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Altit G, Dancea A, Renaud C, Perreault T, Lands LC, Sant'Anna G. Pathophysiology, screening and diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia - A review of the literature. Paediatr Respir Rev 2017; 23:16-26. [PMID: 27986502 DOI: 10.1016/j.prrv.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a common complication of extreme prematurity, which has increased over the last 20 years. BPD is associated with increased morbidities and mortality. It has been increasingly recognized that BPD affects overall lung development including the pulmonary vasculature. More recent studies have demonstrated an increased awareness of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PH) in BPD patients and recent international guidelines have advocated for better screening. This review will describe the current understanding of the pathophysiology of PH in infants with BPD, the in-depth assessment of the available literature linking PH and BPD, and propose an approach of screening and diagnosis of PH in infants with BPD.
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van Diemen PA, Stuijfzand WJ, Biesbroek SP, Raijmakers PG, Driessen RS, Schumacher SP, Nap A, van Rossum AC, van Royen N, Nijveldt R, Knaapen P. Impact of right ventricular side branch occlusion during percutaneous coronary intervention of chronic total occlusions on right ventricular function. CARDIOVASCULAR REVASCULARIZATION MEDICINE 2017; 18:405-410. [PMID: 28432004 DOI: 10.1016/j.carrev.2017.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2017] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the impact of right ventricular side branch (RVB) occlusion, during percutaneous coronary interventions (PCIs) of chronic total occlusions (CTOs) of the right coronary artery (RCA), on right ventricular (RV) function. BACKGROUND Developments in PCI techniques have expanded PCI CTO feasibility. However, the utilization of dissection and reentry techniques and extensive stent implantation increases the risk of coronary side branch occlusion. METHODS Fifty-four patients (80% male, 63±10years) evaluated with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) prior and three months after successful PCI CTO RCA (median: 99days, IQR: 92-105days) were included. Right ventricular end-diastolic volume (RVEDV), end-systolic volume (RVESV), and ejection fraction (RVEF) were quantified on CMR images. Occurrence of RVB occlusion and/or RVB recruitment was assessed using procedural angiograms. RESULTS RVB occlusion was observed in 12 patients (22%), while RVB recruitment occurred in seven patients (13%). Overall, RVEF was comparable between baseline and follow-up (53.8±5.8 vs. 53.9±5.8%, p=0.95). RVB occlusion was not associated with a significant change in RVEDV or RVEF (156.9±36.3 vs. 162.1±35.5mL, p=0.30 and 54.2±3.9 vs. 52.7±4.4%, p=0.19, respectively); however a trend was observed for an increase of RVESV (72.5±20.0 vs. 77.4±20.7mL, p=0.05) at follow-up. RVB recruitment did not result in a significant improvement of RVEF (55.4±4.6 vs. 56.1±5.3%, p=0.75). CONCLUSION RVB occlusion was not associated with a significant decreased RVEF at follow-up, although the results suggested a limited increase of RVESV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pepijn A van Diemen
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wynand J Stuijfzand
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Stefan P Biesbroek
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter G Raijmakers
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Roel S Driessen
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan P Schumacher
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Nap
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Albert C van Rossum
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Niels van Royen
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robin Nijveldt
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul Knaapen
- Department of Cardiology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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53
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Idiopathic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension in Children: A Review. Pulm Ther 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s41030-017-0035-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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Jorstig S, Waldenborg M, Lidén M, Thunberg P. Right ventricular ejection fraction measurements using two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography by applying an ellipsoid model. Cardiovasc Ultrasound 2017; 15:4. [PMID: 28270161 PMCID: PMC5341471 DOI: 10.1186/s12947-017-0096-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background There is today no established approach to estimate right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF) using 2D transthoracic echocardiography (TTE). The aim of this study was to evaluate a new method for RVEF calculations using 2D TTE and compare the results with cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE). Methods A total of 37 subjects, 25 retrospectively included patients and twelve healthy volunteers, were included to give a wide range of RVEF. The right ventricle (RV) was modeled as a part of an ellipsoid enabling calculation of the RV volume by combining three distance measurements. RVEF calculated according to the model, RVEFTTE, were compared with reference CMR-derived RVEF, RVEFCMR. Further, TAPSE was measured in the TTE images and the correlations were calculated between RVEFTTE, TAPSE and RVEFCMR. Results The mean values were RVEFCMR = 43 ± 12% (range 20–66%) and RVEFTTE = 50 ± 9% (range 34–65%). There was a high correlation (r = 0.80, p < 0.001) between RVEFTTE and RVEFCMR. Bland-Altman analysis showed a mean difference between RVEFCMR and RVEFTTE of 6 percentage points (ppt) with limits of agreement from −11 to 23 ppt. The mean value for TAPSE was 19 ± 5 mm and the correlation between TAPSE and RVEFCMR was moderate (r = 0.54, p < 0.001). The correlation between RVEFTTE and RVEFCMR was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the correlation between TAPSE and RVEFCMR. Conclusions The ellipsoid model shows promise for RVEF calculations using 2D TTE for a wide range of RVEF, providing RVEF estimates that were significantly better correlated to RVEF obtained from CMR compared to TAPSE. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12947-017-0096-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stina Jorstig
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 70182, Örebro, Sweden. .,Biomedical Engineering, Örebro University Hospital, 70185, Örebro, Sweden.
| | - Micael Waldenborg
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 70182, Örebro, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 70182, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Mats Lidén
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 70182, Örebro, Sweden.,Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 70182, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Per Thunberg
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 70182, Örebro, Sweden.,Department of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 70182, Örebro, Sweden
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Schäfer M, Ivy DD, Abman SH, Barker AJ, Browne LP, Fonseca B, Kheyfets V, Hunter KS, Truong U. Apparent Aortic Stiffness in Children With Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Existence of Vascular Interdependency? Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2017; 10:e005817. [PMID: 28193613 PMCID: PMC5314208 DOI: 10.1161/circimaging.116.005817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Left ventricular dysfunction, mediated by ventricular interdependence, has been associated with negative outcomes in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). Considering the dilation of the pulmonary arteries as a paramount sign of PAH, we hypothesized that the ascending aorta will present signs of apparent stiffness in children with PAH and that this effect may be because of mechanical interaction with the dilated main pulmonary artery (MPA). METHODS AND RESULTS Forty-two children with PAH and 26 age- and size-matched controls underwent comprehensive cardiac magnetic resonance evaluation. Assessment of aortic stiffness was evaluated by measuring pulse wave velocity, aortic strain, and distensibility. Children with PAH had significantly increased pulse wave velocity in the ascending aorta (3.4 versus 2.3 m/s for PAH and controls, respectively; P=0.001) and reduced aortic strain (23% versus 29%; P<0.0001) and distensibility (0.47 versus 0.64%/mm Hg; P=0.02). Indexed MPA diameter correlated with pulse wave velocity (P=0.04) and with aortic strain (P=0.02). The ratio of MPA to aortic size correlated with pulse wave velocity (P=0.0098), strain (P=0.0099), and distensibility (P=0.015). Furthermore, aortic relative area change was associated with left ventricular ejection fraction (P=0.045) and ventricular-vascular coupling ratio (P=0.042). CONCLUSIONS Pediatric PAH patients have increased apparent ascending aortic stiffness, which was strongly associated with the degree of MPA distension. We speculate that distension of the MPA may play a major role in limiting full aortic expansion during systole, which modulates left ventricular performance and impacts systemic hemodynamics in pediatric PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Schäfer
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.).
| | - D Dunbar Ivy
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
| | - Steven H Abman
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
| | - Alex J Barker
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
| | - Lorna P Browne
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
| | - Brian Fonseca
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
| | - Vitaly Kheyfets
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
| | - Kendall S Hunter
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
| | - Uyen Truong
- From the Division of Cardiology, Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (M.S., D.D.I., B.F., K.S.H., U.T.), Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences (M.S., D.D.I., V.K., K.S.H., U.T.), Division of Pulmonology, Breathing Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado (S.H.A.), and Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital Colorado (L.P.B.), University of Colorado Denver/Anschutz Medical Campus; and Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL (A.J.B.)
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Zhang Z, Wang M, Yang Z, Yang F, Li D, Yu T, Zhang N. Noninvasive prediction of pulmonary artery pressure and vascular resistance by using cardiac magnetic resonance indices. Int J Cardiol 2017; 227:915-922. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.10.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 10/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Sun H, Stockbridge N, Ariagno RL, Murphy D, Nelson RM, Rodriguez W. Reliable and developmentally appropriate study end points are needed to achieve drug development for treatment of pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Perinatol 2016; 36:1029-1033. [PMID: 27416322 PMCID: PMC5585871 DOI: 10.1038/jp.2016.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify suitable end points and surrogates for pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) as the lack of developmentally appropriate end point and clinical trials contribute to the unmet medical need. STUDY DESIGN Reviewed the efficacy end points and surrogates for all trials (1995 to 2013) that were submitted to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to support the approval of PAH therapy and conducted literature search. RESULTS An increase in the 6 min walking distance (6MWD) was used as a primary end point in 8/9 adult PAH trials. This end point is not suitable for infants and young children because of performance limitations and lack of control data. One adult PAH trial used time to the first morbidity or mortality event as a primary end point, which could potentially be used in pediatric PAH trials. In the sildenafil pediatric PAH trial, the change in pulmonary vascular resistance index or mean pulmonary artery pressure was used as a surrogate for the 6MWD to assess exercise capacity. However, two deaths and three severe adverse events during the catheterizations made this an unacceptably high-risk surrogate. The INOmax persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn trial used a reduction in initiation of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation treatment as a primary end point, which is not feasible for other pediatric PAH trials. A Literature review revealed none of the existing noninvasive markers are fully validated as surrogates to assess PAH efficacy and long-term safety. CONCLUSIONS For pediatric PAH trials, clinical end points are acceptable, and novel validated surrogates would be helpful. FDA seeks collaboration with academia, industry and parents to develop other suitable and possibly more efficient efficacy end points to facilitate pediatric PAH drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Sun
- Office of Pediatric Therapeutics/Office of Commissioner, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - N Stockbridge
- Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - RL Ariagno
- Stanford University, Division of Neonatal & Developmental Medicine, Palo Alto, California, USA,Senior Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - D Murphy
- Office of Pediatric Therapeutics/Office of Commissioner, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - RM Nelson
- Office of Pediatric Therapeutics/Office of Commissioner, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - W Rodriguez
- Office of Pediatric Therapeutics/Office of Commissioner, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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Kaddoura T, Vadlamudi K, Kumar S, Bobhate P, Guo L, Jain S, Elgendi M, Coe JY, Kim D, Taylor D, Tymchak W, Schuurmans D, Zemp RJ, Adatia I. Acoustic diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension: automated speech- recognition-inspired classification algorithm outperforms physicians. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33182. [PMID: 27609672 PMCID: PMC5016849 DOI: 10.1038/srep33182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesized that an automated speech- recognition-inspired classification algorithm could differentiate between the heart sounds in subjects with and without pulmonary hypertension (PH) and outperform physicians. Heart sounds, electrocardiograms, and mean pulmonary artery pressures (mPAp) were recorded simultaneously. Heart sound recordings were digitized to train and test speech-recognition-inspired classification algorithms. We used mel-frequency cepstral coefficients to extract features from the heart sounds. Gaussian-mixture models classified the features as PH (mPAp ≥ 25 mmHg) or normal (mPAp < 25 mmHg). Physicians blinded to patient data listened to the same heart sound recordings and attempted a diagnosis. We studied 164 subjects: 86 with mPAp ≥ 25 mmHg (mPAp 41 ± 12 mmHg) and 78 with mPAp < 25 mmHg (mPAp 17 ± 5 mmHg) (p < 0.005). The correct diagnostic rate of the automated speech-recognition-inspired algorithm was 74% compared to 56% by physicians (p = 0.005). The false positive rate for the algorithm was 34% versus 50% (p = 0.04) for clinicians. The false negative rate for the algorithm was 23% and 68% (p = 0.0002) for physicians. We developed an automated speech-recognition-inspired classification algorithm for the acoustic diagnosis of PH that outperforms physicians that could be used to screen for PH and encourage earlier specialist referral.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Kaddoura
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Karunakar Vadlamudi
- Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service, Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Unit, Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Shine Kumar
- Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service, Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Unit, Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Prashant Bobhate
- Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service, Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Unit, Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Long Guo
- Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service, Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Unit, Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Shreepal Jain
- Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service, Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Unit, Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Mohamed Elgendi
- Department Computing Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - James Y Coe
- Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service, Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Unit, Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Daniel Kim
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Cardiac Catheterization Laboratories, University of Alberta Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Dylan Taylor
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Cardiac Catheterization Laboratories, University of Alberta Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Wayne Tymchak
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Cardiac Catheterization Laboratories, University of Alberta Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Dale Schuurmans
- Department Computing Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Roger J Zemp
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Ian Adatia
- Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service, Pediatric Cardiac Critical Care Unit, Stollery Children's Hospital, Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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Lammers AE, Apitz C, Zartner P, Hager A, Dubowy KO, Hansmann G. Diagnostics, monitoring and outpatient care in children with suspected pulmonary hypertension/paediatric pulmonary hypertensive vascular disease. Expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and treatment of paediatric pulmonary hypertension. The European Paediatric Pulmonary Vascular Disease Network, endorsed by ISHLT and DGPK. Heart 2016; 102 Suppl 2:ii1-13. [PMID: 27053692 DOI: 10.1136/heartjnl-2015-307792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a condition of multiple aetiologies with underestimated prevalence and incidence. Indeed, despite access to modern therapies, pulmonary hypertensive vascular disease (PHVD) remains a progressive, usually life-limiting condition, severely impacting on the patients' well-being. We herein provide practical, expert consensus recommendations on the initial diagnostic work-up, clinical management and follow-up of children and adolescents with PH/PHVD, including a diagnostic algorithm. The major topics and methods that need to be tailored and put into context of the individual patient include PH classification, clinical signs and symptoms, basic diagnostic and advanced imaging measures (ECG, chest X-ray, transthoracic echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance, chest CT angiography, cardiac catheterisation, ventilation-perfusion lung scan, abdominal ultrasound), lung function tests, 6 min walk and cardiopulmonary exercise testing, sleep study (polysomnography), laboratory/immunological tests, considerations for elective surgery/ general anaesthesia, physical education and exercise, flying on commercial airplanes, vaccinations, care of central intravenous lines and palliative care. Due to the complexity of PH/PHVD, the clinical care has to be multidisciplinary and coordinated by a dedicated specialist paediatric PH centre, not only to decrease mortality but to allow children with PH/PHVD to reach a reasonable quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid E Lammers
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Christian Apitz
- Division of Paediatric Cardiology, University Children's Hospital Ulm, Germany
| | - Peter Zartner
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology, German Paediatric Heart Centre, Sankt Augustin, Germany
| | - Alfred Hager
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology and Congenital Heart Disease, German Heart Centre Munich and Technical University, Munich, Germany
| | - Karl-Otto Dubowy
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology and Congenital Heart Disease, Heart and Diabetes Centre NRW, Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
| | - Georg Hansmann
- Department of Paediatric Cardiology and Critical Care, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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Latus H, Kuehne T, Beerbaum P, Apitz C, Hansmann G, Muthurangu V, Moledina S. Cardiac MR and CT imaging in children with suspected or confirmed pulmonary hypertension/pulmonary hypertensive vascular disease. Expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and treatment of paediatric pulmonary hypertension. The European Paediatric Pulmonary Vascular Disease Network, endorsed by ISHLT and DGPK. Heart 2016; 102 Suppl 2:ii30-5. [PMID: 27053695 DOI: 10.1136/heartjnl-2015-308246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Childhood pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a heterogenous disease associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. Invasive assessment of haemodynamics is crucial for accurate diagnosis and guidance of medical therapy. However, adequate imaging is increasingly important in children with PH to evaluate the right heart and the pulmonary vasculature. Cardiac MR (CMR) and computed tomography (CT) represent important non-invasive imaging modalities that may enable comprehensive assessment of right ventricular (RV) function and pulmonary haemodynamics. Here, we present graded consensus recommendations for the evaluation of children with PH by CMR and CT. The article provides a structured approach for the use of CMR and CT imaging, emphasises non-invasive variables of RV function, myocardial tissue and afterload parameters that may be useful for initial diagnosis and monitoring. Furthermore, assessment of pulmonary perfusion and characterisation of the lung parenchyma provides structural information about processes that may cause or be due to PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heiner Latus
- Pediatric Heart Centre, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Titus Kuehne
- Unit of Cardiovascular Imaging, Department of Congenital Heart Disease and Pediatric Cardiology, German Heart Institute Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Beerbaum
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Critical Care, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Christian Apitz
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology, University Childrens Hospital Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Georg Hansmann
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Critical Care, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Vivek Muthurangu
- Cardiovascular MRI Department, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Shahin Moledina
- National Paediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Service UK, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
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Abstract
The prevalence of PH is increasing in the pediatric population, because of improved recognition and increased survival of patients, and remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Recent studies have improved the understanding of pediatric PH, but management remains challenging because of a lack of evidence-based clinical trials. The growing contribution of developmental lung disease requires dedicated research to explore the use of existing therapies as well as the creation of novel therapies. Adequate study of pediatric PH will require multicenter collaboration due to the small numbers of patients, multifactorial disease causes, and practice variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dunbar Ivy
- Section of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, 13123 East 16th Avenue, B100, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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Imaging right ventricular function to predict outcome in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Int J Cardiol 2016; 218:206-211. [PMID: 27236116 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Right ventricular (RV) function is a major determinant of outcome in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). However, uncertainty persists about the optimal method of evaluation. METHODS We measured RV end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes (ESV and EDV) using cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and RV pressures during right heart catheterization in 140 incident PAH patients and 22 controls. A maximum RV pressure (Pmax) was calculated from the nonlinear extrapolations of early and late systolic portions of the RV pressure curve. The gold standard measure of RV function adaptation to afterload, or RV-arterial coupling (Ees/Ea) was estimated by the stroke volume (SV)/ESV ratio (volume method) or as Pmax/mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) minus 1 (pressure method) (n=84). RV function was also assessed by ejection fraction (EF), right atrial pressure (RAP) and SV. RESULTS Higher Ea and RAP, and lower compliance, SV and EF predicted outcome at univariate analysis. Ees/Ea estimated by the pressure method did not predict outcome but Ees/Ea estimated by the volume method (SV/ESV) did. At multivariate analysis, only SV/ESV and EF were independent predictors of outcome. Survival was poorer in patients with a fall in EF or SV/ESV during follow-up (n=44, p=0.008). CONCLUSION RV function to predict outcome in PAH is best evaluated by imaging derived SV/ESV or EF. In this study, there was no added value of invasive measurements or simplified pressure-derived estimates of RV-arterial coupling.
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Koestenberger M, Friedberg MK, Nestaas E, Michel-Behnke I, Hansmann G. Transthoracic echocardiography in the evaluation of pediatric pulmonary hypertension and ventricular dysfunction. Pulm Circ 2016; 6:15-29. [PMID: 27162612 PMCID: PMC4860554 DOI: 10.1086/685051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is the most accessible noninvasive diagnostic procedure for the initial assessment of pediatric pulmonary hypertension (PH). This review focuses on principles and use of TTE to determine morphologic and functional parameters that are also useful for follow-up investigations in pediatric PH patients. A basic echocardiographic study of a patient with PH commonly includes the hemodynamic calculation of the systolic pulmonary artery pressure (PAP), the mean and diastolic PAP, the pulmonary artery acceleration time, and the presence of a pericardial effusion. A more detailed TTE investigation of the right ventricle (RV) includes assessment of its size and function. RV function can be evaluated by RV longitudinal systolic performance (e.g., tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion), the tricuspid regurgitation velocity/right ventricular outflow tract velocity time integral ratio, the fractional area change, tissue Doppler imaging-derived parameters, strain measurements, the systolic-to-diastolic duration ratio, the myocardial performance (Tei) index, the RV/left ventricle (LV) diameter ratio, the LV eccentricity index, determination of an enlarged right atrium and RV size, and RV volume determination by 3-dimensional echocardiography. Here, we discuss the potential use and limitations of TTE techniques in children with PH and/or ventricular dysfunction. We suggest a protocol for TTE assessment of PH and myocardial function that helps to identify PH patients and their response to pharmacotherapy. The outlined protocol focuses on the detailed assessment of the hypertensive RV; RV-LV crosstalk must be analyzed separately in the evaluation of different pathologies that account for pediatric PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Koestenberger
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Mark K Friedberg
- Labatt Family Heart Center, Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Eirik Nestaas
- Center for Cardiological Innovation, Department of Cardiology, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway; and Department of Paediatrics, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Vestfold, Norway
| | - Ina Michel-Behnke
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Pediatric Heart Center Vienna, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Georg Hansmann
- Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Critical Care, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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Del Cerro MJ, Moledina S, Haworth SG, Ivy D, Al Dabbagh M, Banjar H, Diaz G, Heath-Freudenthal A, Galal AN, Humpl T, Kulkarni S, Lopes A, Mocumbi AO, Puri GD, Rossouw B, Harikrishnan S, Saxena A, Udo P, Caicedo L, Tamimi O, Adatia I. Cardiac catheterization in children with pulmonary hypertensive vascular disease: consensus statement from the Pulmonary Vascular Research Institute, Pediatric and Congenital Heart Disease Task Forces. Pulm Circ 2016; 6:118-25. [PMID: 27076908 PMCID: PMC4809667 DOI: 10.1086/685102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiac catheterization is important in the diagnosis and risk stratification of pulmonary hypertensive vascular disease (PHVD) in children. Acute vasoreactivity testing provides key information about management, prognosis, therapeutic strategies, and efficacy. Data obtained at cardiac catheterization continue to play an important role in determining the surgical options for children with congenital heart disease and clinical evidence of increased pulmonary vascular resistance. The Pediatric and Congenital Heart Disease Task Forces of the Pulmonary Vascular Research Institute met to develop a consensus statement regarding indications for, conduct of, acute vasoreactivity testing with, and pitfalls and risks of cardiac catheterization in children with PHVD. This document contains the essentials of those discussions to provide a rationale for the hemodynamic assessment by cardiac catheterization of children with PHVD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dunbar Ivy
- Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Hanaa Banjar
- King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Gabriel Diaz
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogota, Colombia
| | | | | | - Tilman Humpl
- University of Toronto and Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Snehal Kulkarni
- Kokilaben Dhirubai Ambani Hospital and Medical Research Institute, Mumbai, India
| | | | | | - G D Puri
- Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | | | - S Harikrishnan
- Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, India
| | - Anita Saxena
- All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | | | | | - Omar Tamimi
- King Saud bin Abdulaziz University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ian Adatia
- Stollery Children's Hospital, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; on behalf of the PVRI Pediatric Task Force members Steven Abman, Vera Aiello, Rolf Berger, Patricia Cortez, Jeffrey Fineman, Marilyne Lévy, Marlene Rabinovitch, J. Usha Raj, Irwin Reiss, Julio Sandoval, Kurt Stenmark, and Rao Sureshi
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D'Alto M, Dimopoulos K, Budts W, Diller GP, Di Salvo G, Dellegrottaglie S, Festa P, Scognamiglio G, Rea G, Ait Ali L, Li W, Gatzoulis MA. Multimodality imaging in congenital heart disease-related pulmonary arterial hypertension. Heart 2016; 102:910-8. [DOI: 10.1136/heartjnl-2015-308903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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Jensen AS, Broberg CS, Rydman R, Diller GP, Li W, Dimopoulos K, Wort SJ, Pennell DJ, Gatzoulis MA, Babu-Narayan SV. Impaired Right, Left, or Biventricular Function and Resting Oxygen Saturation Are Associated With Mortality in Eisenmenger Syndrome: A Clinical and Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2016; 8:CIRCIMAGING.115.003596. [PMID: 26659374 DOI: 10.1161/circimaging.115.003596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with Eisenmenger syndrome (ES) have better survival, despite similar pulmonary vascular pathology, compared with other patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) is useful for risk stratification in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension, whereas it has not been evaluated in ES. We studied CMR together with other noninvasive measurements in ES to evaluate its potential role as a noninvasive risk stratification test. METHODS AND RESULTS Between 2003 and 2005, 48 patients with ES, all with a post-tricuspid shunt, were enrolled in a prospective, longitudinal, single-center study. All patients underwent a standardized baseline assessment with CMR, blood test, echocardiography, and 6-minute walk test and were followed up for mortality until the end of December 2013. Twelve patients (25%) died during follow-up, mostly from heart failure (50%). Impaired ventricular function (right or left ventricular ejection fraction) was associated with increased risk of mortality (lowest quartile: right ventricular ejection fraction, <40%; hazard ratio, 4.4 [95% confidence interval, 1.4-13.5]; P=0.01 and left ventricular ejection fraction, <50%; hazard ratio, 6.6 [95% confidence interval, 2.1-20.8]; P=0.001). Biventricular impairment (lowest quartile left ventricular ejection fraction, <50% and right ventricular ejection fraction, <40%) conveyed an even higher risk of mortality (hazard ratio, 8.0 [95% confidence interval, 2.5-25.1]; P=0.0004). No other CMR or noninvasive measurement besides resting oxygen saturation (hazard ratio, 0.90 [0.83-0.97]/%; P=0.007) was associated with mortality. CONCLUSIONS Impaired right, left, or biventricular systolic function derived from baseline CMR and resting oxygen saturation are associated with mortality in adult patients with ES. CMR is a useful noninvasive tool, which may be incorporated in the risk stratification assessment of ES during lifelong follow-up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette S Jensen
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Craig S Broberg
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Riikka Rydman
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Gerhard-Paul Diller
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Wei Li
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Konstantinos Dimopoulos
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Stephen J Wort
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Dudley J Pennell
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
| | - Michael A Gatzoulis
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.).
| | - Sonya V Babu-Narayan
- From the National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton and Harefield NHS Foundation Trust, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (A.S.J., C.S.B., R.R., G.-P.D., W.L., K.D., J.S.W., D.J.P., M.A.G., S.V.B.-N.); Department of Cardiology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark (A.S.J.); Adult Congenital Heart Program, Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health and Science University Portland (C.S.B.); Section of Clinical Physiology, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (R.R.); and Division of Adult Congenital and Valvular Heart Disease, Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University Hospital Muenster, Muenster, Germany (G.-P.D.)
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Knight DS, Steeden JA, Moledina S, Jones A, Coghlan JG, Muthurangu V. Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension predicts functional capacity and clinical worsening: a tissue phase mapping study. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2015; 17:116. [PMID: 26715551 PMCID: PMC4696235 DOI: 10.1186/s12968-015-0220-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The function of the right and left ventricles is intimately related through a shared septum and pericardium. Therefore, right ventricular (RV) disease in pulmonary hypertension (PH) can result in abnormal left ventricular (LV) myocardial mechanics. To assess this, we implemented novel cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) tissue phase mapping (TPM) to assess radial, longitudinal and tangential LV myocardial velocities in patients with PH. METHODS Respiratory self-gated TPM was performed using a rotating golden-angle spiral acquisition with retrospective cardiac gating. TPM of a mid ventricular slice was acquired in 40 PH patients and 20 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Endocardial and epicardial LV borders were manually defined, and myocardial velocities calculated using in-house software. Patients without proximal CTEPH (chronic thromboembolic PH) and not receiving intravenous prostacyclin therapy (n = 34) were followed up until the primary outcome of disease progression (death, transplantation, or progression to intravenous therapy) or the end of the study. Physicians who determined disease progression were blinded to CMR data. Conventional ventricular volumetric indices and novel TPM metrics were analyzed for prediction of 6-min walk distance (6MWD) and disease progression. RESULTS Peak longitudinal (p < 0.0001) and radial (p = 0.001) early diastolic (E) wave velocities were significantly lower in PH patients compared with healthy volunteers. Reversal of tangential E waves was observed in all patients and was highly discriminative for the presence of PH (p < 0.0001). The global radial E wave (β = 0.41, p = 0.017) and lateral wall radial systolic (S) wave velocities (β = 0.33, p = 0.028) were the only independent predictors of 6MWD in a model including RV ejection fraction (RVEF) and LV stroke volume. Over a median follow-up period of 20 months (IQR 7.9 months), 8 patients commenced intravenous therapy and 1 died. Global longitudinal E wave was the only independent predictor of clinical worsening (6.3× increased risk, p = 0.009) in a model including RVEF and septal curvature. CONCLUSIONS TPM metrics of LV diastolic function are significantly abnormal in PH. More importantly, abnormal LV E wave velocities are the only independent predictors of functional capacity and clinical worsening in a model that includes conventional metrics of biventricular function.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Biomechanical Phenomena
- Case-Control Studies
- Diastole
- Disease Progression
- Feasibility Studies
- Female
- Humans
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/diagnosis
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/mortality
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/physiopathology
- Hypertension, Pulmonary/therapy
- Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted/methods
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging/methods
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Predictive Value of Tests
- Prognosis
- Stroke Volume
- Time Factors
- Ventricular Dysfunction, Left/diagnosis
- Ventricular Dysfunction, Left/mortality
- Ventricular Dysfunction, Left/physiopathology
- Ventricular Dysfunction, Left/therapy
- Ventricular Function, Left
- Ventricular Function, Right
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Knight
- Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, UK.
- UCL Medical School, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London, UK.
| | | | - Shahin Moledina
- UCL Medical School, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London, UK.
| | - Alexander Jones
- UCL Medical School, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London, UK.
| | - J Gerry Coghlan
- Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, UK.
| | - Vivek Muthurangu
- UCL Medical School, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London, UK.
- Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford Street, London, WC1N 1EH, UK.
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Truong U, Patel S, Kheyfets V, Dunning J, Fonseca B, Barker AJ, Ivy D, Shandas R, Hunter K. Non-invasive determination by cardiovascular magnetic resonance of right ventricular-vascular coupling in children and adolescents with pulmonary hypertension. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2015; 17:81. [PMID: 26376972 PMCID: PMC4574020 DOI: 10.1186/s12968-015-0186-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pediatric pulmonary hypertension (PH) remains a disease with high morbidity and mortality in children. Understanding ventricular-vascular coupling, a measure of how well matched the ventricular and vascular function are, may elucidate pathway leading to right heart failure. Ventricular vascular coupling ratio (VVCR), comprised of effective elastance (Ea, index of arterial load) and right ventricular maximal end-systolic elastance (Ees, index of contractility), is conventionally determined by catheterization. Here, we apply a non-invasive approach to determining VVCR in pediatric subjects with PH. METHODS This retrospective study included PH subjects who had a cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) study within 14 days of cardiac catheterization. PH was defined as mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) ≥ 25 mmHg on prior or current catheterization. A non-invasive measure of VVCR was derived from CMR-only (VVCRm) and compared to VVCR estimated by catheterization-derived single beat estimation (VVCRs). Indexed pulmonary vascular resistance (PVRi) and pulmonary vascular reactivity were determined during the catheterization procedure. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between PVRi and VVCRm. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis determined the diagnostic value of VVCRm in predicting vascular reactivity. RESULTS Seventeen subjects (3 months-23 years; mean 11.3 ± 7.4 years) were identified between January 2009-August 2013 for inclusion with equal gender distributions. Mean mPAP was 35 mmHg ± 15 and PVRi was 8.5 Woods unit x m2 ± 7.8. VVCRm (range 0.43-2.82) increased with increasing severity as defined by PVRi (p < 0.001), and was highly correlated with PVRi (r = 0.92, 95 % CI 0.79-0.97, p < 0.0001). Regression of VVCRm and PVRi demonstrated differing lines when separated by reactivity. VVCRm was significantly correlated with VVCRs (r = 0.79, CI 0.48-0.99, p <0.0001). ROC curve analysis showed high accuracy of VVCRm in determining vascular reactivity (VVCR = 0.85 had a sensitivity of 100 % and a specificity of 80 %) with an area under the curve of 0.89 (p = 0.008). CONCLUSION Measurement of VVCRm in pediatrics is feasible. Pulmonary vascular non-reactivity may be contribute to ventricular-vascular decoupling in severe PH. Therapeutic intervention to maintain a low vascular afterload in reactive patients may preserve right ventricular functional reserve and delay the onset of RV-PA decoupling. Use of VVCRm may have significant prognostic implication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uyen Truong
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
- Department for Pediatrics, Division of Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado Anschultz Medical Center, 13123 E. 16th Avenue, B100, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Sonali Patel
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Vitaly Kheyfets
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Jamie Dunning
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Brian Fonseca
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Alex J Barker
- Department of Radiology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Dunbar Ivy
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Robin Shandas
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| | - Kendall Hunter
- Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
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Lohani O, Colvin KL, Yeager ME. Biomarkers for pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension: challenges and recommendations. Paediatr Respir Rev 2015; 16:225-31. [PMID: 26036720 DOI: 10.1016/j.prrv.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is an uncommon disease that can occur in neonates, infants, and children, and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Despite advances in treatment strategies over the last two decades, the underlying structural and functional changes to the pulmonary arterial circulation are progressive and lead eventually to right heart failure. The management of PAH in children is complex due not only to the developmental aspects but also because most evidence-based practices derive from adult PAH studies. As such, the pediatric clinician would be greatly aided by specific characteristics (biomarkers) objectively measured in children with PAH to determine appropriate clinical management. This review highlights the current state of biomarkers in pediatric PAH and looks forward to potential biomarkers, and makes several recommendations for their use and interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozus Lohani
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver; Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care
| | - Kelley L Colvin
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver; Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care; Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research, University of Colorado Denver; Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome, Denver, Colorado
| | - Michael E Yeager
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver; Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care; Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research, University of Colorado Denver; Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome, Denver, Colorado.
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Knight DS, Schwaiger JP, Krupickova S, Davar J, Muthurangu V, Coghlan JG. Accuracy and Test-Retest Reproducibility of Two-Dimensional Knowledge-Based Volumetric Reconstruction of the Right Ventricle in Pulmonary Hypertension. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2015; 28:989-98. [PMID: 25857546 PMCID: PMC4533235 DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2015.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Right heart function is the key determinant of symptoms and prognosis in pulmonary hypertension (PH), but the right ventricle has a complex geometry that is challenging to quantify by two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography. A novel 2D echocardiographic technique for right ventricular (RV) quantitation involves knowledge-based reconstruction (KBR), a hybrid of 2D echocardiography–acquired coordinates localized in three-dimensional space and connected by reference to a disease-specific RV shape library. The aim of this study was to determine the accuracy of 2D KBR against cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in PH and the test-retest reproducibility of both conventional 2D echocardiographic RV fractional area change (FAC) and 2D KBR. Methods Twenty-eight patients with PH underwent same-day echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Two operators performed serial RV FAC and 2D KBR acquisition and postprocessing to assess inter- and intraobserver test-retest reproducibility. Results Bland-Altman analysis (mean bias ± 95% limits of agreement) showed good agreement for end-diastolic volume (3.5 ± 25.0 mL), end-systolic volume (0.9 ± 19.9 mL), stroke volume (2.6 ± 23.1 mL), and ejection fraction (0.4 ± 10.2%) measured by 2D KBR and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. There were no significant interobserver or intraobserver test-retest differences for 2D KBR RV metrics, with acceptable limits of agreement (interobserver end-diastolic volume, −0.9 ± 21.8 mL; end-systolic volume, −1.3 ± 25.8 mL; stroke volume, −0.2 ± 24.2 mL; ejection fraction, 0.7 ± 14.4%). Significant test-retest variability was observed for 2D echocardiographic RV areas and FAC. Conclusions Two-dimensional KBR is an accurate, novel technique for RV volumetric quantification in PH, with superior test-retest reproducibility compared with conventional 2D echocardiographic RV FAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Knight
- University College London Medical School, London, United Kingdom; Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom; UCL Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Johannes P Schwaiger
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sylvia Krupickova
- UCL Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph Davar
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Vivek Muthurangu
- UCL Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - J Gerry Coghlan
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
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72
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Ploegstra MJ, Zijlstra WM, Douwes JM, Hillege HL, Berger RM. Prognostic factors in pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 2015; 184:198-207. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.01.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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73
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Ostenfeld E, Flachskampf FA. Assessment of right ventricular volumes and ejection fraction by echocardiography: from geometric approximations to realistic shapes. Echo Res Pract 2015; 2:R1-R11. [PMID: 26693327 PMCID: PMC4676454 DOI: 10.1530/erp-14-0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Right ventricular volumes and ejection fraction are challenging to assess by echocardiography, but are well established as functional and prognostic parameters. Three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography has become widespread and relatively easy to use, making calculation of these parameters feasible in the large majority of patients. We review past attempts to estimate right ventricular volumes, current strengths and weaknesses of 3D echocardiography for this task, and compare with corresponding data from magnetic resonance imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Ostenfeld
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Skånes Universitetssjukhus, Lund University , 22185, Lund , Sweden
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74
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Ploegstra MJ, Roofthooft MT, Douwes JM, Bartelds B, Elzenga NJ, van de Weerd D, Hillege HL, Berger RM. Echocardiography in Pediatric Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2015; 8:CIRCIMAGING.113.000878. [DOI: 10.1161/circimaging.113.000878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Background—
The value of echocardiography in assessing disease severity and predicting outcome in pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is insufficiently defined. The aim of this study was to describe correlations between echocardiography and disease severity and outcome in pediatric PAH.
Methods and Results—
Forty-three consecutive children (median age, 8.0 years; range, 0.4–21.5) with idiopathic/hereditary PAH (n=25) or PAH associated with congenital heart disease (n=18) were enrolled in a prospective single-center observational study. Anatomic and right ventricular-functional variables were obtained by two-dimensional echocardiography and Doppler-echocardiography at presentation and at standardized follow-up and were correlated with measures of disease severity (World Health Organization functional class [WHO-FC], N-terminal-pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, hemodynamics) and lung-transplantation–free survival. Right atrial and right ventricular dimensions correlated with WHO-FC and hemodynamics (
P
<0.05), whereas left ventricular dimensions correlated with hemodynamics and survival (
P
<0.05). Right-to-left ventricular dimension ratiocorrelated with WHO-FC, hemodynamics and survival (
P
<0.05). Right ventricular ejection time correlated with hemodynamics and survival (
P
<0.05) and tended to correlate with WHO-FC (
P
=0.071). Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion correlated with WHO-FC, mean right atrial pressure and survival (
P
<0.05).
Conclusions—
This early descriptive study shows that echocardiographic chararacteristics of both the right and the left heart correlate with disease severity and outcome in pediatric PAH, both at presentation and during the course of the disease. The preliminary data from this study support the potential value of echocardiography as a tool in guiding management in children with PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark-Jan Ploegstra
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marcus T.R. Roofthooft
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes M. Douwes
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Beatrijs Bartelds
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Nynke J. Elzenga
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dick van de Weerd
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Hans L. Hillege
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rolf M.F. Berger
- From the Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Dutch National Referral Center for Children with Pulmonary Hypertension, Beatrix Children’s Hospital (M.-J.P., M.T.R.R., J.M.D., B.B., N.J.E., D.v.d.W., R.M.F.B) and Department of Epidemiology (H.L.H), University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Marín MJDC, Rotés AS, Ogando AR, Soto AM, Jiménez MQ, Camacho JLG, Sonnenfeld IR, Bonora AM, Brotons DCA, Galdó AM. Assessing Pulmonary Hypertensive Vascular Disease in Childhood. Data from the Spanish Registry. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014; 190:1421-9. [DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201406-1052oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Knight DS, Grasso AE, Quail MA, Muthurangu V, Taylor AM, Toumpanakis C, Caplin ME, Coghlan JG, Davar J. Accuracy and reproducibility of right ventricular quantification in patients with pressure and volume overload using single-beat three-dimensional echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2014; 28:363-74. [PMID: 25499839 PMCID: PMC4346278 DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2014.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background The right ventricle is a complex structure that is challenging to quantify by two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography. Unlike disk summation three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography (3DE), single-beat 3DE can acquire large volumes at high volume rates in one cardiac cycle, avoiding stitching artifacts or long breath-holds. The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy and test-retest reproducibility of single-beat 3DE for quantifying right ventricular (RV) volumes in adult populations of acquired RV pressure or volume overload, namely, pulmonary hypertension (PH) and carcinoid heart disease, respectively. Three-dimensional and 2D echocardiographic indices were also compared for identifying RV dysfunction in PH. Methods A prospective cross-sectional study was performed in 100 individuals who underwent 2D echocardiography, 3DE, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: 49 patients with PH, 20 with carcinoid heart disease, 11 with metastatic carcinoid tumors without cardiac involvement, and 20 healthy volunteers. Two operators performed test-retest acquisition and postprocessing for inter- and intraobserver reproducibility in 20 subjects. Results: RV single-beat 3DE was attainable in 96% of cases, with mean volume rates of 32 to 45 volumes/sec. Bland-Altman analysis of all subjects (presented as mean bias ± 95% limits of agreement) revealed good agreement for end-diastolic volume (−2.3 ± 27.4 mL) and end-systolic volume (5.2 ± 19.0 mL) measured by 3DE and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, with a tendency to underestimate stroke volume (−7.5 ± 23.6 mL) and ejection fraction (−4.6 ± 13.8%) by 3DE. Subgroup analysis demonstrated a greater bias for volumetric underestimation, particularly in healthy volunteers (end-diastolic volume, −11.9 ± 18.0 mL; stroke volume, −11.2 ± 20.2 mL). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that 3DE-derived ejection fraction was significantly superior to 2D echocardiographic parameters for identifying RV dysfunction in PH (sensitivity, 94%; specificity, 88%; area under the curve, 0.95; P = .031). There was significant interobserver test-retest bias for RV volume underestimation (end-diastolic volume, −12.5 ± 28.1 mL; stroke volume, −10.6 ± 23.2 mL). Conclusions Single-beat 3DE is feasible and clinically applicable for volumetric quantification in acquired RV pressure or volume overload. It has improved limits of agreement compared with previous disk summation 3D echocardiographic studies and has incremental value over standard 2D echocardiographic measures for identifying RV dysfunction. Despite the ability to obtain and postprocess a full-volume 3D echocardiographic RV data set, the quality of the raw data did influence the accuracy of the data obtained. The technique performs better with dilated rather than nondilated RV cavities, with a learning curve that might affect the test-retest reproducibility for serial RV studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Knight
- University College London Medical School, Royal Free Campus, London, United Kingdom; Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom; UCL Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Agata E Grasso
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael A Quail
- UCL Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Vivek Muthurangu
- UCL Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew M Taylor
- UCL Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christos Toumpanakis
- Neuroendocrine Tumour Unit, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martyn E Caplin
- Neuroendocrine Tumour Unit, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - J Gerry Coghlan
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph Davar
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Pulmonary hypertension is a complex disease that extends beyond merely elevated pulmonary blood pressures and right ventricular dysfunction. Its multiple causes and ever-expanding diagnostic tools and therapeutic approaches make it a heterogeneous disease with widely variable clinical sequelae. There are still many unanswered questions that challenge our understanding of this disease. RECENT FINDINGS The study of pulmonary hypertension in the pediatric patient is as robust as ever, with the creation and inclusion of pediatric-specific disease characteristics in the most recent WHO classification system, improved understanding of the pathophysiology of pulmonary hypertension in pediatric diseases such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and increasingly expanding diagnostic tools and management possibilities. Although the use of pulmonary hypertension therapies in children previously often relied on expert opinion and inferences from studies involving adults, pediatric-targeted research is becoming more widely supported and pursued, and has even come under recent debate, which at the very least stimulates further collaboration and discussion. SUMMARY This review will highlight the changes in the pulmonary hypertension classification system, briefly explore pulmonary hypertension in bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and provide updates on the diagnostic and management tools used by experts in the field.
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78
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Lammers AE. Predicting prognosis of children with pulmonary arterial hypertension: the importance of multimodal expert assessment. Heart 2014; 100:1305-7. [DOI: 10.1136/heartjnl-2014-306010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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79
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Zijlstra WMH, Ploegstra MJ, Berger RMF. Current and advancing treatments for pulmonary arterial hypertension in childhood. Expert Rev Respir Med 2014; 8:615-28. [PMID: 25047735 DOI: 10.1586/17476348.2014.940322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a severe and progressive intrinsic disease of the precapillary lung vasculature. Since the introduction of PAH-targeted drugs, survival of PAH patients seems to have improved. Randomized controlled trials have led to evidence-based guidelines to direct treatment in adults. However, since disease characteristics differ between adults and children, it is hazardous to simply extrapolate these guidelines to children. Moreover, pediatric data on treatment strategies and how to assess treatment response remain virtually absent. Optimal treatment strategies are highly needed to guide therapy and improve survival in children with PAH. This review provides an overview of currently available treatments for PAH and the limited efficacy and safety data in children (with the exclusion of perinatal pulmonary vascular diseases, as persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn). We also discuss potential treatment goals and how the available data can be translated into treatment strategies in pediatric PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willemijn M H Zijlstra
- Center for Congenital Heart Diseases, Department of Pediatric Cardiology, Beatrix Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands
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80
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Ploegstra MJ, Douwes JM, Roofthooft MT, Zijlstra WM, Hillege HL, Berger RM. Identification of treatment goals in paediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Respir J 2014; 44:1616-26. [DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00030414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
To be able to design goal-oriented treatment strategies in paediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), we aimed to identify treatment goals by investigating the prognostic value of treatment-induced changes in noninvasive predictors of transplant-free survival.66 consecutive, treatment-naïve paediatric PAH patients in the Dutch National Network for Paediatric Pulmonary Hypertension who started taking PAH-targeted drugs between January 2000 and April 2013 underwent prospective, standardised follow-up. Clinical, biochemical and echocardiographic measures were longitudinally collected at treatment initiation and follow-up, and their respective predictive values for transplant-free survival were assessed. Furthermore, the predictive values of treatment-induced changes were assessed.From the identified set of baseline predictors, the variables World Health Organization functional class (WHO-FC), N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) were identified as follow-up predictors in which treatment-induced changes were associated with survival. Patients in whom these variables improved after treatment showed better survival (p<0.002).Therefore, WHO-FC, NT-proBNP and TAPSE are not only predictors of transplant-free survival in paediatric PAH but can also be used as treatment goals, as treatment-induced improvements in these variables are associated with improved survival. The identification of these variables allows for the introduction of goal-oriented treatment strategies in paediatric PAH.
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81
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Pandya B, Quail MA, Steeden JA, McKee A, Odille F, Taylor AM, Schulze-Neick I, Derrick G, Moledina S, Muthurangu V. Real-Time Magnetic Resonance Assessment of Septal Curvature Accurately Tracks Acute Hemodynamic Changes in Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2014; 7:706-13. [DOI: 10.1161/circimaging.113.001156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bejal Pandya
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Michael A. Quail
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Jennifer A. Steeden
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Andrea McKee
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Freddy Odille
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Andrew M. Taylor
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Ingram Schulze-Neick
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Graham Derrick
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Shahin Moledina
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
| | - Vivek Muthurangu
- From the Centre for Cardiovascular Imaging, UCL Institute of Cardiovascular Science, London, United Kingdom (B.P., M.A.Q., J.A.S., A.M.T., V.M.); Cardiorespiratory Division, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, United Kingdom (I.S.-N., G.D., S.M.); Adult Congenital Heart Disease Department, The Heart Hospital, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom (B.P.); Pediatric Respiratory Medicine, The Royal Brompton Hospital, London, United Kingdom (A.M.); INSERM, U947,
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82
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Berger RMF. Pulmonary hypertension: smaller kids, smaller steps. THE LANCET RESPIRATORY MEDICINE 2014; 2:348-50. [DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(14)70090-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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83
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Di Maria MV, Younoszai AK, Mertens L, Landeck BF, Ivy DD, Hunter KS, Friedberg MK. RV stroke work in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension: estimation based on invasive haemodynamic assessment and correlation with outcomes. Heart 2014; 100:1342-7. [PMID: 24780910 DOI: 10.1136/heartjnl-2013-305298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND RV performance is an important determinant of outcomes in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). RV stroke work (RVSW), the product of mean pulmonary artery pressure and stroke volume, integrates contractility, afterload and ventricular-vascular coupling. RVSW has not been evaluated in children with PAH. We tested the hypothesis that RVSW would be a predictor of outcomes in children with PAH. METHODS Patients in the Children's Hospital Colorado PAH database were evaluated retrospectively, and those with idiopathic PAH and those with minor or repaired congenital heart disease were included. Haemodynamic data were obtained by catheterisation and echocardiography, performed within 3 months. RVSW was calculated: mean pulmonary arterial pressure × stroke volume, and indexed to body surface area. Statistics included Kruskal-Wallis, Wilcoxon rank sum, and Spearman correlation. RESULTS Fifty patients were included. Median age of the cohort was 9.5 (6.0, 15.7) years, with a median indexed pulmonary vascular resistance (PVRi) of 6.5 (3.7, 11.6) WU m(2). RVSW had a significant association with PVRi (r=0.6, p<0.0001), tricuspid annular systolic plane excursion (r=0.55, p=0.0001), and RV fractional area change (r=-0.4, p=0.005). Grouped by WHO class, there was a significant difference in RVSW (p=0.04). Need for atrial septostomy and death were associated with higher RVSW (p=0.04 and p=0.03, respectively). CONCLUSIONS RVSW can be estimated in children with PAH, and is significantly associated with abnormal WHO class, the need for septostomy, as well as mortality. Indices accounting for RV performance as well as ventricular-vascular coupling may be useful in the prognosis and, hence, management of children with PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael V Di Maria
- The Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Adel K Younoszai
- The Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Luc Mertens
- Division of Cardiology, The Labatt Family Heart Center, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bruce F Landeck
- The Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - D Dunbar Ivy
- The Heart Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Kendall S Hunter
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado at Denver Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Mark K Friedberg
- Division of Cardiology, The Labatt Family Heart Center, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Alassas K, Mergo P, Ibrahim ES, Burger C, Safford R, Parikh P, Shapiro B. Cardiac MRI as a diagnostic tool in pulmonary hypertension. Future Cardiol 2014; 10:117-30. [DOI: 10.2217/fca.13.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT: Pulmonary hypertension is characterized by alterations in the viscoelastic properties of the pulmonary arteries, leading to increased pulmonary arterial stiffness and elevated pressures. Early detection and accurate quantification of pulmonary hypertension are limitations to conventional noninvasive imaging and may have therapeutic implications. Cardiac MRI provides important information that can aid the clinician, particularly relating to morphologic right ventricular alterations and quantification of stiffness, as well as providing a novel prognostic framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khadija Alassas
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Patricia Mergo
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - El-Sayed Ibrahim
- Division of Nephrology & Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Charles Burger
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Robert Safford
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Pragnesh Parikh
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Brian Shapiro
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
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Colvin KL, Dufva MJ, Delaney RP, Ivy DD, Stenmark KR, Yeager ME. Biomarkers for pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension - a call to collaborate. Front Pediatr 2014; 2:7. [PMID: 24551834 PMCID: PMC3910125 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2014.00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic approaches in pediatric pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) are based primarily on clinician experience, in contrast to the evidence-based approach in adults with pulmonary hypertension. There is a clear and present need for non-invasive and objective biomarkers to guide the accurate diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of this disease in children. The multifaceted spectrum of disease, clinical presentation, and association with other diseases makes this a formidable challenge. However, as more progress is being made in the understanding and management of adult PAH, the potential to apply this knowledge to children has never been greater. This review explores the state of the art with regard to non-invasive biomarkers in PAH, with an eye toward those adult PAH biomarkers potentially suitable for application in pediatric PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelley L Colvin
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Melanie J Dufva
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Ryan P Delaney
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | | | - Kurt R Stenmark
- Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Michael E Yeager
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Department of Pediatrics-Critical Care, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA ; Linda Crnic Institute for Down Syndrome, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
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Ivy DD, Abman SH, Barst RJ, Berger RM, Bonnet D, Fleming TR, Haworth SG, Raj JU, Rosenzweig EB, Schulze Neick I, Steinhorn RH, Beghetti M. Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62:D117-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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