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Wasson EM, Dubbin K, Moya ML. Go with the flow: modeling unique biological flows in engineered in vitro platforms. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:2095-2120. [PMID: 34008661 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00014d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Interest in recapitulating in vivo phenomena in vitro using organ-on-a-chip technology has grown rapidly and with it, attention to the types of fluid flow experienced in the body has followed suit. These platforms offer distinct advantages over in vivo models with regards to human relevance, cost, and control of inputs (e.g., controlled manipulation of biomechanical cues from fluid perfusion). Given the critical role biophysical forces play in several tissues and organs, it is therefore imperative that engineered in vitro platforms capture the complex, unique flow profiles experienced in the body that are intimately tied with organ function. In this review, we outline the complex and unique flow regimes experienced by three different organ systems: blood vasculature, lymphatic vasculature, and the intestinal system. We highlight current state-of-the-art platforms that strive to replicate physiological flows within engineered tissues while introducing potential limitations in current approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa M Wasson
- Material Engineering Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave L-222, Livermore, CA 94551, USA.
| | - Karen Dubbin
- Material Engineering Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave L-222, Livermore, CA 94551, USA.
| | - Monica L Moya
- Material Engineering Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave L-222, Livermore, CA 94551, USA.
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52
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NURLU N, BULUT GT. A new approach to lymphedema following breast cancer treatment with lymphatic endothelial cell markers. JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND MEDICINE 2021. [DOI: 10.32322/jhsm.902393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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53
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Steele MM, Lund AW. Afferent Lymphatic Transport and Peripheral Tissue Immunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 206:264-272. [PMID: 33397740 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2001060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic vessels provide an anatomical framework for immune surveillance and adaptive immune responses. Although appreciated as the route for Ag and dendritic cell transport, peripheral lymphatic vessels are often not considered active players in immune surveillance. Lymphatic vessels, however, integrate contextual cues that directly regulate transport, including changes in intrinsic pumping and capillary remodeling, and express a dynamic repertoire of inflammatory chemokines and adhesion molecules that facilitates leukocyte egress out of inflamed tissue. These mechanisms together contribute to the course of peripheral tissue immunity. In this review, we focus on context-dependent mechanisms that regulate fluid and cellular transport out of peripheral nonlymphoid tissues to provide a framework for understanding the effects of afferent lymphatic transport on immune surveillance, peripheral tissue inflammation, and adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria M Steele
- Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
| | - Amanda W Lund
- Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016; .,Department of Pathology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016; and.,Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
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54
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He M, He Q, Cai X, Chen Z, Lao S, Deng H, Liu X, Zheng Y, Liu X, Liu J, Xie Z, Yao M, Liang W, He J. Role of lymphatic endothelial cells in the tumor microenvironment-a narrative review of recent advances. Transl Lung Cancer Res 2021; 10:2252-2277. [PMID: 34164274 PMCID: PMC8182726 DOI: 10.21037/tlcr-21-40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background As lymphatic vessel is a major route for solid tumor metastasis, they are considered an essential part of tumor drainage conduits. Apart from forming the walls of lymphatic vessels, lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) have been found to play multiple other roles in the tumor microenvironment, calling for a more in-depth review. We hope that this review may help researchers gain a detailed understanding of this fast-developing field and shed some light upon future research. Methods To achieve an informative review of recent advance, we carefully searched the Medline database for English literature that are openly published from the January 1995 to December 2020 and covered the topic of LEC or lymphangiogenesis in tumor progression and therapies. Two different authors independently examined the literature abstracts to exclude possible unqualified ones, and 310 papers with full texts were finally retrieved. Results In this paper, we discussed the structural and molecular basis of tumor-associated LECs, together with their roles in tumor metastasis and drug therapy. We then focused on their impacts on tumor cells, tumor stroma, and anti-tumor immunity, and the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved. Special emphasis on lung cancer and possible therapeutic targets based on LECs were also discussed. Conclusions LECs can play a much more complex role than simply forming conduits for tumor cell dissemination. Therapies targeting tumor-associated lymphatics for lung cancer and other tumors are promising, but more research is needed to clarify the mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao He
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qihua He
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiuyu Cai
- Department of VIP Region, Sun Yat-Sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zisheng Chen
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Qingyuan, China
| | - Shen Lao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hongsheng Deng
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiwen Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yongmei Zheng
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhanhong Xie
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Maojin Yao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenhua Liang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,The First People Hospital of Zhaoqing, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Jianxing He
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, China State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease and National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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55
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Progression of Metastasis through Lymphatic System. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030627. [PMID: 33808959 PMCID: PMC7999434 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymph nodes are the most common sites of metastasis in cancer patients. Nodal disease status provides great prognostic power, but how lymph node metastases should be treated is under debate. Thus, it is important to understand the mechanisms by which lymph node metastases progress and how they can be targeted to provide therapeutic benefits. In this review, we focus on delineating the process of cancer cell migration to and through lymphatic vessels, survival in draining lymph nodes and further spread to other distant organs. In addition, emerging molecular targets and potential strategies to inhibit lymph node metastasis are discussed.
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56
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González-Loyola A, Petrova TV. Development and aging of the lymphatic vascular system. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 169:63-78. [PMID: 33316347 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The lymphatic vasculature has a pivotal role in regulating body fluid homeostasis, immune surveillance and dietary fat absorption. The increasing number of in vitro and in vivo studies in the last decades has shed light on the processes of lymphatic vascular development and function. Here, we will discuss the current progress in lymphatic vascular biology such as the mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis, lymphatic vascular maturation and maintenance and the emerging mechanisms of lymphatic vascular aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra González-Loyola
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Lausanne, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Tatiana V Petrova
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Lausanne, University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
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57
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Permana AD, Nainu F, Moffatt K, Larrañeta E, Donnelly RF. Recent advances in combination of microneedles and nanomedicines for lymphatic targeted drug delivery. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 13:e1690. [PMID: 33401339 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Numerous diseases have been reported to affect the lymphatic system. As such, several strategies have been developed to deliver chemotherapeutics to this specific network of tissues and associated organs. Nanotechnology has been exploited as one of the main approaches to improve the lymphatic uptake of drugs. Different nanoparticle approaches utilized for both active and passive targeting of the lymphatic system are discussed here. Specifically, due to the rich abundance of lymphatic capillaries in the dermis, particular attention is given to this route of administration, as intradermal administration could potentially result in higher lymphatic uptake compared to other routes of administration. Recently, progress in microneedle research has attracted particular attention as an alternative for the use of conventional hypodermic injections. The benefits of microneedles, when compared to intradermal injection, are subsequently highlighted. Importantly, microneedles exhibit particular benefit in relation to therapeutic targeting of the lymphatic system, especially when combined with nanoparticles, which are further discussed. However, despite the apparent benefits provided by this combination approach, further comprehensive preclinical and clinical studies are now necessary to realize the potential extent of this dual-delivery platform, further taking into consideration eventual usability and acceptability in the intended patient end-users. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Firzan Nainu
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia
| | - Kurtis Moffatt
- School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
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58
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Md Yusof K, Rosli R, Abdullah M, Avery-Kiejda KA. The Roles of Non-Coding RNAs in Tumor-Associated Lymphangiogenesis. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12113290. [PMID: 33172072 PMCID: PMC7694641 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The lymphatic system plays key roles in the bodies’ defence against disease, including cancer. The expansion of this system is termed lymphangiogenesis and it is orchestrated by factors and conditions within the microenvironment. One approach to prevent cancer progression is by interfering with these microenvironment factors that promote this process and that facilitate the spread of cancer cells to distant organs. One of these factors are non-coding RNAs. This review will summarize recent findings of the distinct roles played by non-coding RNAs in the lymphatic system within normal tissues and tumours. Understanding the mechanisms involved in this process can provide new avenues for therapeutic intervention for inhibiting the spread of cancer. Abstract Lymphatic vessels are regarded as the ”forgotten” circulation. Despite this, growing evidence has shown significant roles for the lymphatic circulation in normal and pathological conditions in humans, including cancers. The dissemination of tumor cells to other organs is often mediated by lymphatic vessels that serve as a conduit and is often referred to as tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis. Some of the most well-studied lymphangiogenic factors that govern tumor lymphangiogenesis are the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-C/D and VEGFR-2/3), neuroplilin-2 (NRP2), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), to name a few. However, recent findings have illustrated that non-coding RNAs are significantly involved in regulating gene expression in most biological processes, including lymphangiogenesis. In this review, we focus on the regulation of growth factors and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in the lymphatic development in normal and cancer physiology. Then, we discuss the lymphangiogenic factors that necessitate tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis, with regards to ncRNAs in various types of cancer. Understanding the different roles of ncRNAs in regulating lymphatic vasculature in normal and cancer conditions may pave the way towards the development of ncRNA-based anti-lymphangiogenic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khairunnisa’ Md Yusof
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (K.M.Y.); (R.R.)
- Priority Research Centre for Cancer Research, Innovation and Translation, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medicine, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia
- Medical Genetics, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia
| | - Rozita Rosli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (K.M.Y.); (R.R.)
| | - Maha Abdullah
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
| | - Kelly A. Avery-Kiejda
- Priority Research Centre for Cancer Research, Innovation and Translation, School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medicine, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia
- Medical Genetics, Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia
- Correspondence:
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59
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Muhanna D, Arnipalli SR, Kumar SB, Ziouzenkova O. Osmotic Adaptation by Na +-Dependent Transporters and ACE2: Correlation with Hemostatic Crisis in COVID-19. Biomedicines 2020; 8:E460. [PMID: 33142989 PMCID: PMC7693583 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8110460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 symptoms, including hypokalemia, hypoalbuminemia, ageusia, neurological dysfunctions, D-dimer production, and multi-organ microthrombosis reach beyond effects attributed to impaired angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) signaling and elevated concentrations of angiotensin II (Ang II). Although both SARS-CoV (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus) and SARS-CoV-2 utilize ACE2 for host entry, distinct COVID-19 pathogenesis coincides with the acquisition of a new sequence, which is homologous to the furin cleavage site of the human epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC). This review provides a comprehensive summary of the role of ACE2 in the assembly of Na+-dependent transporters of glucose, imino and neutral amino acids, as well as the functions of ENaC. Data support an osmotic adaptation mechanism in which osmotic and hemostatic instability induced by Ang II-activated ENaC is counterbalanced by an influx of organic osmolytes and Na+ through the ACE2 complex. We propose a paradigm for the two-site attack of SARS-CoV-2 leading to ENaC hyperactivation and inactivation of the ACE2 complex, which collapses cell osmolality and leads to rupture and/or necrotic death of swollen pulmonary, endothelial, and cardiac cells, thrombosis in infected and non-infected tissues, and aberrant sensory and neurological perception in COVID-19 patients. This dual mechanism employed by SARS-CoV-2 calls for combinatorial treatment strategies to address and prevent severe complications of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ouliana Ziouzenkova
- Department of Human Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (D.M.); (S.R.A.); (S.B.K.)
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60
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Hajal C, Ibrahim L, Serrano JC, Offeddu GS, Kamm RD. The effects of luminal and trans-endothelial fluid flows on the extravasation and tissue invasion of tumor cells in a 3D in vitro microvascular platform. Biomaterials 2020; 265:120470. [PMID: 33190735 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Throughout the process of metastatic dissemination, tumor cells are continuously subjected to mechanical forces resulting from complex fluid flows due to changes in pressures in their local microenvironments. While these forces have been associated with invasive phenotypes in 3D matrices, their role in key steps of the metastatic cascade, namely extravasation and subsequent interstitial migration, remains poorly understood. In this study, an in vitro model of the human microvasculature was employed to subject tumor cells to physiological luminal, trans-endothelial, and interstitial flows to evaluate their effects on those key steps of metastasis. Luminal flow promoted the extravasation potential of tumor cells, possibly as a result of their increased intravascular migration speed. Trans-endothelial flow increased the speed with which tumor cells transmigrated across the endothelium as well as their migration speed in the matrix following extravasation. In addition, tumor cells possessed a greater propensity to migrate in close proximity to the endothelium when subjected to physiological flows, which may promote the successful formation of metastatic foci. These results show important roles of fluid flow during extravasation and invasion, which could determine the local metastatic potential of tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Hajal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Lina Ibrahim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Jean Carlos Serrano
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Giovanni S Offeddu
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Roger D Kamm
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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61
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Van de Velde M, Ebroin M, Durré T, Joiret M, Gillot L, Blacher S, Geris L, Kridelka F, Noel A. Tumor exposed-lymphatic endothelial cells promote primary tumor growth via IL6. Cancer Lett 2020; 497:154-164. [PMID: 33080310 PMCID: PMC7723984 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Solid tumors are composed of tumor cells and stromal cells including lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC), which are mainly viewed as cells forming lymphatic vessels involved in the transport of metastatic and immune cells. We here reveal a new mechanism by which tumor exposed-LEC (teLEC) exert mitogenic effects on tumor cells. Our conclusions are supported by morphological and molecular changes induced in teLEC that in turn enhance cancer cell invasion in 3D cultures and tumor cell proliferation in vivo. The characterization of teLEC secretome by RNA-Sequencing and cytokine array revealed that interleukine-6 (IL6) is one of the most modulated molecules in teLEC, whose production was negligible in unexposed LEC. Notably, neutralizing anti-human IL6 antibody abrogated teLEC-mediated mitogenic effects in vivo, when LEC were mixed with tumor cells in the ear sponge assay. We here assign a novel function to teLEC that is beyond their role of lymphatic vessel formation. This work highlights a new paradigm, in which teLEC exert “fibroblast-like properties”, contribute in a paracrine manner to the control of tumor cell properties and are worth considering as key stromal determinant in future studies. teLEC, but not normal LEC, produce huge amount of IL6. IL6-derived teLEC exert mitogenic effect on tumor cells, in the primary tumor. teLEC act as fibroblast-like cells in the tumor microenvironment. It warrants to revisit the “vascular-centric view” of LECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen Van de Velde
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, Sart-Tilman, B-4000, Liege, Belgium
| | - Marie Ebroin
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, Sart-Tilman, B-4000, Liege, Belgium
| | - Tania Durré
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, Sart-Tilman, B-4000, Liege, Belgium
| | - Marc Joiret
- Biomechanics Research Unit, GIGA-In Silico Medicine, Liege University, B34, Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Lionel Gillot
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, Sart-Tilman, B-4000, Liege, Belgium
| | - Silvia Blacher
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, Sart-Tilman, B-4000, Liege, Belgium
| | - Liesbet Geris
- Biomechanics Research Unit, GIGA-In Silico Medicine, Liege University, B34, Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Frédéric Kridelka
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, Sart-Tilman, B-4000, Liege, Belgium; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, CHU Liege, Sart-Tilman, 4000, Liege, Belgium
| | - Agnès Noel
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA-Cancer, Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, Sart-Tilman, B-4000, Liege, Belgium.
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Mierke CT. Mechanical Cues Affect Migration and Invasion of Cells From Three Different Directions. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:583226. [PMID: 33043017 PMCID: PMC7527720 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.583226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell migration and invasion is a key driving factor for providing essential cellular functions under physiological conditions or the malignant progression of tumors following downward the metastatic cascade. Although there has been plentiful of molecules identified to support the migration and invasion of cells, the mechanical aspects have not yet been explored in a combined and systematic manner. In addition, the cellular environment has been classically and frequently assumed to be homogeneous for reasons of simplicity. However, motility assays have led to various models for migration covering only some aspects and supporting factors that in some cases also include mechanical factors. Instead of specific models, in this review, a more or less holistic model for cell motility in 3D is envisioned covering all these different aspects with a special emphasis on the mechanical cues from a biophysical perspective. After introducing the mechanical aspects of cell migration and invasion and presenting the heterogeneity of extracellular matrices, the three distinct directions of cell motility focusing on the mechanical aspects are presented. These three different directions are as follows: firstly, the commonly used invasion tests using structural and structure-based mechanical environmental signals; secondly, the mechano-invasion assay, in which cells are studied by mechanical forces to migrate and invade; and thirdly, cell mechanics, including cytoskeletal and nuclear mechanics, to influence cell migration and invasion. Since the interaction between the cell and the microenvironment is bi-directional in these assays, these should be accounted in migration and invasion approaches focusing on the mechanical aspects. Beyond this, there is also the interaction between the cytoskeleton of the cell and its other compartments, such as the cell nucleus. In specific, a three-element approach is presented for addressing the effect of mechanics on cell migration and invasion by including the effect of the mechano-phenotype of the cytoskeleton, nucleus and the cell's microenvironment into the analysis. In precise terms, the combination of these three research approaches including experimental techniques seems to be promising for revealing bi-directional impacts of mechanical alterations of the cellular microenvironment on cells and internal mechanical fluctuations or changes of cells on the surroundings. Finally, different approaches are discussed and thereby a model for the broad impact of mechanics on cell migration and invasion is evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Tanja Mierke
- Faculty of Physics and Earth Science, Peter Debye Institute of Soft Matter Physics, Biological Physics Division, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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63
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Chaturvedi S, Verma A, Saharan VA. Lipid Drug Carriers for Cancer Therapeutics: An Insight into Lymphatic Targeting, P-gp, CYP3A4 Modulation and Bioavailability Enhancement. Adv Pharm Bull 2020; 10:524-541. [PMID: 33072532 PMCID: PMC7539309 DOI: 10.34172/apb.2020.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the treatment of cancer, chemotherapy plays an important role though the efficacy of anti-cancer drug administered orally is limited, due to their poor solubility in physiological medium, inability to cross biological membrane, high Para-glycoprotein (P-gp) mediated drug efflux, and pre-systemic metabolism. These all factors cumulatively reduce drug exposure at the target site leading to multidrug resistance (MDR). Lipid based carriers systems has been explored to overcome solubility and permeability related issues of anti-cancer drugs. The lipid based formulations have also been reported to circumvent the effect of P-gp and CYP3A4. Further long chain triglycerides (LCT) has shown their ability to access Lymphatic route over Medium Chain Triglycerides, as the former has been extensively used for targeting anti-cancer drugs at proliferating cells through lymphatic route. Therefore this review tries to reflect the usefulness of lipid based drug carriers systems (viz. liposome, solid lipid nanoparticle, nano-lipid carriers, self-emulsifying, lipidic pro-drugs) in targeting lymphatic system and overcoming issues related to solubility and permeability of anti-cancer drugs. Moreover, we have also tried to reflect how critically lipid based carriers are important in maximizing therapeutic safety and efficacy of anti-cancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashank Chaturvedi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Anurag Verma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, IFTM University, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Vikas Anand Saharan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
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Munir H, Mazzaglia C, Shields JD. Stromal regulation of tumor-associated lymphatics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2020; 161-162:75-89. [PMID: 32783989 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances have identified a growing array of roles played by lymphatics in the tumor microenvironment, from providing a route of metastasis to immune modulation. The tumor microenvironment represents an exceptionally complex, dynamic niche comprised of a diverse mixture of cancer cells and normal host cells termed the stroma. This review discusses our current understanding of stromal elements and how they regulate lymphatic growth and functional properties in the tumor context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafsa Munir
- MRC Cancer Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Box 197 Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0XZ
| | - Corrado Mazzaglia
- MRC Cancer Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Box 197 Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0XZ
| | - Jacqueline D Shields
- MRC Cancer Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Box 197 Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0XZ.
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65
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Gordon E, Schimmel L, Frye M. The Importance of Mechanical Forces for in vitro Endothelial Cell Biology. Front Physiol 2020; 11:684. [PMID: 32625119 PMCID: PMC7314997 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood and lymphatic vessels are lined by endothelial cells which constantly interact with their luminal and abluminal extracellular environments. These interactions confer physical forces on the endothelium, such as shear stress, stretch and stiffness, to mediate biological responses. These physical forces are often altered during disease, driving abnormal endothelial cell behavior and pathology. Therefore, it is critical that we understand the mechanisms by which endothelial cells respond to physical forces. Traditionally, endothelial cells in culture are grown in the absence of flow on stiff substrates such as plastic or glass. These cells are not subjected to the physical forces that endothelial cells endure in vivo, thus the results of these experiments often do not mimic those observed in the body. The field of vascular biology now realize that an intricate analysis of endothelial signaling mechanisms requires complex in vitro systems to mimic in vivo conditions. Here, we will review what is known about the mechanical forces that guide endothelial cell behavior and then discuss the advancements in endothelial cell culture models designed to better mimic the in vivo vascular microenvironment. A wider application of these technologies will provide more biologically relevant information from cultured cells which will be reproducible to conditions found in the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Gordon
- Division of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Lilian Schimmel
- Division of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Maike Frye
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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66
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Pal S, Nath S, Meininger CJ, Gashev AA. Emerging Roles of Mast Cells in the Regulation of Lymphatic Immuno-Physiology. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1234. [PMID: 32625213 PMCID: PMC7311670 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mast cells (MCs) are abundant in almost all vascularized tissues. Furthermore, their anatomical proximity to lymphatic vessels and their ability to synthesize, store and release a large array of inflammatory and vasoactive mediators emphasize their significance in the regulation of the lymphatic vascular functions. As a major secretory cell of the innate immune system, MCs maintain their steady-state granule release under normal physiological conditions; however, the inflammatory response potentiates their ability to synthesize and secrete these mediators. Activation of MCs in response to inflammatory signals can trigger adaptive immune responses by dendritic cell-directed T cell activation. In addition, through the secretion of various mediators, cytokines and growth factors, MCs not only facilitate interaction and migration of immune cells, but also influence lymphatic permeability, contractility, and vascular remodeling as well as immune cell trafficking through the lymphatic vessels. In summary, the consequences of these events directly affect the lymphatic niche, influencing inflammation at multiple levels. In this review, we have summarized the recent advancements in our understanding of the MC biology in the context of the lymphatic vascular system. We have further highlighted the MC-lymphatic interaction axis from the standpoint of the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarit Pal
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States
| | - Shubhankar Nath
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Cynthia J Meininger
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States
| | - Anatoliy A Gashev
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center College of Medicine, Bryan, TX, United States
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67
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Luque‐González MA, Reis RL, Kundu SC, Caballero D. Human Microcirculation‐on‐Chip Models in Cancer Research: Key Integration of Lymphatic and Blood Vasculatures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 4:e2000045. [DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202000045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Angélica Luque‐González
- 3B’s Research Group, I3Bs—Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and BiomimeticsUniversity of MinhoHeadquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative MedicineICVS/3B’s—PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Braga/Guimarães Portugal
| | - Rui Luis Reis
- 3B’s Research Group, I3Bs—Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and BiomimeticsUniversity of MinhoHeadquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative MedicineICVS/3B’s—PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Braga/Guimarães Portugal
| | - Subhas Chandra Kundu
- 3B’s Research Group, I3Bs—Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and BiomimeticsUniversity of MinhoHeadquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative MedicineICVS/3B’s—PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Braga/Guimarães Portugal
| | - David Caballero
- 3B’s Research Group, I3Bs—Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and BiomimeticsUniversity of MinhoHeadquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative MedicineICVS/3B’s—PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Braga/Guimarães Portugal
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68
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Nelson TS, Nepiyushchikh Z, Hooks JST, Razavi MS, Lewis T, Clement CC, Thoresen M, Cribb MT, Ross MK, Gleason RL, Santambrogio L, Peroni JF, Dixon JB. Lymphatic remodelling in response to lymphatic injury in the hind limbs of sheep. Nat Biomed Eng 2019; 4:649-661. [PMID: 31873209 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-019-0493-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Contractile activity in the lymphatic vasculature is essential for maintaining fluid balance within organs and tissues. However, the mechanisms by which collecting lymphatics adapt to changes in fluid load and how these adaptations influence lymphatic contractile activity are unknown. Here we report a model of lymphatic injury based on the ligation of one of two parallel lymphatic vessels in the hind limb of sheep and the evaluation of structural and functional changes in the intact, remodelling lymphatic vessel over a 42-day period. We show that the remodelled lymphatic vessel displayed increasing intrinsic contractile frequency, force generation and vessel compliance, as well as decreasing flow-mediated contractile inhibition via the enzyme endothelial nitric oxide synthase. A computational model of a chain of lymphatic contractile segments incorporating these adaptations predicted increases in the flow-generation capacity of the remodelled vessel at the expense of normal mitochondrial function and elevated oxidative stress within the lymphatic muscle. Our findings may inform interventions for mitigating lymphatic muscle fatigue in patients with dysfunctional lymphatics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler S Nelson
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Zhanna Nepiyushchikh
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Joshua S T Hooks
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mohammad S Razavi
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tristan Lewis
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Cristina C Clement
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Merrilee Thoresen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Matthew T Cribb
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mindy K Ross
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rudolph L Gleason
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Laura Santambrogio
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - John F Peroni
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - J Brandon Dixon
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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69
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O'Melia MJ, Lund AW, Thomas SN. The Biophysics of Lymphatic Transport: Engineering Tools and Immunological Consequences. iScience 2019; 22:28-43. [PMID: 31739172 PMCID: PMC6864335 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic vessels mediate fluid flows that affect antigen distribution and delivery, lymph node stromal remodeling, and cell-cell interactions, to thus regulate immune activation. Here we review the functional role of lymphatic transport and lymph node biomechanics in immunity. We present experimental tools that enable quantitative analysis of lymphatic transport and lymph node dynamics in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we discuss the current understanding for how changes in lymphatic transport and lymph node biomechanics contribute to pathogenesis of conditions including cancer, aging, neurodegeneration, and infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan J O'Melia
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Amanda W Lund
- Departments of Cell Developmental Cancer Biology, Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, and Dermatology, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, 2720 SW Moody Avenue, KR-CDCB, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| | - Susan N Thomas
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, 313 Ferst Drive NW, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, 315 Ferst Dr NW, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, 801 Ferst Dr NW, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Winship Cancer Institute, 1365 Clifton Rd, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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70
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Wu ZS, Ding W, Cai J, Bashir G, Li YQ, Wu S. Communication Of Cancer Cells And Lymphatic Vessels In Cancer: Focus On Bladder Cancer. Onco Targets Ther 2019; 12:8161-8177. [PMID: 31632067 PMCID: PMC6781639 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s219111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bladder cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide and causes the highest lifetime treatment costs per patient. Bladder cancer is most likely to metastasize through lymphatic ducts, and once the lymph nodes are involved, the prognosis is poorly and finitely improved by current modalities. The underlying metastatic mechanism for bladder cancer is thus becoming a research focus to date. To identify relevant published data, an online search of the PubMed/Medline archives was performed to locate original articles and review articles regarding lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis in urinary bladder cancer (UBC), and was limited to articles in English published between 1998 and 2018. A further search of the clinical trials.gov search engine was conducted to identify both trials with results available and those with results not yet available. Herein, we summarized the unique mechanisms and biomarkers involved in the malignant progression of bladder cancer as well as their emerging roles in therapeutics, and that current data suggests that lymphangiogenesis and lymph node invasion are important prognostic factors for UBC. The growing knowledge about their roles in bladder cancers provides the basis for novel therapeutic strategies. In addition, more basic and clinical research needs to be conducted in order to identify further accurate predictive molecules and relevant mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang-song Wu
- Medical College, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Urological Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Shenzhen following Precision Medical Institute, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wa Ding
- Medical College, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Shenzhen following Precision Medical Institute, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiajia Cai
- Shenzhen following Precision Medical Institute, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Medical College, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan232001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ghassan Bashir
- Shenzhen following Precision Medical Institute, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yu-qing Li
- Department of Urological Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Shenzhen following Precision Medical Institute, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
| | - Song Wu
- Medical College, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Urological Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Shenzhen following Precision Medical Institute, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518000, People’s Republic of China
- Medical College, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan232001, People’s Republic of China
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71
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Cao MX, Tang YL, Zhang WL, Tang YJ, Liang XH. Non-coding RNAs as Regulators of Lymphangiogenesis in Lymphatic Development, Inflammation, and Cancer Metastasis. Front Oncol 2019; 9:916. [PMID: 31616631 PMCID: PMC6763613 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2019.00916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), which do not encode proteins, have pivotal roles in manipulating gene expression in development, physiology, and pathology. Emerging data have shown that ncRNAs can regulate lymphangiogenesis, which refers to lymphatics deriving from preexisting vessels, becomes established during embryogenesis, and has a close relationship with pathological conditions such as lymphatic developmental diseases, inflammation, and cancer. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis in lymphatic development, inflammation and cancer metastasis, and discusses ncRNAs' regulatory effects on them. Therapeutic targets with regard to lymphangiogenesis are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Xin Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ya-Ling Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral Pathology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Wei-Long Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral Pathology, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ya-Jie Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), Hubei Provincial Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xin-Hua Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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72
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Morfoisse F, Noel A. Lymphatic and blood systems: Identical or fraternal twins? Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2019; 114:105562. [PMID: 31278994 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2019.105562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Blood and lymphatic systems work in close collaboration to ensure their respective physiological functions. The lymphatic vessel network is being extensively studied, but has been overlooked as compared to the blood vasculature mainly due to the problematic discrimination of lymphatic vessels from the blood ones. This issue has been fortunately resolved in the past decade leading to the emergence of a huge amount of data in lymphatic biology revealing many shared features with the blood vasculature. However, this likeliness between the two vascular systems may lead to a simplistic view of lymphatics and a direct transcription of what is known for the blood system to the lymphatic one, thereby neglecting the lymphatic specificities. In this context, this review aims to clarify the main differences between the two vascular systems focusing on recently discovered lymphatic features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florent Morfoisse
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA (GIGA-Cancer), Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, 4000, Liege, Belgium
| | - Agnès Noel
- Laboratory of Tumor and Development Biology, GIGA (GIGA-Cancer), Liege University, B23, Avenue Hippocrate 13, 4000, Liege, Belgium.
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73
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Chang CW, Seibel AJ, Song JW. Application of microscale culture technologies for studying lymphatic vessel biology. Microcirculation 2019; 26:e12547. [PMID: 30946511 DOI: 10.1111/micc.12547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Immense progress in microscale engineering technologies has significantly expanded the capabilities of in vitro cell culture systems for reconstituting physiological microenvironments that are mediated by biomolecular gradients, fluid transport, and mechanical forces. Here, we examine the innovative approaches based on microfabricated vessels for studying lymphatic biology. To help understand the necessary design requirements for microfluidic models, we first summarize lymphatic vessel structure and function. Next, we provide an overview of the molecular and biomechanical mediators of lymphatic vessel function. Then we discuss the past achievements and new opportunities for microfluidic culture models to a broad range of applications pertaining to lymphatic vessel physiology. We emphasize the unique attributes of microfluidic systems that enable the recapitulation of multiple physicochemical cues in vitro for studying lymphatic pathophysiology. Current challenges and future outlooks of microscale technology for studying lymphatics are also discussed. Collectively, we make the assertion that further progress in the development of microscale models will continue to enrich our mechanistic understanding of lymphatic biology and physiology to help realize the promise of the lymphatic vasculature as a therapeutic target for a broad spectrum of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Wen Chang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Alex J Seibel
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Jonathan W Song
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.,The Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
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74
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Farnsworth RH, Karnezis T, Maciburko SJ, Mueller SN, Stacker SA. The Interplay Between Lymphatic Vessels and Chemokines. Front Immunol 2019; 10:518. [PMID: 31105685 PMCID: PMC6499173 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines are a family of small protein cytokines that act as chemoattractants to migrating cells, in particular those of the immune system. They are categorized functionally as either homeostatic, constitutively produced by tissues for basal levels of cell migration, or inflammatory, where they are generated in association with a pathological inflammatory response. While the extravasation of leukocytes via blood vessels is a key step in cells entering the tissues, the lymphatic vessels also serve as a conduit for cells that are recruited and localized through chemoattractant gradients. Furthermore, the growth and remodeling of lymphatic vessels in pathologies is influenced by chemokines and their receptors expressed by lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) in and around the pathological tissue. In this review we summarize the diverse role played by specific chemokines and their receptors in shaping the interaction of lymphatic vessels, immune cells, and other pathological cell types in physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rae H Farnsworth
- Tumor Angiogenesis and Microenvironment Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Tara Karnezis
- Lymphatic and Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, O'Brien Institute Department, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
| | - Simon J Maciburko
- Lymphatic and Regenerative Medicine Laboratory, O'Brien Institute Department, St. Vincent's Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, VIC, Australia
| | - Scott N Mueller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,The Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Steven A Stacker
- Tumor Angiogenesis and Microenvironment Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Surgery, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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75
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Garnier L, Gkountidi AO, Hugues S. Tumor-Associated Lymphatic Vessel Features and Immunomodulatory Functions. Front Immunol 2019; 10:720. [PMID: 31024552 PMCID: PMC6465591 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The lymphatic system comprises a network of lymphoid tissues and vessels that drains the extracellular compartment of most tissues. During tumor development, lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) substantially expand in response to VEGFR-3 engagement by VEGF-C produced in the tumor microenvironment, a process known as tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis. Lymphatic drainage from the tumor to the draining lymph nodes consequently increases, powering interstitial flow in the tumor stroma. The ability of a tumor to induce and activate lymphatic growth has been positively correlated with metastasis. Much effort has been made to identify genes responsible for tumor-associated lymphangiogenesis. Inhibition of lymphangiogenesis with soluble VEGFR-3 or with specific monoclonal antibodies decreases tumor spread to LNs in rodent models. Importantly, tumor-associated lymphatics do not only operate as tumor cell transporters but also play critical roles in anti-tumor immunity. Therefore, metastatic as well as primary tumor progression can be affected by manipulating tumor-associated lymphatic remodeling or function. Here, we review and discuss our current knowledge on the contribution of LECs immersed in the tumor microenvironment as immunoregulators, as well as a possible functional remodeling of LECs subsets depending on the organ microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Garnier
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anastasia-Olga Gkountidi
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Stephanie Hugues
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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76
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Schwartz N, Chalasani MLS, Li TM, Feng Z, Shipman WD, Lu TT. Lymphatic Function in Autoimmune Diseases. Front Immunol 2019; 10:519. [PMID: 30949174 PMCID: PMC6435962 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic vessels are critical for clearing fluid and inflammatory cells from inflamed tissues and also have roles in immune tolerance. Given the functional association of the lymphatics with the immune system, lymphatic dysfunction may contribute to the pathophysiology of rheumatic autoimmune diseases. Here we review the current understanding of the role of lymphatics in the autoimmune diseases rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, lupus, and dermatomyositis and consider the possibility that manual therapies such as massage and acupuncture may be useful in improving lymphatic function in autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noa Schwartz
- HSS Research Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States.,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States
| | | | - Thomas M Li
- HSS Research Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States
| | - Zhonghui Feng
- HSS Research Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States
| | - William D Shipman
- HSS Research Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States.,Weill Cornell Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program, New York, NY, United States
| | - Theresa T Lu
- HSS Research Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States.,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States.,Division of Pediatric Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, United States
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77
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Witzel II, Nasser R, Garcia-Sabaté A, Sapudom J, Ma C, Chen W, Teo JCM. Deconstructing Immune Microenvironments of Lymphoid Tissues for Reverse Engineering. Adv Healthc Mater 2019; 8:e1801126. [PMID: 30516005 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201801126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The immune microenvironment presents a diverse panel of cues that impacts immune cell migration, organization, differentiation, and the immune response. Uniquely, both the liquid and solid phases of every specific immune niche within the body play an important role in defining cellular functions in immunity at that particular location. The in vivo immune microenvironment consists of biomechanical and biochemical signals including their gradients, surface topography, dimensionality, modes of ligand presentation, and cell-cell interactions, and the ability to recreate these immune biointerfaces in vitro can provide valuable insights into the immune system. This manuscript reviews the critical roles played by different immune cells and surveys the current progress of model systems for reverse engineering of immune microenvironments with a focus on lymphoid tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ini-Isabée Witzel
- Core Technology Platforms; New York University Abu Dhabi; Saadiyat Campus, P.O. Box 127788 Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Rasha Nasser
- Laboratory for Immuno Bioengineering Research and Applications (LIBRA); Division of Engineering; New York University Abu Dhabi; Saadiyat Campus, P.O. Box 127788 Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Anna Garcia-Sabaté
- Laboratory for Immuno Bioengineering Research and Applications (LIBRA); Division of Engineering; New York University Abu Dhabi; Saadiyat Campus, P.O. Box 127788 Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Jiranuwat Sapudom
- Laboratory for Immuno Bioengineering Research and Applications (LIBRA); Division of Engineering; New York University Abu Dhabi; Saadiyat Campus, P.O. Box 127788 Abu Dhabi UAE
| | - Chao Ma
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering; New York University; 6 MetroTech Center Brooklyn NY 11201 USA
| | - Weiqiang Chen
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering; New York University; 6 MetroTech Center Brooklyn NY 11201 USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; New York University; 6 MetroTech Center Brooklyn NY 11201 USA
| | - Jeremy C. M. Teo
- Laboratory for Immuno Bioengineering Research and Applications (LIBRA); Division of Engineering; New York University Abu Dhabi; Saadiyat Campus, P.O. Box 127788 Abu Dhabi UAE
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering; New York University; 6 MetroTech Center Brooklyn NY 11201 USA
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78
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Ran J, Zhou J. Targeted inhibition of histone deacetylase 6 in inflammatory diseases. Thorac Cancer 2019; 10:405-412. [PMID: 30666796 PMCID: PMC6397899 DOI: 10.1111/1759-7714.12974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting epigenetic modification of gene expression represents a promising new approach under investigation for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Accumulating evidence suggests that epigenetic mechanisms, such as histone modification, play a crucial role in a number of inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and contact hypersensitivity. Consistent with this role, histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors have shown efficacy in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. In particular, selective inhibitors of HDAC6, a cytoplasmic member of the HDAC family that contains two deacetylase domains, are under investigation as a potential treatment strategy for inflammatory diseases due to their ability to regulate inflammatory cells and cytokines. Here, we review recent findings highlighting the critical roles of HDAC6 in a variety of inflammatory diseases, and discuss the therapeutic potential of HDAC6 inhibitors in these settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Ran
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
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79
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Breslin JW, Yang Y, Scallan JP, Sweat RS, Adderley SP, Murfee WL. Lymphatic Vessel Network Structure and Physiology. Compr Physiol 2018; 9:207-299. [PMID: 30549020 PMCID: PMC6459625 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The lymphatic system is comprised of a network of vessels interrelated with lymphoid tissue, which has the holistic function to maintain the local physiologic environment for every cell in all tissues of the body. The lymphatic system maintains extracellular fluid homeostasis favorable for optimal tissue function, removing substances that arise due to metabolism or cell death, and optimizing immunity against bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other antigens. This article provides a comprehensive review of important findings over the past century along with recent advances in the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of lymphatic vessels, including tissue/organ specificity, development, mechanisms of lymph formation and transport, lymphangiogenesis, and the roles of lymphatics in disease. © 2019 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 9:207-299, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome W. Breslin
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Ying Yang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Joshua P. Scallan
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Richard S. Sweat
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA
| | - Shaquria P. Adderley
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - W. Lee Murfee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
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80
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Lane RS, Femel J, Breazeale AP, Loo CP, Thibault G, Kaempf A, Mori M, Tsujikawa T, Chang YH, Lund AW. IFNγ-activated dermal lymphatic vessels inhibit cytotoxic T cells in melanoma and inflamed skin. J Exp Med 2018; 215:3057-3074. [PMID: 30381467 PMCID: PMC6279400 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20180654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms of immune suppression in peripheral tissues counteract protective immunity to prevent immunopathology and are coopted by tumors for immune evasion. While lymphatic vessels facilitate T cell priming, they also exert immune suppressive effects in lymph nodes at steady-state. Therefore, we hypothesized that peripheral lymphatic vessels acquire suppressive mechanisms to limit local effector CD8+ T cell accumulation in murine skin. We demonstrate that nonhematopoietic PD-L1 is largely expressed by lymphatic and blood endothelial cells and limits CD8+ T cell accumulation in tumor microenvironments. IFNγ produced by tissue-infiltrating, antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, which are in close proximity to tumor-associated lymphatic vessels, is sufficient to induce lymphatic vessel PD-L1 expression. Disruption of IFNγ-dependent crosstalk through lymphatic-specific loss of IFNγR boosts T cell accumulation in infected and malignant skin leading to increased viral pathology and tumor control, respectively. Consequently, we identify IFNγR as an immunological switch in lymphatic vessels that balances protective immunity and immunopathology leading to adaptive immune resistance in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S Lane
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Julia Femel
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Alec P Breazeale
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Christopher P Loo
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Guillaume Thibault
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Biology Program, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
- OHSU Center for Spatial Systems Biomedicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Andy Kaempf
- Knight Cancer Institute, Biostatistics Shared Resource, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Motomi Mori
- Knight Cancer Institute, Biostatistics Shared Resource, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Takahiro Tsujikawa
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto City, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Young Hwan Chang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Computational Biology Program, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
- OHSU Center for Spatial Systems Biomedicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Amanda W Lund
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
- OHSU Center for Spatial Systems Biomedicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
- Department of Dermatology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR
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81
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Lane RS, Lund AW. Non-hematopoietic Control of Peripheral Tissue T Cell Responses: Implications for Solid Tumors. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2662. [PMID: 30498499 PMCID: PMC6249380 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In response to pathological challenge, the host generates rapid, protective adaptive immune responses while simultaneously maintaining tolerance to self and limiting immune pathology. Peripheral tissues (e.g., skin, gut, lung) are simultaneously the first site of pathogen-encounter and also the location of effector function, and mounting evidence indicates that tissues act as scaffolds to facilitate initiation, maintenance, and resolution of local responses. Just as both effector and memory T cells must adapt to their new interstitial environment upon infiltration, tissues are also remodeled in the context of acute inflammation and disease. In this review, we present the biochemical and biophysical mechanisms by which non-hematopoietic stromal cells and extracellular matrix molecules collaborate to regulate T cell behavior in peripheral tissue. Finally, we discuss how tissue remodeling in the context of tumor microenvironments impairs T cell accumulation and function contributing to immune escape and tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S Lane
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Amanda W Lund
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, United States.,Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, United States.,Department of Dermatology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, United States.,Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, United States
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82
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Grüntzig J, Hollmann F. Lymphatic vessels of the eye - old questions - new insights. Ann Anat 2018; 221:1-16. [PMID: 30240907 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Due to its accessible position and tissue heterogeneity, the eye is ideally suited for studying the lymphatic system. As early as the 19th century, questions about the origin and function of this system were discussed. For example, whether Schlemm's canal, which is of particular importance in the pathogenesis of glaucoma, is a lymphatic vessel, or does this vascular system begin with finger-shaped protuberances? Despite the discovery of lymphatic endothelial molecules and the use of molecular imaging technologies, these questions are still discussed controversially today. Leber demonstrated in 1873 with a solution consisting of two dyes of different particle size that only the smaller particles from the anterior chamber of the eye filled the episcleral and conjunctival veins around the corneal margin. He believed to have proven - to be read in the historical review of our article - that the Canalis Schlemmii in humans is a venous circular vessel and not a lymphatic vessel. In our own investigations, we reduced the rather contradictory and complex question of whether there are lymphatic vessels in the eye to the question of whether there are drainage connections between the different sections of the eye and the lymphatic system or not. With different radioactive tracers and combined with unilateral ligation of cervical lymph vessels, we observed outflow from the subconjunctival and retrobulbar space, from the anterior chamber and the vitreous body. The rate of discharge of the radioactive tracer was determined by the radiopharmaceutical and injection site. In analogy to the lymphatic drainage of the head we found a segmental drainage of lymphatic substances on the eye. Vitreous humour and retrobulbar space were drained by lymphatic vessels, predominantly to the deep cervical lymph nodes, while anterior chamber and subconjunctival space drains predominated over the superficial cervical lymph nodes. Eyeball tattoos - as loved by some fan communities - should therefore cause a coloured staining of the superficial cervical lymph nodes. The boundary of the drained segments would be in the area of the eyeball's equator. According to the textbooks, the lymph is actively removed from finger-shaped initial segments via pre-collectors and collectors with properly functioning intraluminal valves and smooth muscle cells in the vessels' media. In patients with spontaneous conjunctival bleeding, however, we observed phenomena in the conjunctival lymph vessels, which ca not be explained with old familiar ideas. At nozzle-shaped vessel constrictions separation of blood components occurred. The erythrocytes formed partially a so-called fluidic "resting bulk layer". Parallel vessel parts caused a retrograde filling of already emptied segments. These observations led our experimental investigations. In the literature, there are different scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of lymphatic endothelial surfaces; nevertheless they are unassigned to a particular vessel segment. In the conjunctiva, we studied the question whether there is a dependence between vessel diameter and the surface characteristics of endothelial cells (after unfolding by lymphography). A constantly applied photo-mathematical procedure for all specimens allowed determining the size of the cross sections. The specimens were randomized into seven groups with diameters of 0.1-1.0mm and above and examined by SEM. In the smallest vessels (diameter=0.11mm), the impressions of the occasionally occurring nuclei in the lumen were clearly impressive. With increasing diameter, these impressions were lost and the individual endothelial nuclei could no longer be identified. Rather, one recognized only wall-like structures. In vessels of intermediate diameter (0.3-0.4mm), structures could be seen on the surface similar to reticular fibres. With increasing diameters, their prominent character weakened. In the group with diameters above 0.5mm, wavy surface structures were shown. Finally, in vessels of diameters over 1.0mm, a uniform, flat surface was observed. Regardless of the collection site of the specimens, we found certain surface characteristics related to the vessels' calibre. In further investigations by means of interstitial dye lymphography, we were able to demonstrate in the conjunctiva that under increasing injection pressure, additional vessels stained from finger-shaped processes. At least in the conjunctiva, the existence of so-called "blind-ending initial segments" seems doubtful (despite the fact that initial segments or "initial lymphatics" would begin in periphery, not end). Rather, these are likely to be temporary filling states. SEM investigations were carried out on the internal structure of these dome-shaped vessel parts by means of a specially developed preparation technique. Despite numerous variants in the lymphographic design of the blind bags - in the form of finger, balloon, dome, piston, pyramidal, double-humped and spearhead-like endings - slot-shaped, lip-shaped and saw blade-like structures were repeatedly found, similar to a zipper. These findings suggest preformed connections to the next segment and may control lymphatic flow. To clarify the retrograde fluid movements, we examined the lymph vessels' valves or those structures that were previously interpreted as valves. The different structures found could be subdivided into three groups. The lack of common bicuspid structures provides an explanation for retrograde fluid movement. That nevertheless a directional flow is possible, is explained by the flow model developed by Gerhart Liebau. Conjunctival lymphatics show intraluminal structures by double contrast injection, which we divided into four groups due to anatomical differences: An accurate statement about the occurrence of certain intraluminal vascular structures in certain vascular calibres was possible only conditionally. However, complex and extended structures (group d) were found almost exclusively in larger vessel calibres (diameter>0.9mm). The structures are reminiscent of published findings in the "collector channel orifices of Schlemm's canal". They should play an important role in the regulation of the intraocular pressure, or the balance between production and outflow of the aqueous humour. The influence of such structures on the function of the lymphatic vessels is not yet known. As an approach models could be used, which for instance are applied in the water industry for the drainage, the degradation of introduced substances, or the detention pond. The latter serves for the retention and purification of drainage water (storage, treatment and reuse of drainage water). Dead zones, barriers, short-circuit currents and swirling are further hydraulic terms. Can intraluminal vascular structures, for example, affect the lymphatic flow and thus the mechano-sensitivity of lymphatic endothelial cells? Whatever interpretation model we use, the warning of the Swiss anatomist His from 1862 is still true today that all theories about the formation and movement of lymph should be based on precise anatomical basics. This review article therefore tries to make a contribution therefore. Despite knowing of lymphatic endothelial molecules, despite the discovery of the role of lymphangiogenic growth factors in diseases and the use of molecular imaging technologies, we still know too little about the anatomy and function of the lymphatic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Grüntzig
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Universitätsklinikum Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine Universität Düsseldorf, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Frank Hollmann
- Klinik für Augenheilkunde, Universitätsklinikum Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine Universität Düsseldorf, Moorenstrasse 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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83
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Lee Y, Chakraborty S, Meininger CJ, Muthuchamy M. Insulin resistance disrupts cell integrity, mitochondrial function, and inflammatory signaling in lymphatic endothelium. Microcirculation 2018; 25:e12492. [PMID: 30025187 DOI: 10.1111/micc.12492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Lymphatic vessel dysfunction and increased lymph leakage have been directly associated with several metabolic diseases. However, the underlying cellular mechanisms causing lymphatic dysfunction have not been determined. Aberrant insulin signaling affects the metabolic function of cells and consequently impairs tissue function. We hypothesized that insulin resistance in LECs decreases eNOS activity, disrupts barrier integrity increases permeability, and activates mitochondrial dysfunction and pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. METHODS LECs were treated with insulin and/or glucose to determine the mechanisms leading to insulin resistance. RESULTS Acute insulin treatment increased eNOS phosphorylation and NO production in LECs via activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Prolonged hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia induced insulin resistance in LECs. Insulin-resistant LECs produced less NO due to a decrease in eNOS phosphorylation and showed a significant decrease in impedance across an LEC monolayer that was associated with disruption in the adherence junctional proteins. Additionally, insulin resistance in LECs impaired mitochondrial function by decreasing basal-, maximal-, and ATP-linked OCRs and activated NF-κB nuclear translocation coupled with increased pro-inflammatory signaling. CONCLUSION Our data provide the first evidence that insulin resistance disrupts endothelial barrier integrity, decreases eNOS phosphorylation and mitochondrial function, and activates inflammation in LECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Lee
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Sanjukta Chakraborty
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Cynthia J Meininger
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Mariappan Muthuchamy
- Department of Medical Physiology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
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84
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Zawieja SD, Castorena-Gonzalez JA, Dixon B, Davis MJ. Experimental Models Used to Assess Lymphatic Contractile Function. Lymphat Res Biol 2018; 15:331-342. [PMID: 29252142 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2017.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent years have seen a renewed interest in studies of the lymphatic system. This review addresses the differences between in vivo and ex vivo methods for visualization and functional studies of lymphatic networks, with an emphasis on studies of collecting lymphatic vessels. We begin with a brief summary of the historical uses of both approaches. For the purpose of detailed comparisons, we subdivide in vivo methods into those visualizing lymphatic networks through the intact skin and those using surgically opened skin. We subdivide ex vivo methods into isobaric studies (using a pressure myograph) or isometric studies (using a wire myograph). For all four categories, we compile a comprehensive list of the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of each preparation, with the goal of informing the research community as to the appropriate kinds of experiments best suited, and ill suited, for each.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott D Zawieja
- 1 Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri , Columbia, Missouri
| | | | - Brandon Dixon
- 2 George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Michael J Davis
- 1 Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri , Columbia, Missouri
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85
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Loo CP, Nelson NA, Lane RS, Booth JL, Loprinzi Hardin SC, Thomas A, Slifka MK, Nolz JC, Lund AW. Lymphatic Vessels Balance Viral Dissemination and Immune Activation following Cutaneous Viral Infection. Cell Rep 2018; 20:3176-3187. [PMID: 28954233 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic vessels lie at the interface between peripheral sites of pathogen entry, adaptive immunity, and the systemic host. Though the paradigm is that their open structure allows for passive flow of infectious particles from peripheral tissues to lymphoid organs, virus applied to skin by scarification does not spread to draining lymph nodes. Using cutaneous infection by scarification, we analyzed the effect of viral infection on lymphatic transport and evaluated its role at the host-pathogen interface. We found that, in the absence of lymphatic vessels, canonical lymph-node-dependent immune induction was impaired, resulting in exacerbated pathology and compensatory, systemic priming. Furthermore, lymphatic vessels decouple fluid and cellular transport in an interferon-dependent manner, leading to viral sequestration while maintaining dendritic cell transport for immune induction. In conclusion, we found that lymphatic vessels balance immune activation and viral dissemination and act as an "innate-like" component of tissue host viral defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher P Loo
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Nicholas A Nelson
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Ryan S Lane
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Jamie L Booth
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Sofia C Loprinzi Hardin
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Archana Thomas
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Mark K Slifka
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Jeffrey C Nolz
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Amanda W Lund
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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86
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Balasubbramanian D, Lopez Gelston CA, Rutkowski JM, Mitchell BM. Immune cell trafficking, lymphatics and hypertension. Br J Pharmacol 2018; 176:1978-1988. [PMID: 29797446 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Activated immune cell infiltration into organs contributes to the development and maintenance of hypertension. Studies targeting specific immune cell populations or reducing their inflammatory signalling have demonstrated a reduction in BP. Lymphatic vessels play a key role in immune cell trafficking and in resolving inflammation, but little is known about their role in hypertension. Studies from our laboratory and others suggest that inflammation-associated or induction of lymphangiogenesis is organ protective and anti-hypertensive. This review provides the basis for hypertension as a disease of chronic inflammation in various tissues and highlights how renal lymphangiogenesis is a novel regulator of kidney health and BP. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Immune Targets in Hypertension. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.12/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Joseph M Rutkowski
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M College of Medicine, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Brett M Mitchell
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M College of Medicine, College Station, TX, USA
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87
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Jha SK, Rauniyar K, Jeltsch M. Key molecules in lymphatic development, function, and identification. Ann Anat 2018; 219:25-34. [PMID: 29842991 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
While both blood and lymphatic vessels transport fluids and thus share many similarities, they also show functional and structural differences, which can be used to differentiate them. Specific visualization of lymphatic vessels has historically been and still is a pivot point in lymphatic research. Many of the proteins that are investigated by molecular biologists in lymphatic research have been defined as marker molecules, i.e. to visualize and distinguish lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) from other cell types, most notably from blood vascular endothelial cells (BECs) and cells of the hematopoietic lineage. Among the factors that drive the developmental differentiation of lymphatic structures from venous endothelium, Prospero homeobox protein 1 (PROX1) is the master transcriptional regulator. PROX1 maintains lymphatic identity also in the adult organism and thus is a universal LEC marker. Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) is the major tyrosine kinase receptor that drives LEC proliferation and migration. The major activator for VEGFR-3 is vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C). However, before VEGF-C can signal, it needs to be proteolytically activated by an extracellular protein complex comprised of Collagen and calcium binding EGF domains 1 (CCBE1) protein and the protease A disintegrin and metallopeptidase with thrombospondin type 1 motif 3 (ADAMTS3). This minireview attempts to give an overview of these and a few other central proteins that scientific inquiry has linked specifically to the lymphatic vasculature. It is limited in scope to a brief description of their main functions, properties and developmental roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sawan Kumar Jha
- Translational Cancer Biology Research Program, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Khushbu Rauniyar
- Translational Cancer Biology Research Program, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Michael Jeltsch
- Translational Cancer Biology Research Program, University of Helsinki, Finland; Wihuri Research Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, Finland.
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88
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García Nores GD, Ly CL, Cuzzone DA, Kataru RP, Hespe GE, Torrisi JS, Huang JJ, Gardenier JC, Savetsky IL, Nitti MD, Yu JZ, Rehal S, Mehrara BJ. CD4 + T cells are activated in regional lymph nodes and migrate to skin to initiate lymphedema. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1970. [PMID: 29773802 PMCID: PMC5958132 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04418-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell-mediated responses have been implicated in the development of fibrosis, impaired lymphangiogenesis, and lymphatic dysfunction in secondary lymphedema. Here we show that CD4+ T cells are necessary for lymphedema pathogenesis by utilizing adoptive transfer techniques in CD4 knockout mice that have undergone tail skin and lymphatic excision or popliteal lymph node dissection. We also demonstrate that T cell activation following lymphatic injury occurs in regional skin-draining lymph nodes after interaction with antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells. CD4+ T cell activation is associated with differentiation into a mixed T helper type 1 and 2 phenotype, as well as upregulation of adhesion molecules and chemokines that promote migration to the skin. Most importantly, we find that blocking T cell release from lymph nodes using a sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulator prevents lymphedema, suggesting that this approach may have clinical utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela D García Nores
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Catherine L Ly
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Daniel A Cuzzone
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Raghu P Kataru
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Geoffrey E Hespe
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Jeremy S Torrisi
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Jung Ju Huang
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Jason C Gardenier
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Ira L Savetsky
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Matthew D Nitti
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Jessie Z Yu
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Sonia Rehal
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Babak J Mehrara
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, Suite MRI 1006, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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89
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Abstract
Cancer patients with lymph node (LN) metastases have a worse prognosis than those without nodal disease. However, why LN metastases correlate with reduced patient survival is poorly understood. Recent findings provide insight into mechanisms underlying tumor growth in LNs. Tumor cells and their secreted molecules engage stromal, myeloid, and lymphoid cells within primary tumors and in the lymphatic system, decreasing antitumor immunity and promoting tumor growth. Understanding the mechanisms of cancer survival and growth in LNs is key to designing effective therapy for the eradication of LN metastases. In addition, uncovering the implications of LN metastasis for systemic tumor burden will inform treatment decisions. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of the seeding, growth, and further dissemination of LN metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Jones
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, MGH Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ethel R Pereira
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, MGH Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Timothy P Padera
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, MGH Cancer Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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90
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Liu M, Chen M, Yang Z. Design of amphotericin B oral formulation for antifungal therapy. Drug Deliv 2017; 24:1-9. [PMID: 28155335 PMCID: PMC8241147 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2016.1225852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphotericin B (AmB) remains the "gold standard" for systemic antifungal therapy, even though new drugs are emerging as the attractive antifungal agents. Since AmB has negligible oral absorption as a consequence of its unfavorable physicochemical characterizations, its use is restricted to parenteral administration which is accompanied by severe side effects. As greater understanding of the gastrointestinal tract has developed, the advanced drug delivery systems are emerging with the potential to overcome the barriers of AmB oral delivery. Much research has demonstrated that oral AmB formulations such as lipid formulations may have beneficial therapeutic efficacy with reduced adverse effects and suitable for clinical application. Here we reviewed the different formulation strategies to enhance oral drug efficacy, and discussed the current trends and future perspectives for AmB oral administration in the treatment of antifungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Liu
- Urology Department, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China, and
| | - Meiwan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Zhiwen Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, Songjiang Hospital Affiliated Shanghai First People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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91
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Abstract
The lymphatic system is essential for the maintenance of tissue fluid homeostasis, gastrointestinal lipid absorption, and immune trafficking. Whereas lymphatic regeneration occurs physiologically in wound healing and tissue repair, pathological lymphangiogenesis has been implicated in a number of chronic diseases such as lymphedema, atherosclerosis, and cancer. Insight into the regulatory mechanisms of lymphangiogenesis and the manner in which uncontrolled inflammation promotes lymphatic dysfunction is urgently needed to guide the development of novel therapeutics: These would be designed to reverse lymphatic dysfunction, either primary or acquired. Recent investigation has demonstrated the mechanistic role of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in the molecular pathogenesis of lymphedema. LTB4, a product of the innate immune response, is a constituent of the eicosanoid inflammatory mediator family of molecules that promote both physiological and pathological inflammation. Here we provide an overview of lymphatic development, the pathophysiology of lymphedema, and the role of leukotrienes in lymphedema pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinguo Jiang
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA;
| | - Mark R Nicolls
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA;
| | - Wen Tian
- VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California 94304, USA.,Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA;
| | - Stanley G Rockson
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA;
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92
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Transient Ingrowth of Lymphatic Vessels into the Physiologically Avascular Cornea Regulates Corneal Edema and Transparency. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7227. [PMID: 28775329 PMCID: PMC5543160 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07806-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Lymphangiogenesis is essential for fluid homeostasis in vascularized tissues. In the normally avascular cornea, however, pathological lymphangiogenesis mediates diseases like corneal transplant rejection, dry eye disease, and allergy. So far, a physiological role for lymphangiogenesis in a primarily avascular site such as the cornea has not been described. Using a mouse model of perforating corneal injury that causes acute and severe fluid accumulation in the cornea, we show that lymphatics transiently and selectively invade the cornea and regulate the resolution of corneal edema. Pharmacological blockade of lymphangiogenesis via VEGFR-3 inhibition results in increased corneal thickness due to delayed drainage of corneal edema and a trend towards prolonged corneal opacification. Notably, lymphatics are also detectable in the cornea of a patient with acute edema due to spontaneous Descemet´s (basement) membrane rupture in keratoconus, mimicking this animal model and highlighting the clinical relevance of lymphangiogenesis in corneal fluid homeostasis. Together, our findings provide evidence that lymphangiogenesis plays an unexpectedly beneficial role in the regulation of corneal edema and transparency. This might open new treatment options in blinding diseases associated with corneal edema and transparency loss. Furthermore, we demonstrate for the first time that physiological lymphangiogenesis also occurs in primarily avascular sites.
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93
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Seager RJ, Hajal C, Spill F, Kamm RD, Zaman MH. Dynamic interplay between tumour, stroma and immune system can drive or prevent tumour progression. CONVERGENT SCIENCE PHYSICAL ONCOLOGY 2017; 3. [PMID: 30079253 DOI: 10.1088/2057-1739/aa7e86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In the tumour microenvironment, cancer cells directly interact with both the immune system and the stroma. It is firmly established that the immune system, historically believed to be a major part of the body's defence against tumour progression, can be reprogrammed by tumour cells to be ineffective, inactivated, or even acquire tumour promoting phenotypes. Likewise, stromal cells and extracellular matrix can also have pro-and anti-tumour properties. However, there is strong evidence that the stroma and immune system also directly interact, therefore creating a tripartite interaction that exists between cancer cells, immune cells and tumour stroma. This interaction contributes to the maintenance of a chronically inflamed tumour microenvironment with pro-tumorigenic immune phenotypes and facilitated metastatic dissemination. A comprehensive understanding of cancer in the context of dynamical interactions of the immune system and the tumour stroma is therefore required to truly understand the progression toward and past malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Seager
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston MA 02215
| | - Cynthia Hajal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Fabian Spill
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston MA 02215.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Roger D Kamm
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Muhammad H Zaman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston MA 02215.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215
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94
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Johnson LA, Banerji S, Lawrance W, Gileadi U, Prota G, Holder KA, Roshorm YM, Hanke T, Cerundolo V, Gale NW, Jackson DG. Dendritic cells enter lymph vessels by hyaluronan-mediated docking to the endothelial receptor LYVE-1. Nat Immunol 2017; 18:762-770. [PMID: 28504698 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Trafficking of tissue dendritic cells (DCs) via lymph is critical for the generation of cellular immune responses in draining lymph nodes (LNs). In the current study we found that DCs docked to the basolateral surface of lymphatic vessels and transited to the lumen through hyaluronan-mediated interactions with the lymph-specific endothelial receptor LYVE-1, in dynamic transmigratory-cup-like structures. Furthermore, we show that targeted deletion of the gene Lyve1, antibody blockade or depletion of the DC hyaluronan coat not only delayed lymphatic trafficking of dermal DCs but also blunted their capacity to prime CD8+ T cell responses in skin-draining LNs. Our findings uncovered a previously unknown function for LYVE-1 and show that transit through the lymphatic network is initiated by the recognition of leukocyte-derived hyaluronan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise A Johnson
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Suneale Banerji
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - William Lawrance
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Uzi Gileadi
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Gennaro Prota
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Kayla A Holder
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Yaowaluck M Roshorm
- Division of Biotechnology, School of Bioresources and Technology, King Monkut's University of Technology, Thonburi, Thailand
| | - Tomáš Hanke
- The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- International Research Centre for Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Vincenzo Cerundolo
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - David G Jackson
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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95
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Vascular heterogeneity and specialization in development and disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2017; 18:477-494. [PMID: 28537573 DOI: 10.1038/nrm.2017.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 373] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Blood and lymphatic vessels pervade almost all body tissues and have numerous essential roles in physiology and disease. The inner lining of these networks is formed by a single layer of endothelial cells, which is specialized according to the needs of the tissue that it supplies. Whereas the general mechanisms of blood and lymphatic vessel development are being defined with increasing molecular precision, studies of the processes of endothelial specialization remain mostly descriptive. Recent insights from genetic animal models illuminate how endothelial cells interact with each other and with their tissue environment, providing paradigms for vessel type- and organ-specific endothelial differentiation. Delineating these governing principles will be crucial for understanding how tissues develop and maintain, and how their function becomes abnormal in disease.
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96
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Maisel K, Sasso MS, Potin L, Swartz MA. Exploiting lymphatic vessels for immunomodulation: Rationale, opportunities, and challenges. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2017; 114:43-59. [PMID: 28694027 PMCID: PMC6026542 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic vessels are the primary route of communication from peripheral tissues to the immune system; as such, they represent an important component of local immunity. In addition to their transport functions, new immunomodulatory roles for lymphatic vessels and lymphatic endothelial cells have come to light in recent years, demonstrating that lymphatic vessels help shape immune responses in a variety of ways: promoting tolerance to self-antigens, archiving antigen for later presentation, dampening effector immune responses, and resolving inflammation, among others. In addition to these new biological insights, the growing field of immunoengineering has begun to explore therapeutic approaches to utilize or exploit the lymphatic system for immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Maisel
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Maria Stella Sasso
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Lambert Potin
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Melody A Swartz
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Ben May Institute for Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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97
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Wang S, Nie D, Rubin JP, Kokai L. Lymphatic Endothelial Cells under Mechanical Stress: Altered Expression of Inflammatory Cytokines and Fibrosis. Lymphat Res Biol 2017; 15:130-135. [PMID: 28486010 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2016.0042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Secondary lymphedema, resulting from damage to lymphatic vessels, is a common sequela following surgical removal of lymph nodes for cancer. Current therapeutics for treating lymphedema are limited and further research on underlying causes is warranted. Published studies on molecular mechanisms of lymphedema primarily focus on lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs), which comprise the innermost lining of lymphatic capillaries and collecting vessels. However, traditional static culture of LECs may not adequately recapitulate the lymphedemous cell phenotype as transcriptomal comparison of human dermal LECs has shown significant differences in ex vivo and in vitro LEC gene expression. In this study, we designed a dynamic culture system, in which LECs were exposed to physiologic and excess mechanical strain to determine if native and lymphedemous phenotypes could be reproduced in vitro. METHODS AND RESULTS Purified human LECs were cultured in silicon dishes and subjected to 0% (control), 4%, and 8% mechanical strain for 72 hours. Our results indicate that control and stretched LECs maintained a mature phenotype. Extreme stretching at 8% strain significantly increased LEC proliferation and significantly increased Prox1 expression, suggesting a lymphedemous cell phenotype resulting with lymphangiogenesis. CONCLUSION Mechanical strain reinforced a mature lymphatic phenotype and excess strain promoted lymphangiogenesis, while altering collagen deposition and cytokine secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheri Wang
- 1 Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Daibang Nie
- 2 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - J Peter Rubin
- 1 Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lauren Kokai
- 1 Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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98
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Kalucka J, Teuwen LA, Geldhof V, Carmeliet P. How to Cross the Lymphatic Fence: Lessons From Solute Transport. Circ Res 2017; 120:1376-1378. [PMID: 28450356 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.117.310916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Kalucka
- From the Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute (LKI), KU Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Center for Cancer Biology, Vesalius Research Center, Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); GZA Hospitals Sint-Augustinus, Wilrijk, Belgium (L.-A.T.); and Center for Oncological Research, University of Antwerp, Belgium (L.-A.T.)
| | - Laure-Anne Teuwen
- From the Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute (LKI), KU Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Center for Cancer Biology, Vesalius Research Center, Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); GZA Hospitals Sint-Augustinus, Wilrijk, Belgium (L.-A.T.); and Center for Oncological Research, University of Antwerp, Belgium (L.-A.T.)
| | - Vincent Geldhof
- From the Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute (LKI), KU Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Center for Cancer Biology, Vesalius Research Center, Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); GZA Hospitals Sint-Augustinus, Wilrijk, Belgium (L.-A.T.); and Center for Oncological Research, University of Antwerp, Belgium (L.-A.T.)
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- From the Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute (LKI), KU Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Center for Cancer Biology, Vesalius Research Center, Leuven, Belgium (J.K., L.-A.T., V.G., P.C.); GZA Hospitals Sint-Augustinus, Wilrijk, Belgium (L.-A.T.); and Center for Oncological Research, University of Antwerp, Belgium (L.-A.T.).
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99
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Triacca V, Güç E, Kilarski WW, Pisano M, Swartz MA. Transcellular Pathways in Lymphatic Endothelial Cells Regulate Changes in Solute Transport by Fluid Stress. Circ Res 2017; 120:1440-1452. [DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.116.309828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Revised: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Rationale:
The transport of interstitial fluid and solutes into lymphatic vessels is important for maintaining interstitial homeostasis and delivering antigens and soluble factors to the lymph node for immune surveillance. Transendothelial transport across lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) is commonly considered to occur paracellularly, or between cell–cell junctions, and driven by local pressure and concentration gradients. However, emerging evidence suggests that LECs also play active roles in regulating interstitial solute balance and can scavenge and store antigens, raising the possibility that vesicular or transcellular pathways may be important in lymphatic solute transport.
Objective:
The aim of this study was to determine the relative importance of transcellular (vesicular) versus paracellular transport pathways by LECs and how mechanical stress (ie, fluid flow conditioning) alters either pathway.
Methods and Results:
We demonstrate that transcellular transport mechanisms substantially contribute to lymphatic solute transport and that solute uptake occurs in both caveolae- and clathrin-coated vesicles. In vivo, intracelluar uptake of fluorescently labeled albumin after intradermal injection by LECs was similar to that of dermal dendritic cells. In vitro, we developed a method to differentially quantify intracellular solute uptake versus transendothelial transport by LECs. LECs preconditioned to 1 µm/s transmural flow demonstrated increased uptake and basal-to-apical solute transport, which could be substantially reversed by blocking dynamin-dependent vesicle formation.
Conclusions:
These findings reveal the importance of intracellular transport in steady-state lymph formation and suggest that LECs use transcellular mechanisms in parallel to the well-described paracellular route to modulate solute transport from the interstitium according to biomechanical cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Triacca
- From the Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (V.T., E.G., W.W.K., M.P., M.A.S.); and Institute for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, IL (W.W.K., M.A.S.)
| | - Esra Güç
- From the Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (V.T., E.G., W.W.K., M.P., M.A.S.); and Institute for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, IL (W.W.K., M.A.S.)
| | - Witold W. Kilarski
- From the Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (V.T., E.G., W.W.K., M.P., M.A.S.); and Institute for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, IL (W.W.K., M.A.S.)
| | - Marco Pisano
- From the Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (V.T., E.G., W.W.K., M.P., M.A.S.); and Institute for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, IL (W.W.K., M.A.S.)
| | - Melody A. Swartz
- From the Institute of Bioengineering and Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (V.T., E.G., W.W.K., M.P., M.A.S.); and Institute for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, IL (W.W.K., M.A.S.)
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100
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Vasculature-On-A-Chip for In Vitro Disease Models. Bioengineering (Basel) 2017; 4:bioengineering4010008. [PMID: 28952486 PMCID: PMC5590435 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering4010008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascularization, the formation of new blood vessels, is an essential biological process. As the vasculature is involved in various fundamental physiological phenomena and closely related to several human diseases, it is imperative that substantial research is conducted on characterizing the vasculature and its related diseases. A significant evolution has been made to describe the vascularization process so that in vitro recapitulation of vascularization is possible. The current microfluidic systems allow elaborative research on the effects of various cues for vascularization, and furthermore, in vitro technologies have a great potential for being applied to the vascular disease models for studying pathological events and developing drug screening platforms. Here, we review methods of fabrication for microfluidic assays and inducing factors for vascularization. We also discuss applications using engineered vasculature such as in vitro vascular disease models, vasculature in organ-on-chips and drug screening platforms.
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