV genotypes differed principally in the homologous regions (hrs) and the baculovirus repeat open reading frame (bro) genes, suggesting that they may be involved in the phenotypic differences observed among genotypes.

Ha83, a Chitin Binding Domain Encoding Gene, Is Important to Helicoverpa armigera Nucleopolyhedrovirus Budded Virus Production and Occlusion Body Assembling

Helicoerpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HearNPV) ha83 is a late expressed gene that encodes a chitin binding protein. Chitin domain truncation studies revealed that the cysteine at the 128 amino acid position probably played an important role in both chitin binding ability and protein transmission of Ha83. In order to study the function of ha83 in the HearNPV infection cycle, an ha83 knockout HearNPV (Ha83KO) was constructed via homologous recombination. Viral growth and viral DNA replication curves showed that fewer budded virions were produced in Ha83KO transfected cells, while viral DNA replication was increased. Electron microscopy revealed that fewer nucleocapsids were transmitted from virogenic stroma in the Ha83KO transfected cell nucleus, and the morphology of occlusion bodies was prominently larger and cube-shaped. Furthermore, DNA quantity in occlusion bodies of Ha83KO was significantly lower than the occlusion bodies of HaWT. The transcription analysis indicated that these changes may be due to the decreased expression level of viral structural associated genes, such as polyhedrin, p10, pif-2, or cg30 in Ha83KO infected cells. Above results demonstrated that the cysteine at the 128 amino acid position in Ha83 might be the key amino acid, and Ha83 plays an important role in BVs production and OBs assembling.

The Baculovirus Antiapoptotic p35 Protein Functions as an Inhibitor of the Host RNA Interference Antiviral Response

RNA interference (RNAi) is considered an ancient antiviral defense in diverse organisms, including insects. Virus infections generate double-strand RNAs (dsRNAs) that trigger the RNAi machinery to process dsRNAs into virus-derived short interfering RNAs (vsiRNAs), which target virus genomes, mRNAs, or replication intermediates. Viruses, in turn, have evolved viral suppressors of RNAi (VSRs) to counter host antiviral RNAi. Following recent discoveries that insects mount an RNAi response against DNA viruses, in this study, we found that Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) infection similarly induces an RNAi response in Spodoptera frugiperda cells by generating a large number of vsiRNAs postinfection. Interestingly, we found that AcMNPV expresses a potent VSR to counter RNAi. The viral p35 gene, which is well known as an inhibitor of apoptosis, was found to be responsible for the suppression of RNAi in diverse insect and mammalian cells. The VSR activity of p35 was further confirmed by a p35-null AcMNPV that did not suppress the response. In addition, our results showed that the VSR activity is not due to inhibition of dsRNA cleavage by Dicer-2 but acts downstream in the RNAi pathway. Furthermore, we found that the VSR activity is not linked to the antiapoptotic activity of the protein. Overall, our results provide evidence for the existence of VSR activity in a double-stranded DNA virus and identify the responsible gene, which is involved in the inhibition of RNAi as well as apoptosis.

IMPORTANCE

Our findings demonstrate the occurrence of an insect RNAi response against a baculovirus (AcMNPV) that is highly utilized in microbial control, biological and biomedical research, and protein expression. Moreover, our investigations led to the identification of a viral suppressor of RNAi activity and the gene responsible for the activity. Notably, this gene is also a potent inhibitor of apoptosis. The outcomes signify the dual role of a virus-encoded protein in nullifying two key antiviral responses, apoptosis and RNAi.

Baculovirus-mediated gene delivery and RNAi applications

Baculoviruses are widely encountered in nature and a great deal of data is available about their safety and biology. Recently, these versatile, insect-specific viruses have demonstrated their usefulness in various biotechnological applications including protein production and gene transfer. Multiple in vitro and in vivo studies exist and support their use as gene delivery vehicles in vertebrate cells. Recently, baculoviruses have also demonstrated high potential in RNAi applications in which several advantages of the virus make it a promising tool for RNA gene transfer with high safety and wide tropism.