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Akhtar MJ, Alhadlaq HA, Kumar S, Alrokayan SA, Ahamed M. Selective cancer-killing ability of metal-based nanoparticles: implications for cancer therapy. Arch Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1570-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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52
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Sangani R, Periyasamy-Thandavan S, Pathania R, Ahmad S, Kutiyanawalla A, Kolhe R, Bhattacharyya MH, Chutkan N, Hunter M, Hill WD, Hamrick M, Isales C, Fulzele S. The crucial role of vitamin C and its transporter (SVCT2) in bone marrow stromal cell autophagy and apoptosis. Stem Cell Res 2015. [PMID: 26210298 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Vitamin C is an antioxidant that plays a vital role in various biological processes including bone formation. Previously, we reported that vitamin C is transported into bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) through the sodium dependent Vitamin C Transporter 2 (SVCT2) and this transporter plays an important role in osteogenic differentiation. Furthermore, this transporter is regulated by oxidative stress. To date, however, the exact role of vitamin C and its transporter (SVCT2) in ROS regulated autophagy and apoptosis in BMSCs is poorly understood. In the present study, we observed that oxidative stress decreased survival of BMSCs in a dose-dependent manner and induced growth arrest in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. These effects were accompanied by the induction of autophagy, confirmed by P62 and LC3B protein level and punctate GFP-LC3B distribution. The supplementation of vitamin C significantly rescued the BMSCs from oxidative stress by regulating autophagy. Knockdown of the SVCT2 transporter in BMSCs synergistically decreased cell survival even under low oxidative stress conditions. Also, supplementing vitamin C failed to rescue cells from stress. Our results reveal that the SVCT2 transporter plays a vital role in the mechanism of BMSC survival under stress conditions. Altogether, this study has given new insight into the role of the SVCT2 transporter in oxidative stress related autophagy and apoptosis in BMSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajnikumar Sangani
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | | | - Rajneesh Pathania
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Saif Ahmad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | | | - Ravindra Kolhe
- Department of Pathology, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Maryka H Bhattacharyya
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Institute of Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Norman Chutkan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Monte Hunter
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - William D Hill
- Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Institute of Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Mark Hamrick
- Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Institute of Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Carlos Isales
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Institute of Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Sadanand Fulzele
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; Institute of Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA.
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Xia M, Meng G, Jiang A, Chen A, Dahlhaus M, Gonzalez P, Beltinger C, Wei J. Mitophagy switches cell death from apoptosis to necrosis in NSCLC cells treated with oncolytic measles virus. Oncotarget 2015; 5:3907-18. [PMID: 25004098 PMCID: PMC4116530 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Although apoptotic phenomena have been observed in malignant cells infected by measles virus vaccine strain Edmonston B (MV-Edm), the precise oncolytic mechanisms are poorly defined. In this study we found that MV-Edm induced autophagy and sequestosome 1-mediated mitophagy leading to decreased cytochrome c release, which blocked the pro-apoptotic cascade in non-small cell lung cancer cells (NSCLCs). The decrease of apoptosis by mitophagy favored viral replication. Persistent viral replication sustained by autophagy ultimately resulted in necrotic cell death due to ATP depletion. Importantly, when autophagy was impaired in NSCLCs MV-Edm-induced cell death was significantly abrogated despite of increased apoptosis. Taken together, our results define a novel oncolytic mechanism by which mitophagy switches cell death from apoptosis to more efficient necrosis in NSCLCs following MV-Edm infection. This provides a foundation for future improvement of oncolytic virotherapy or antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mao Xia
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Medical School and the State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jiwu Wei
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Medical School and the State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China; Nanjing University Hightech Institute at Suzhou, Suzhou, China
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O'Reilly EA, Gubbins L, Sharma S, Tully R, Guang MHZ, Weiner-Gorzel K, McCaffrey J, Harrison M, Furlong F, Kell M, McCann A. The fate of chemoresistance in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). BBA CLINICAL 2015; 3:257-75. [PMID: 26676166 PMCID: PMC4661576 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbacli.2015.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Treatment options for women presenting with triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) are limited due to the lack of a therapeutic target and as a result, are managed with standard chemotherapy such as paclitaxel (Taxol®). Following chemotherapy, the ideal tumour response is apoptotic cell death. Post-chemotherapy, cells can maintain viability by undergoing viable cellular responses such as cellular senescence, generating secretomes which can directly enhance the malignant phenotype. SCOPE OF REVIEW How tumour cells retain viability in response to chemotherapeutic engagement is discussed. In addition we discuss the implications of this retained tumour cell viability in the context of the development of recurrent and metastatic TNBC disease. Current adjuvant and neo-adjuvant treatments available and the novel potential therapies that are being researched are also reviewed. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Cellular senescence and cytoprotective autophagy are potential mechanisms of chemoresistance in TNBC. These two non-apoptotic outcomes in response to chemotherapy are inextricably linked and are neglected outcomes of investigation in the chemotherapeutic arena. Cellular fate assessments may therefore have the potential to predict TNBC patient outcome. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Focusing on the fact that cancer cells can bypass the desired cellular apoptotic response to chemotherapy through cellular senescence and cytoprotective autophagy will highlight the importance of targeting non-apoptotic survival pathways to enhance chemotherapeutic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elma A O'Reilly
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science (SMMS), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland ; Department of Surgery, Mater Misericordiae Hospital, Dublin 7, Ireland
| | - Luke Gubbins
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science (SMMS), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Shiva Sharma
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science (SMMS), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland ; Department of Surgery, Mater Misericordiae Hospital, Dublin 7, Ireland
| | - Riona Tully
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science (SMMS), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Matthew Ho Zhing Guang
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science (SMMS), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Karolina Weiner-Gorzel
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science (SMMS), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - John McCaffrey
- Department of Oncology, Mater Misericordiae Hospital, Dublin 7, Ireland
| | - Michele Harrison
- Department of Pathology, Mater Misericordiae Hospital, Dublin 7, Ireland
| | - Fiona Furlong
- School of Pharmacy, Queens University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Malcolm Kell
- Department of Surgery, Mater Misericordiae Hospital, Dublin 7, Ireland
| | - Amanda McCann
- UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science (SMMS), Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Tiwari RV, Parajuli P, Sylvester PW. γ-Tocotrienol-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy act concurrently to promote breast cancer cell death. Biochem Cell Biol 2015; 93:306-20. [PMID: 25844964 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2014-0123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The anticancer effects of γ-tocotrienol are associated with the induction of autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated apoptosis, but a direct relationship between these events has not been established. Treatment with 40 μmol/L of γ-tocotrienol caused a time-dependent decrease in cancer cell viability that corresponds to a concurrent increase in autophagic and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress markers in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. γ-Tocotrienol treatment was found to cause a time-dependent increase in early phase (Beclin-1, LC3B-II) and late phase (LAMP-1 and cathepsin-D) autophagy markers, and pretreatment with autophagy inhibitors Beclin-1 siRNA, 3-MA or Baf1 blocked these effects. Furthermore, blockage of γ-tocotrienol-induced autophagy with Beclin-1 siRNA, 3-MA, or Baf1 induced a modest, but significant, reduction in γ-tocotrienol-induced cytotoxicity. γ-Tocotrienol treatment was also found to cause a decrease in mitogenic Erk1/2 signaling, an increase in stress-dependent p38 and JNK1/2 signaling, as well as an increase in ER stress apoptotic markers, including phospho-PERK, phospho-eIF2α, Bip, IRE1α, ATF-4, CHOP, and TRB3. In summary, these finding demonstrate that γ-tocotrienol-induced ER stress and autophagy occur concurrently, and together act to promote human breast cancer cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roshan V Tiwari
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe LA 71209, USA.,School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe LA 71209, USA
| | - Parash Parajuli
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe LA 71209, USA.,School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe LA 71209, USA
| | - Paul W Sylvester
- School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe LA 71209, USA.,School of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, 700 University Avenue, Monroe LA 71209, USA
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Elaborating the role of natural products-induced autophagy in cancer treatment: achievements and artifacts in the state of the art. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:934207. [PMID: 25821829 PMCID: PMC4363717 DOI: 10.1155/2015/934207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a homeostatic process that is highly conserved across different types of mammalian cells. Autophagy is able to relieve tumor cell from nutrient and oxidative stress during the rapid expansion of cancer. Excessive and sustained autophagy may lead to cell death and tumor shrinkage. It was shown in literature that many anticancer natural compounds and extracts could initiate autophagy in tumor cells. As summarized in this review, the tumor suppressive action of natural products-induced autophagy may lead to cell senescence, provoke apoptosis-independent cell death, and complement apoptotic cell death by robust or target-specific mechanisms. In some cases, natural products-induced autophagy could protect tumor cells from apoptotic death. Technical variations in detecting autophagy affect data quality, and study focus should be made on elaborating the role of autophagy in deciding cell fate. In vivo study monitoring of autophagy in cancer treatment is expected to be the future direction. The clinical-relevant action of autophagy-inducing natural products should be highlighted in future study. As natural products are an important resource in discovery of lead compound of anticancer drug, study on the role of autophagy in tumor suppressive effect of natural products continues to be necessary and emerging.
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Williams K, Gokulan K, Shelman D, Akiyama T, Khan A, Khare S. Cytotoxic Mechanism ofCytolethal Distending Toxinin NontyphoidalSalmonellaSerovar (SalmonellaJaviana) During Macrophage Infection. DNA Cell Biol 2015; 34:113-24. [DOI: 10.1089/dna.2014.2602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Williams
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Kuppan Gokulan
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Diamond Shelman
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Tatsuya Akiyama
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Ashraf Khan
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
| | - Sangeeta Khare
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas
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Inhibition of Mitochondrial Clearance and Cu/Zn-SOD Activity Enhance 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Neuronal Apoptosis. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:777-791. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-9087-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Luan Q, Jin L, Jiang CC, Tay KH, Lai F, Liu XY, Liu YL, Guo ST, Li CY, Yan XG, Tseng HY, Zhang XD. RIPK1 regulates survival of human melanoma cells upon endoplasmic reticulum stress through autophagy. Autophagy 2015; 11:975-94. [PMID: 26018731 PMCID: PMC4590596 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2015.1049800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Although RIPK1 (receptor [TNFRSF]-interacting protein kinase 1) is emerging as a critical determinant of cell fate in response to cellular stress resulting from activation of death receptors and DNA damage, its potential role in cell response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress remains undefined. Here we report that RIPK1 functions as an important prosurvival mechanism in melanoma cells undergoing pharmacological ER stress induced by tunicamycin (TM) or thapsigargin (TG) through activation of autophagy. While treatment with TM or TG upregulated RIPK1 and triggered autophagy in melanoma cells, knockdown of RIPK1 inhibited autophagy and rendered the cells sensitive to killing by TM or TG, recapitulating the effect of inhibition of autophagy. Consistently, overexpression of RIPK1 enhanced induction of autophagy and conferred resistance of melanoma cells to TM- or TG-induced cell death. Activation of MAPK8/JNK1 or MAPK9/JNK2, which phosphorylated BCL2L11/BIM leading to its dissociation from BECN1/Beclin 1, was involved in TM- or TG-induced, RIPK1-mediated activation of autophagy; whereas, activation of the transcription factor HSF1 (heat shock factor protein 1) downstream of the ERN1/IRE1-XBP1 axis of the unfolded protein response was responsible for the increase in RIPK1 in melanoma cells undergoing pharmacological ER stress. Collectively, these results identify upregulation of RIPK1 as an important resistance mechanism of melanoma cells to TM- or TG-induced ER stress by protecting against cell death through activation of autophagy, and suggest that targeting the autophagy-activating mechanism of RIPK1 may be a useful strategy to enhance sensitivity of melanoma cells to therapeutic agents that induce ER stress.
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Key Words
- 3-MA, 3-methyladenine
- AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase
- ATF6, activating transcription factor 6
- Baf A1, bafilomycin A1
- CAMKK2, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2: β
- EIF2AK3/PERK, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-α kinase 3
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- ERN1/IRE1, endoplasmic reticulum to nucleus signaling 1
- HSF1, heat shock transcription factor 1
- HSPA5, heat shock 70kDa protein 5 (glucose-regulated protein: 78kDa)
- MAP2K1/MEK1, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1
- MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MAPK1/ERK2, mitogen-activated protein kinase 1
- MAPK11/p38β, mitogen-activated protein kinase 11
- MAPK12/p38γ, mitogen-activated protein kinase 12
- MAPK13/p38δ, mitogen-activated protein kinase 13
- MAPK14/p38α, mitogen-activated protein kinase 14
- MAPK3/ERK1, mitogen-activated protein kinase 3
- MAPK8/JNK1, mitogen-activated protein kinase 8
- MAPK9/JNK2, mitogen-activated protein kinase 9
- NFKB1, nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells 1
- PRKAA1, protein kinase AMP-activated: α 1 catalytic subunit
- RIPK1
- RIPK1, receptor (TNFRSF)-interacting protein kinase 1
- SQSTM1/p62, sequestosome 1
- TG, thapsigargin
- TM, tunicamycin
- TNFRSF1A/TNFR1, tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily: member 1A
- UPR, unfolded protein response
- XBP1, x-box binding protein 1
- autophagy
- cell death
- endoplasmic reticulum stress
- melanoma
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Luan
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
- Department of Dermatology; Xijing Hospital; Fourth Military Medical University; Xi'an; China
| | - Lei Jin
- School of Medicine and Public Health; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Chen Chen Jiang
- School of Medicine and Public Health; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Kwang Hong Tay
- School of Medicine and Public Health; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Fritz Lai
- School of Medicine and Public Health; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Xiao Ying Liu
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Yi Lun Liu
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Su Tang Guo
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Chun Ying Li
- Department of Dermatology; Xijing Hospital; Fourth Military Medical University; Xi'an; China
| | - Xu Guang Yan
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Hsin-Yi Tseng
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
| | - Xu Dong Zhang
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy; University of Newcastle; NSW, Australia
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Al Dhaheri Y, Attoub S, Ramadan G, Arafat K, Bajbouj K, Karuvantevida N, AbuQamar S, Eid A, Iratni R. Carnosol induces ROS-mediated beclin1-independent autophagy and apoptosis in triple negative breast cancer. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109630. [PMID: 25299698 PMCID: PMC4192122 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In this study we investigated the in vitro and in vivo anticancer effect of carnosol, a naturally occurring polyphenol, in triple negative breast cancer. Results We found that carnosol significantly inhibited the viability and colony growth induced G2 arrest in the triple negative MDA-MB-231. Blockade of the cell cycle was associated with increased p21/WAF1 expression and downregulation of p27. Interestingly, carnosol was found to induce beclin1-independent autophagy and apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells. The coexistence of both events, autophagy and apoptosis, was confirmed by electron micrography. Induction of autophagy was found to be an early event, detected within 3 h post-treatment, which subsequently led to apoptosis. Carnosol treatment also caused a dose-dependent increase in the levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (pERK1/2). Moreover, we show that carnosol induced DNA damage, reduced the mitochondrial potential and triggered the activation of the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathway. Furthermore, we found that carnosol induced a dose-dependent generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inhibition of ROS by tiron, a ROS scavenger, blocked the induction of autophagy and apoptosis and attenuated DNA damage. To our knowledge, this is the first report to identify the induction of autophagy by carnosol. Conclusion In conclusion our findings provide strong evidence that carnosol may be an alternative therapeutic candidate against the aggressive form of breast cancer and hence deserves more exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusra Al Dhaheri
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Samir Attoub
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Gaber Ramadan
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Kholoud Arafat
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Khuloud Bajbouj
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Noushad Karuvantevida
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Synan AbuQamar
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ali Eid
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Rabah Iratni
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
- * E-mail:
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Gong JS, Kim GJ. The role of autophagy in the placenta as a regulator of cell death. Clin Exp Reprod Med 2014; 41:97-107. [PMID: 25309853 PMCID: PMC4192457 DOI: 10.5653/cerm.2014.41.3.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The placenta is a temporary fetomaternal organ capable of supporting fetal growth and development during pregnancy. In particular, abnormal development and dysfunction of the placenta due to cha nges in the proliferation, differentiation, cell death, and invasion of trophoblasts induce several gynecological diseases as well as abnormal fetal development. Autophagy is a catalytic process that maintains cellular structures by recycling building blocks derived from damaged microorganelles or proteins resulting from digestion in lysosomes. Additionally, autophagy is necessary to maintain homeostasis during cellular growth, development, and differentiation, and to protect cells from nutritional deficiencies or factors related to metabolism inhibition. Induced autophagy by various environmental factors has a dual role: it facilitates cellular survival in normal conditions, but the cascade of cellular death is accelerated by over-activated autophagy. Therefore, cellular death by autophagy has been known as programmed cell death type II. Autophagy causes or inhibits cellular death via the other mechanism, apoptosis, which is programmed cell death type I. Recently, it has been reported that autophagy increases in placenta-related obstetrical diseases such as preeclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation, although the mechanisms are still unclear. In particular, abnormal autophagic mechanisms prevent trophoblast invasion and inhibit trophoblast functions. Therefore, the objectives of this review are to examine the characteristics and functions of autophagy and to investigate the role of autophagy in the placenta and the trophoblast as a regulator of cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Sung Gong
- Department of Biomedical Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Gi Jin Kim
- Department of Biomedical Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea. ; CHA Placenta Institute, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
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Tang B, Dong X, Wei Z, Qiao H, Jiang H, Liu B, Sun X. Enhanced autophagy by everolimus contributes to the antirestenotic mechanisms in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Vasc Res 2014; 51:259-68. [PMID: 25196016 DOI: 10.1159/000365927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The present study aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms accounting for the activities of everolimus to inhibit the growth of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), which contributes to restenosis. METHODS Primary VSMCs were cultured in media containing smooth muscle growth supplements and incubated with testing agents. Cell proliferation, cell cycle distribution, apoptosis and autophagy, and the key molecules involved, were examined. RESULTS Everolimus inhibited the proliferation of VSMCs by inhibiting the activation of ribosomal protein S6 kinase and phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1, and downregulating proliferating cellular nuclear antigen. Everolimus induced cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase by downregulating cyclin D1 and upregulating p27, and increased apoptosis by downregulating Bcl-2, upregulating Bad and activating capsase-3 and poly ADP ribose polymerase. Everolimus enhanced autophagy by increasing the conversion of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3)-I to LC3-II, and upregulating Beclin 1. Specific autophagy inhibitors, 3-methyladenine and bafilomycin A1, significantly attenuated the inhibition of cell proliferation, the increased apoptosis and the altered expression of the above key proteins induced by everolimus. CONCLUSIONS Enhanced autophagy by everolimus contributes to its antirestenotic activity and its abilities to inhibit cell proliferation and to induce apoptosis of VSMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Tang
- Hepatosplenic Surgery Center, Department of General Surgery, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
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63
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Gewirtz DA. The autophagic response to radiation: relevance for radiation sensitization in cancer therapy. Radiat Res 2014; 182:363-7. [PMID: 25184372 DOI: 10.1667/rr13774.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Radiation almost uniformly promotes autophagy in tumor cells. While radiation-induced autophagy often serves as a protective function in cell culture studies, it is currently uncertain to what extent autophagy might be induced by radiation in human malignancies; it is furthermore unknown whether autophagy induced by radiation can or should be suppressed for therapeutic benefit. Current clinical trials combining chemotherapeutic drugs or radiation therapy with chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine as autophagy inhibitors may be premature without the benefit of stratification to identify patients whose malignancies might be susceptible to autophagy inhibition as a therapeutic strategy. In addition, there are also concerns as to whether chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, the agents currently in use, have the capacity to suppress autophagy when administered systemically at tolerable doses. Finally, any agent that actually has the appropriate pharmacokinetic profile to function as a systemic autophagy inhibitor may collaterally disrupt the homeostatic function of autophagy in normal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Gewirtz
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
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64
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Cho YS, Park SY. Harnessing of Programmed Necrosis for Fighting against Cancers. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2014; 22:167-75. [PMID: 25009696 PMCID: PMC4060077 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2014.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 05/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemotherapy has long been considered as one of useful strategies for cancer treatment. It is primarily based on the apoptosis that can selectively kill cancer cells. However, cancer cells can progressively develop an acquired resistance to apoptotic cell death, rendering refractory to chemo- and radiotherapies. Although the mechanism by which cells attained resistance to drug remains to be clarified, it might be caused by either pumping out of them or interfering with apoptotic signal cascades in response to cancer drugs. In case that cancer cells are defective in some part of apoptotic machinery by repeated exposure to anticancer drugs, alternative cell death mechanistically distinct from apoptosis could be adopted to remove cancer cells refractory to apoptosis-inducing agents. This review will mainly deal with harnessing of necrotic cell death, specifically, programmed necrosis and practical uses. Here, we begin with various defects of apoptotic death machinery in cancer cells, and then provide new perspective on programmed necrosis as an alternative anticancer approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Sik Cho
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Yeon Park
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 704-701, Republic of Korea
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Wang R, Xiao X, Wang PY, Wang L, Guan Q, Du C, Wang XJ. Stimulation of autophagic activity in human glioma cells by anti-proliferative ardipusilloside I isolated from Ardisia pusilla. Life Sci 2014; 110:15-22. [PMID: 24984215 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2014.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 05/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Ardipusilloside I (ADS-I), a triterpenoid saponin isolated from Ardisia pusilla A.DC (Myrsinaceae), has been recently tested for cancer treatment including brain cancer. However, the mechanism of its action remains elusive. The present study was to investigate the role of autophagy activation in the anti-tumor activities of ADS-I in human glioma cells. MAIN METHODS The tetrazolium dye (MTT) colorimetric assay was used for the measurement of cell proliferation in cultured glioma cells, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the examination of autophagic activity, flow cytometric analysis for the determination of cell cycle and apoptotic cells, and immunocytochemistry and Western blot for protein expression of microtubule-associated protein light-chain 3 (LC3) and Beclin 1. KEY FINDINGS ADS-I significantly inhibited the proliferation of both U373 and T98G glioma cells in cultures in a dose-dependent manner. The cytotoxic activity of ADS-I against glioma cell growth was associated not only with the induction of cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and cell apoptosis in flow cytometric analysis, but also with the activation of autophagy, indicated by the formation of autophagosomes and up-regulated expression of both autophagic protein Beclin 1 and LC3 in glioma cells. Additionally, the treatment with chloroquine, an autophagy inhibitor, reduced ADS-1-mediated cell death. SIGNIFICANCE These data suggest that the anti-proliferative activity of ADS-I in human glioma cells is associated with the activation of autophagy in addition to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and the antagonistic effect of chloroquine suggests an important role of autophagy in ADS-I-mediated cell death against tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, China; Department of Pharmacology, Xi'an Jiaotong University College of Medicine, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710061, China
| | - Xin Xiao
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, China
| | - Peng-Yuan Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, China
| | - Qiunong Guan
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Caigan Du
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Xiao-Juan Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, China.
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Williams B, Verchot J, Dickman MB. When supply does not meet demand-ER stress and plant programmed cell death. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:211. [PMID: 24926295 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00211/abstract] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the central organelle in the eukaryotic secretory pathway. The ER functions in protein synthesis and maturation and is crucial for proper maintenance of cellular homeostasis and adaptation to adverse environments. Acting as a cellular sentinel, the ER is exquisitely sensitive to changing environments principally via the ER quality control machinery. When perturbed, ER-stress triggers a tightly regulated and highly conserved, signal transduction pathway known as the unfolded protein response (UPR) that prevents the dangerous accumulation of unfolded/misfolded proteins. In situations where excessive UPR activity surpasses threshold levels, cells deteriorate and eventually trigger programmed cell death (PCD) as a way for the organism to cope with dysfunctional or toxic signals. The programmed cell death that results from excessive ER stress in mammalian systems contributes to several important diseases including hypoxia, neurodegeneration, and diabetes. Importantly, hallmark features and markers of cell death that are associated with ER stress in mammals are also found in plants. In particular, there is a common, conserved set of chaperones that modulate ER cell death signaling. Here we review the elements of plant cell death responses to ER stress and note that an increasing number of plant-pathogen interactions are being identified in which the host ER is targeted by plant pathogens to establish compatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Williams
- Centre for Tropical Crops and Biocommodities, Queensland University of Technology Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jeanmarie Verchot
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Martin B Dickman
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Institute for Plant Genomics and Biotechnology, Texas A&M University College Station, TX, USA
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Liu R, Li J, Zhang T, Zou L, Chen Y, Wang K, Lei Y, Yuan K, Li Y, Lan J, Cheng L, Xie N, Xiang R, Nice EC, Huang C, Wei Y. Itraconazole suppresses the growth of glioblastoma through induction of autophagy: involvement of abnormal cholesterol trafficking. Autophagy 2014; 10:1241-55. [PMID: 24905460 DOI: 10.4161/auto.28912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive human cancers with poor prognosis, and therefore a critical need exists for novel therapeutic strategies for management of glioblastoma patients. Itraconazole, a traditional antifungal drug, has been identified as a novel potential anticancer agent due to its inhibitory effects on cell proliferation and tumor angiogenesis; however, the molecular mechanisms involved are still unclear. Here, we show that itraconazole inhibits the proliferation of glioblastoma cells both in vitro and in vivo. Notably, we demonstrate that treatment with itraconazole induces autophagic progression in glioblastoma cells, while blockage of autophagy markedly reverses the antiproliferative activities of itraconazole, suggesting an antitumor effect of autophagy in response to itraconazole treatment. Functional studies revealed that itraconazole retarded the trafficking of cholesterol from late endosomes and lysosomes to the plasma membrane by reducing the levels of SCP2, resulting in repression of AKT1-MTOR signaling, induction of autophagy, and finally inhibition of cell proliferation. Together, our studies provide new insights into the molecular mechanisms regarding the antitumor activities of itraconazole, and may further assist both the pharmacological investigation and rational use of itraconazole in potential clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China; State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases; West China Hospital of Stomatology; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Jingyi Li
- School of Biomedical Sciences; Chengdu Medical College; Chengdu, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- School of Biomedical Sciences; Chengdu Medical College; Chengdu, China
| | - Linzhi Zou
- College of Life Sciences; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Yi Chen
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery; State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy; West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Kui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Yunlong Lei
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Molecular Medicine and Cancer Research Center; Chongqing Medical University; Chongqing, China
| | - Kefei Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Jiang Lan
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Lin Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Na Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Rong Xiang
- School of Medicine/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; Nankai University; Tianjin, China
| | - Edouard C Nice
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; Monash University; Clayton, Victoria Australia
| | - Canhua Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
| | - Yuquan Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu, China
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Bonfili L, Cuccioloni M, Cecarini V, Mozzicafreddo M, Palermo FA, Cocci P, Angeletti M, Eleuteri AM. Ghrelin induces apoptosis in colon adenocarcinoma cells via proteasome inhibition and autophagy induction. Apoptosis 2014; 18:1188-200. [PMID: 23632965 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-013-0856-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a metabolism-regulating hormone recently investigated for its role in cancer survival and progression. Controversially, ghrelin may act as either anti-apoptotic or pro-apoptotic factor in different cancer cells, suggesting that the effects are cell type dependent. Limited data are currently available on the effects exerted by ghrelin on intracellular proteolytic pathways in cancer. Both the lysosomal and the proteasomal systems are fundamental in cellular proliferation and apoptosis regulation. With the aim of exploring if the proteasome and autophagy may be possible targets of ghrelin in cancer, we exposed human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells to ghrelin. Preliminary in vitro fluorimetric assays evidenced for the first time a direct inhibition of 20S proteasomes by ghrelin, particularly evident for the trypsin-like activity. Moreover, 1 μM ghrelin induced apoptosis in colorectal adenocarcinoma cells by inhibiting the ubiquitin-proteasome system and by activating autophagy, with p53 having an "interactive" role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Bonfili
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, University of Camerino, Via Gentile III da Varano, 62032, Camerino, Macerata, Italy,
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Williams B, Verchot J, Dickman MB. When supply does not meet demand-ER stress and plant programmed cell death. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:211. [PMID: 24926295 PMCID: PMC4045240 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the central organelle in the eukaryotic secretory pathway. The ER functions in protein synthesis and maturation and is crucial for proper maintenance of cellular homeostasis and adaptation to adverse environments. Acting as a cellular sentinel, the ER is exquisitely sensitive to changing environments principally via the ER quality control machinery. When perturbed, ER-stress triggers a tightly regulated and highly conserved, signal transduction pathway known as the unfolded protein response (UPR) that prevents the dangerous accumulation of unfolded/misfolded proteins. In situations where excessive UPR activity surpasses threshold levels, cells deteriorate and eventually trigger programmed cell death (PCD) as a way for the organism to cope with dysfunctional or toxic signals. The programmed cell death that results from excessive ER stress in mammalian systems contributes to several important diseases including hypoxia, neurodegeneration, and diabetes. Importantly, hallmark features and markers of cell death that are associated with ER stress in mammals are also found in plants. In particular, there is a common, conserved set of chaperones that modulate ER cell death signaling. Here we review the elements of plant cell death responses to ER stress and note that an increasing number of plant-pathogen interactions are being identified in which the host ER is targeted by plant pathogens to establish compatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Williams
- Centre for Tropical Crops and Biocommodities, Queensland University of TechnologyBrisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jeanmarie Verchot
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK, USA
| | - Martin B. Dickman
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Institute for Plant Genomics and Biotechnology, Texas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX, USA
- *Correspondence: Martin B. Dickman, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Institute for Plant Genomics and Biotechnology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA e-mail:
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70
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Ma KG, Shao ZW, Yang SH, Wang J, Wang BC, Xiong LM, Wu Q, Chen SF. Autophagy is activated in compression-induced cell degeneration and is mediated by reactive oxygen species in nucleus pulposus cells exposed to compression. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2013; 21:2030-8. [PMID: 24120490 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/01/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether autophagy contributes to the pathogenesis of degenerative disc disease (DDD) or retards the intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration, and investigate the possible relationship between compression-induced autophagy and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in nucleus pulposus (NP) cells in vitro. METHODS The autophagosome and autophagy-related markers were used to explore the role of autophagy in rat NP cells under compressive stress, which were measured directly by electronic microscopy, monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining, immunofluorescence, western blot, and indirectly by analyzing the impact of pharmacological inhibitors of autophagy such as 3-methyladenine (3-MA) and chloroquine (CQ). And the relationship between autophagy and apoptosis was investigated by Annexin-V/propidium iodide (PI)-fluorescein staining. In addition, ROS were measured to determine whether these factors are responsible for the development of compression-induced autophagy. RESULTS Our results indicated that rat NP cells activated autophagy in response to the same strong apoptotic stimuli that triggered apoptosis by compression. Autophagy and apoptosis were interconnected and coordinated in rat NP cells exposed to compression stimuli. Compression-induced autophagy was closely related to intracellular ROS production. CONCLUSIONS Enhanced degradation of damaged components of NP cells by autophagy may be a crucial survival response against mechanical overload, and extensive autophagy may trigger autophagic cell death. Regulating autophagy and reducing the generation of intracellular ROS may retard IVD degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- K-G Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
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Chukkapalli S, Amessou M, Dilly AK, Dekhil H, Zhao J, Liu Q, Bejna A, Thomas RD, Bandyopadhyay S, Bismar TA, Neill D, Azoulay L, Batist G, Kandouz M. Role of the EphB2 receptor in autophagy, apoptosis and invasion in human breast cancer cells. Exp Cell Res 2013; 320:233-46. [PMID: 24211352 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2013.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The Eph and Ephrin proteins, which constitute the largest family of receptor tyrosine kinases, are involved in normal tissue development and cancer progression. Here, we examined the expression and role of the B-type Eph receptor EphB2 in breast cancers. By immunohistochemistry using a progression tissue microarray of human clinical samples, we found EphB2 to be expressed in benign tissues, but strongly increased in cancers particularly in invasive and metastatic carcinomas. Subsequently, we found evidence that EphB2, whose expression varies in established cell breast lines, possesses multiple functions. First, the use of a DOX-inducible system to restore EphB2 function to low expressers resulted in decreased tumor growth in vitro and in vivo, while its siRNA-mediated silencing in high expressers increased growth. This function involves the onset of apoptotic death paralleled by caspases 3 and 9 activation. Second, EphB2 was also found to induce autophagy, as assessed by immunofluorescence and/or immunoblotting examination of the LC3, ATG5 and ATG12 markers. Third, EphB2 also has a pro-invasive function in breast cancer cells that involves the regulation of MMP2 and MMP9 metalloproteases and can be blocked by treatment with respective neutralizing antibodies. Furthermore, EphB2-induced invasion is kinase-dependent and is impeded in cells expressing a kinase-dead mutant EphB2. In summary, we identified a mechanism involving a triple role for EphB2 in breast cancer progression, whereby it regulates apoptosis, autophagy, and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahiti Chukkapalli
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Mohamed Amessou
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ashok K Dilly
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Hafedh Dekhil
- Obesity Research Center, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Jing Zhao
- Montréal Centre for Experimental Therapeutics in Cancer, Segal cancer Centre, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Qiang Liu
- Montréal Centre for Experimental Therapeutics in Cancer, Segal cancer Centre, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Alex Bejna
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ron D Thomas
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | | | - Tarek A Bismar
- Departments of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Oncology, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Daniel Neill
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Laurent Azoulay
- Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Gerald Batist
- Montréal Centre for Experimental Therapeutics in Cancer, Segal cancer Centre, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, Québec, Canada; Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Mustapha Kandouz
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA.
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Autophagy benefits the replication of Newcastle disease virus in chicken cells and tissues. J Virol 2013; 88:525-37. [PMID: 24173218 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01849-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is an important avian pathogen. We previously reported that NDV triggers autophagy in U251 glioma cells, resulting in enhanced virus replication. In this study, we investigated whether NDV triggers autophagy in chicken cells and tissues to enhance virus replication. We demonstrated that NDV infection induced steady-state autophagy in chicken-derived DF-1 cells and in primary chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cells, evident through increased double- or single-membrane vesicles, the accumulation of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-LC3 dots, and the conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II. In addition, we measured autophagic flux by monitoring p62/SQSTM1 degradation, LC3-II turnover, and GFP-LC3 lysosomal delivery and proteolysis, to confirm that NDV infection induced the complete autophagic process. Inhibition of autophagy by pharmacological inhibitors and RNA interference reduced virus replication, indicating an important role for autophagy in NDV infection. Furthermore, we conducted in vivo experiments and observed the conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II in heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney of NDV-infected chickens. Regulation of the induction of autophagy with wortmannin, chloroquine, or starvation treatment affects NDV production and pathogenesis in tissues of both lung and intestine; however, treatment with rapamycin, an autophagy inducer of mammalian cells, showed no detectable changes in chicken cells and tissues. Moreover, administration of the autophagy inhibitor wortmannin increased the survival rate of NDV-infected chickens. Our studies provide strong evidence that NDV infection induces autophagy which benefits NDV replication in chicken cells and tissues.
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Targeting annexin A7 by a small molecule suppressed the activity of phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C in vascular endothelial cells and inhibited atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E⁻/⁻mice. Cell Death Dis 2013; 4:e806. [PMID: 24052074 PMCID: PMC3789175 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2013.317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Revised: 07/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C (PC-PLC) is a key factor in apoptosis and autophagy of vascular endothelial cells (VECs), and involved in atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E⁻/⁻ (apoE⁻/⁻) mice. But the endogenous regulators of PC-PLC are not known. We recently found a small chemical molecule (6-amino-2, 3-dihydro-3-hydroxymethyl-1, 4-benzoxazine, ABO) that could inhibit oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-induced apoptosis and promote autophagy in VECs, and further identified ABO as an inhibitor of annexin A7 (ANXA7) GTPase. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that ANXA7 is an endogenous regulator of PC-PLC, and targeting ANXA7 by ABO may inhibit atherosclerosis in apoE⁻/⁻ mice. In this study, we tested our hypothesis. The results showed that ABO suppressed oxLDL-induced increase of PC-PLC level and activity and promoted the co-localization of ANXA7 and PC-PLC in VECs. The experiments of ANXA7 knockdown and overexpression demonstrated that the action of ABO was ANXA7-dependent in cultured VECs. To investigate the relation of ANXA7 with PC-PLC in atherosclerosis, apoE⁻/⁻ mice fed with a western diet were treated with 50 or 100 mg/kg/day ABO. The results showed that ABO decreased PC-PLC levels in the mouse aortic endothelium and PC-PLC activity in serum, and enhanced the protein levels of ANXA7 in the mouse aortic endothelium. Furthermore, both dosages of ABO significantly enhanced autophagy and reduced apoptosis in the mouse aortic endothelium. As a result, ABO significantly reduced atherosclerotic plaque area and effectively preserved a stable plaques phenotype, including reduced lipid deposition and pro-inflammatory macrophages, increased anti-inflammatory macrophages, collagen content and smooth muscle cells, and less cell death in the plaques. In conclusion, ANXA7 was an endogenous regulator of PC-PLC, and targeting ANXA7 by ABO inhibited atherosclerosis in apoE⁻/⁻ mice.
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Zheng L, Zhu K, Jiao H, Zhao Z, Zhang L, Liu M, Deng W, Chen D, Yao Z, Xiao G. PTHrP expression in human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells is critical for tumor growth and survival and osteoblast inhibition. Int J Biol Sci 2013; 9:830-41. [PMID: 23983616 PMCID: PMC3753447 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.7039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the effects of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) derived from human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells on the tumor growth and osteoblast inhibition. Results revealed that knocking down PTHrP expression in the breast cancer cells strikingly inhibited the formation of subcutaneous tumors in nude mice. PTHrP knockdown dramatically decreased the levels of cyclins D1 and A1 proteins and arrested the cell cycle progression at the G1 stage. PTHrP knockdown led to the cleavage of Caspase 8 and induced apoptosis of the tumor cells. Interestingly, knocking down PTHrP increased the levels of Beclin1 and LC3-II and promoted the formation of autophagosomes. Knocking down PTHrP expression significantly reduced the abilities of the breast cancer cells to inhibit osteoblast differentiation and bone formation in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we found that PTHrP activated its own expression through an autocrine mechanism in MDA-MB-231 cells. Collectively, these studies suggest that targeting PTHrP expression in the tumor cells could be a potential therapeutic strategy for breast cancers, especially those with skeletal metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zheng
- Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, China
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Lee TY, Liu MS, Huang LJ, Lue SI, Lin LC, Kwan AL, Yang RC. Bioenergetic failure correlates with autophagy and apoptosis in rat liver following silver nanoparticle intraperitoneal administration. Part Fibre Toxicol 2013; 10:40. [PMID: 23958063 PMCID: PMC3765627 DOI: 10.1186/1743-8977-10-40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Deposition and accumulation of silver nanoparticles (Ag-nps) in the liver have been shown to induce hepatotoxicity in animal studies. The hepatotoxicity may include oxidative stress, abnormalities in energy metabolism, and cell death. Studies have indicated that autophagy is an intracellular event involving balance of energy, nutrients, and turnover of subcellular organelles. The present study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that autophagy plays a role in mediating hepatotoxicity in animal after exposure to Ag-nps. Focus was placed on interrelationship between energy metabolism, autophagy, apoptosis and hepatic dysfunction. METHODS Sprague Dawley rats were intraperitoneally injected with Ag-nps (10-30 nm in diameter) at concentration of 500 mg kg(-1). All animals were sacrificed on days 1, 4, 7, 10 and 30 after exposure and blood and liver tissues were collected for further studies. RESULTS Uptake of Ag-nps was quite prompt and not proportional to the blood Ag concentration. Declination of ATP (-64% in days 1) and autophagy (determined by LC3-II protein expression and morphological evaluation) increased and peaked on the first day. The ATP content remained at low level even though the autophagy has been activated. Apoptosis (based on caspase-3 protein expression and TUNEL-positive cells staining) began to rise sigmoidally at days 1 and 4, reached a peak level at day 7, and remained at the same levels during days 7-30 post exposure. Meanwhile, autophagy exhibited a gradual decrease from days 1-10 and the decrease at day 30 was statistically significant as compared to day 0 (sham group). Inflammatory reaction (histopathological evaluation) was found at day 10 and preceded to an advanced degree at day 30 when liver function was impaired. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that following Ag-nps administration, autophagy was induced; however, failure to preserve autophagy compounded with energy reduction led to apoptosis and the eventual impairment of liver function. The study provides an in-vivo evidence of hepatotoxicity by continuous exposure of Ag-nps in rats.
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Strozyk E, Kulms D. The role of AKT/mTOR pathway in stress response to UV-irradiation: implication in skin carcinogenesis by regulation of apoptosis, autophagy and senescence. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:15260-85. [PMID: 23887651 PMCID: PMC3759859 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140815260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Induction of DNA damage by UVB and UVA radiation may generate mutations and genomic instability leading to carcinogenesis. Therefore, skin cells being repeatedly exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light have acquired multilayered protective mechanisms to avoid malignant transformation. Besides extensive DNA repair mechanisms, the damaged skin cells can be eliminated by induction of apoptosis, which is mediated through the action of tumor suppressor p53. In order to prevent the excessive loss of skin cells and to maintain the skin barrier function, apoptotic pathways are counteracted by anti-apoptotic signaling including the AKT/mTOR pathway. However, AKT/mTOR not only prevents cell death, but is also active in cell cycle transition and hyper-proliferation, thereby also counteracting p53. In turn, AKT/mTOR is tuned down by the negative regulators being controlled by the p53. This inhibition of AKT/mTOR, in combination with transactivation of damage-regulated autophagy modulators, guides the p53-mediated elimination of damaged cellular components by autophagic clearance. Alternatively, p53 irreversibly blocks cell cycle progression to prevent AKT/mTOR-driven proliferation, thereby inducing premature senescence. Conclusively, AKT/mTOR via an extensive cross talk with p53 influences the UV response in the skin with no black and white scenario deciding over death or survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elwira Strozyk
- Experimental Dermatology, Department of Dermatology, TU Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; E-Mail:
| | - Dagmar Kulms
- Experimental Dermatology, Department of Dermatology, TU Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany; E-Mail:
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77
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Criscitiello MF, Dickman MB, Samuel JE, de Figueiredo P. Tripping on acid: trans-kingdom perspectives on biological acids in immunity and pathogenesis. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003402. [PMID: 23874196 PMCID: PMC3715416 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Criscitiello
- Comparative Immunogenetics Laboratory, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America.
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78
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TW01001, a novel piperazinedione compound, induces mitotic arrest and autophagy in non-small cell lung cancer A549 cells. Cancer Lett 2013; 336:370-8. [PMID: 23567646 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2013.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Here, we report that TW01001, a novel piperazinedione compound, could be a new mitotic inhibitor for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer by the following observations in A549 cells: (1) induction of cells to accumulate at G2/M phase, which ultimately led to cell apoptotic death, (2) accumulation of p53 and inhibition of survival signalings, and (3) induction of p53-independent autophagy. Taken together, our data suggested that TW01001 induces autophagy-p53-signaling pathway to cause mitotic arrest and cell growth inhibition in A549 cells and provides the framework for further development as a novel therapeutic agent for lung cancer treatment.
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79
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Nanomaterials and autophagy: new insights in cancer treatment. Cancers (Basel) 2013; 5:296-319. [PMID: 24216709 PMCID: PMC3730308 DOI: 10.3390/cancers5010296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy represents a cell’s response to stress. It is an evolutionarily conserved process with diversified roles. Indeed, it controls intracellular homeostasis by degradation and/or recycling intracellular metabolic material, supplies energy, provides nutrients, eliminates cytotoxic materials and damaged proteins and organelles. Moreover, autophagy is involved in several diseases. Recent evidences support a relationship between several classes of nanomaterials and autophagy perturbation, both induction and blockade, in many biological models. In fact, the autophagic mechanism represents a common cellular response to nanomaterials. On the other hand, the dynamic nature of autophagy in cancer biology is an intriguing approach for cancer therapeutics, since during tumour development and therapy, autophagy has been reported to trigger both an early cell survival and a late cell death. The use of nanomaterials in cancer treatment to deliver chemotherapeutic drugs and target tumours is well known. Recently, autophagy modulation mediated by nanomaterials has become an appealing notion in nanomedicine therapeutics, since it can be exploited as adjuvant in chemotherapy or in the development of cancer vaccines or as a potential anti-cancer agent. Herein, we summarize the effects of nanomaterials on autophagic processes in cancer, also considering the therapeutic outcome of synergism between nanomaterials and autophagy to improve existing cancer therapies.
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80
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Zhang Y, Wu S, Lv J, Feng C, Deng J, Wang C, Yuan X, Zhang T, Lin X. Peste des petits ruminants virus exploits cellular autophagy machinery for replication. Virology 2013; 437:28-38. [PMID: 23318276 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Revised: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is an important pathogen that seriously influences the productivity of small ruminants worldwide. Although PPRV is known to induce apoptosis in infected cells, the interaction between PPRV and permissive cells requires further elucidation. Here, we provide the first evidence that PPRV infection triggered autophagy in Vero cells based on the appearance of abundant double- and single-membrane vesicles, the accumulation of LC3 fluorescent puncta, the enhancement of LC3-I/-II conversion, and autophagic flux. We further demonstrated that induction of autophagy with rapamycin significantly increased PPRV progeny yield and nucleocapsid (N) protein expression, while inhibition of autophagy with siRNA targeting ATG7 resulted in diametrically opposite results. Our data indicate that PPRV exploits the autophagy machinery to facilitate its own replication in host cells, thus the production efficiency of live attenuated PPRV vaccines may be improved by targeting the autophagic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongning Zhang
- Institute of Animal Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing 100029, People's Republic of China
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81
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Chaabane W, User SD, El-Gazzah M, Jaksik R, Sajjadi E, Rzeszowska-Wolny J, Los MJ. Autophagy, apoptosis, mitoptosis and necrosis: interdependence between those pathways and effects on cancer. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2012; 61:43-58. [PMID: 23229678 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-012-0205-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cell death is a fundamental ingredient of life. Thus, not surprisingly more than one form of cell death exists. Several excellent reviews on various forms of cell death have already been published but manuscripts describing interconnection and interdependence between such processes are uncommon. Here, what follows is a brief introduction on all three classical forms of cell death, followed by a more detailed insight into the role of p53, the master regulator of apoptosis, and other forms of cell death. While discussing p53 and also the role of caspases in cell death forms, we offer insight into the interplay between autophagy and apoptosis, or necrosis, where autophagy may initially serve pro-survival functions. The review moves further to present some details about less researched forms of programmed cell death, namely necroptosis, necrosis and mitoptosis. These "mixed" forms of cell death allow us to highlight the interconnected nature of cell death forms, particularly apoptosis and necrosis. The interdependence between apoptosis, autophagy and necrosis, and their significance for cancer development and treatment are also analyzed in further parts of the review. In the concluding parts, the afore-mentioned issues will be put in perspective for the development of novel anti-cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiem Chaabane
- Division of Cell Biology, Department Clinical and Experimental Medicine (IKE), and Integrative Regenerative Medicine Center (IGEN), Linköping University, Cell Biology Building, Linköping, Sweden
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82
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Sanmartín C, Plano D, Sharma AK, Palop JA. Selenium compounds, apoptosis and other types of cell death: an overview for cancer therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:9649-9672. [PMID: 22949823 PMCID: PMC3431821 DOI: 10.3390/ijms13089649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element involved in different physiological functions of the human body and plays a role in cancer prevention and treatment. Induction of apoptosis is considered an important cellular event that can account for the cancer preventive effects of Se. The mechanisms of Se-induced apoptosis are associated with the chemical forms of Se and their metabolism as well as the type of cancer studied. So, some selenocompounds, such as SeO2 involve the activation of caspase-3 while sodium selenite induces apoptosis in the absence of the activation of caspases. Modulation of mitochondrial functions has been reported to play a key role in the regulation of apoptosis and also to be one of the targets of Se compounds. Other mechanisms for apoptosis induction are the modulation of glutathione and reactive oxygen species levels, which may function as intracellular messengers to regulate signaling pathways, or the regulation of kinase, among others. Emerging evidence indicates the overlaps between the apoptosis and other types of cell death such as autophagy. In this review we report different processes of cell death induced by Se compounds in cancer treatment and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Sanmartín
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Navarra, Irunlarrea 1, Pamplona E-31008, Spain; E-Mails: (D.P.); (J.A.P.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +34-948-425-600; Fax: +34-948-425-649
| | - Daniel Plano
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Navarra, Irunlarrea 1, Pamplona E-31008, Spain; E-Mails: (D.P.); (J.A.P.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State Hershey Cancer Institute, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, CH72, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Arun K. Sharma
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State Hershey Cancer Institute, Penn State Hershey College of Medicine, CH72, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Juan Antonio Palop
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Navarra, Irunlarrea 1, Pamplona E-31008, Spain; E-Mails: (D.P.); (J.A.P.)
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