The effects of walking and cycling computer workstations on keyboard and mouse performance

Office-Cycling: A Promising Way to Raise Pain Thresholds and Increase Metabolism with Minimal Compromising of Work Performance

Aim

Establishing the effects of low intensity cycling (LC), moderate intensity cycling (MC), and standing at a simulated office workstation on pain modulation, work performance, and metabolic expenditure.

Methods

36 healthy adults (21 females), mean age 26.8 (SD 7.6) years, partook in this randomized 3 × 3 crossover trial with 75 minutes of LC on 20% of maximum aerobic power (MAP) output, 30 minutes of MC on 50% of MAP, and standing 30 minutes with 48-hour wash-out periods. Outcome measures were pain modulation (pressure pain threshold (PPT) and thermal pain threshold)), work performance (transcription, mouse pointing, and cognitive performance), and metabolic expenditure.

Results

PPTs increased in all conditions. PPT trapezius showed the highest increase after LC, 39.3 kilopascals (kPa) (15.6; 78.6), compared to MC, 17.0 kPa (2.8; 49.9), and standing, 16.8 kPa (-5.6; 39.4), p = 0.015. Transcription was reduced during LC and MC. Mouse pointing precision was best during standing and worst and slowest during MC. Cognitive performance did not differ between conditions. Metabolic expenditure rates were 1.4 (1.3; 1.7), 3.3 (2.3; 3.7), and 7.5 (5.8; 8.7) kcal/minute during standing, LC, and MC, respectively (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

LC seems to be the preferred option; it raised PPTs, more than doubled metabolic expenditure, whilst minimally influencing work performance.

In-Class Cycling to Augment College Student Academic Performance and Reduce Physical Inactivity: Results from an RCT

Most college students sit 14 hours per week on average, excluding sedentary study time. Researchers observing workplace and elementary school settings with active workstations to combat sedentary behavior have shown enhanced cognition without distraction. Until now, incorporating active workstations in college classroom settings remained relatively unexplored. This study’s purpose was to assess academic performance using in-class stationary cycle desks during a semester-long lecture course. Twenty-one college students (19–24 years) enrolled in a lecture course volunteered and were split into traditional sit (SIT) and stationary cycle (CYC) groups randomly, matched on a calculated factor equal to a physical activity (PA) score (0–680) multiplied by grade point average (GPA; 4.0 scale). CYC pedaled a prescribed rate of perceived exertion (RPE) of less than 2 out of 10 during a 50-min lecture, 3 × week for 12 weeks. CYC averaged 42 min, 7.9 miles, and 1.7 RPE during class throughout the semester. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed between CYC and SIT on in-class test scores or overall course grades. Although statistically insignificant, CYC had higher mean test scores and overall course grades vs. SIT (i.e., B⁺ vs. B, respectively). Low intensity cycling during a college lecture course maintained student academic performance and possibly reduced weekly sedentary behavior time.

Taking a Stand: The Effects of Standing Desks on Task Performance and Engagement

Time spent sitting is associated with negative health outcomes, motivating some individuals to adopt standing desk workstations. This study represents the first investigation of the effects of standing desk use on reading comprehension and creativity. In a counterbalanced, within-subjects design, 96 participants completed reading comprehension and creativity tasks while both sitting and standing. Participants self-reported their mood during the tasks and also responded to measures of expended effort and task difficulty. In addition, participants indicated whether they expected that they would perform better on work-relevant tasks while sitting or standing. Despite participants' beliefs that they would perform worse on most tasks while standing, body position did not affect reading comprehension or creativity performance, nor did it affect perceptions of effort or difficulty. Mood was also unaffected by position, with a few exceptions: Participants exhibited greater task engagement (i.e., interest, enthusiasm, and alertness) and less comfort while standing rather than sitting. In sum, performance and psychological experience as related to task completion were nearly entirely uninfluenced by acute (~30-min) standing desk use.

Decreasing Sedentary Behavior: Effects on Academic Performance, Meta-Cognition, and Sleep

There is growing interest in using activity workstations as a method of increasing light physical activity in normally sedentary environments. The current study (N = 117) compared the effects of studying in college students while slowly pedaling a stationary bike with a desktop with studying at traditional desks across 10 weeks in an academic semester. The students were assigned to study either on the stationary bike or at a traditional desk located in the campus library for a minimum of 2 h a week. During the 10 weeks, the students studied for tests or worked on other required academic activities while working at their assigned desk. In addition, the participants completed a pre survey, weekly surveys, and a post survey. We found that although students studying at the traditional desks reported more ease of studying and more effective studying than those using the stationary bikes, the two groups performed equally well on tests in an introductory psychology course. Moreover, the students using the traditional desks reported a decrease in sleep quality later in the semester while those using the activity workstation reported stable levels of sleep quality. The current results indicate that activity workstations could be implemented in university settings to encourage light physical activity without negatively affecting academic performance while providing possible long-term health and well-being benefits. Furthermore, the results suggests that activity workstations could be a means of combating sedentary behavior in environments where individuals are expected to sit either while waiting (e.g., doctor's waiting rooms, airports) or when completing a necessary task (e.g., the workplace, educational settings).

Utilizing anthropometric data to improve the usability of desk bikes, and influence of desk bikes on reading and typing performance

This study investigated the feasibility of using a desk bike in an office setting. Workstation measurements were introduced to accommodate 95% of the general U.S. population in using desk bikes. Reading and typing performances were compared at three different cycling conditions (no cycling, 10 and 25 W). Thirty healthy individuals (15 female and 15 male; Age mean: 23.1, σ: 4.19) were recruited based on 5/50/95th percentile stature. Participants were required to select preferred workstation settings and perform reading and typing tasks while pedaling. According to anthropometric measurements and variability from user preference, recommended adjustable ranges of workstation settings for the general U.S. population were derived. Repeated measures ANOVA showed that pedaling had no significant effect on reading comprehension (p > 0.05), but had significant effect on typing performance (p < 0.001). A preferred level of cycling intensity was determined (mean 17.3 W, σ: 3.69).

An intervention to reduce sitting and increase light-intensity physical activity at work: Design and rationale of the 'Stand & Move at Work' group randomized trial

BACKGROUND

American workers spend 70-80% of their time at work being sedentary. Traditional approaches to increase moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) may be perceived to be harmful to productivity. Approaches that target reductions in sedentary behavior and/or increases in standing or light-intensity physical activity [LPA] may not interfere with productivity and may be more feasible to achieve through small changes accumulated throughout the workday METHODS/DESIGN: This group randomized trial (i.e., cluster randomized trial) will test the relative efficacy of two sedentary behavior focused interventions in 24 worksites across two states (N=720 workers). The MOVE+ intervention is a multilevel individual, social, environmental, and organizational intervention targeting increases in light-intensity physical activity in the workplace. The STAND+ intervention is the MOVE+ intervention with the addition of the installation and use of sit-stand workstations to reduce sedentary behavior and enhance light-intensity physical activity opportunities. Our primary outcome will be objectively-measured changes in sedentary behavior and light-intensity physical activity over 12months, with additional process measures at 3months and longer-term sustainability outcomes at 24months. Our secondary outcomes will be a clustered cardiometabolic risk score (comprised of fasting glucose, insulin, triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol, and blood pressure), workplace productivity, and job satisfaction DISCUSSION: This study will determine the efficacy of a multi-level workplace intervention (including the use of a sit-stand workstation) to reduce sedentary behavior and increase LPA and concomitant impact on cardiometabolic health, workplace productivity, and satisfaction.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02566317 (date of registration: 10/1/2015).

Implications of sit-stand and active workstations to counteract the adverse effects of sedentary work: A comprehensive review

BACKGROUND

Sedentary work is associated with many adverse health outcomes, and sit-stand workstations in offices have emerged as a way to counteract sedentary work.

OBJECTIVE

This paper reviews the existing knowledge on sit-stand workstations, treadmill workstations and bicycle workstations.

METHODS

The inclusion/exclusion criteria were: 1) empirical research examining the effectiveness of sit-stand workstations in lab or field studies, 2) working adult population, 3) sit-stand workstation interventions where workers performed the same task from a seated or standing position, 4) outcomes measures of discomfort (comfort), performance, sit-stand behaviors, user satisfaction, kinematic and physiological measures. Search terms were: sit-stand, treadmill, bicycle, workstations, sedentary behavior, office ergonomics, and comfort.

RESULTS

Many studies considered productivity, comfort and physiological measures as important outcomes to assess the efficacy of sit-stand workstations and the experimental design was variable. Preliminary data suggests that some amount of standing during an 8-hour workday could be beneficial without compromising user comfort or productivity; however, there is very little data on the efficacy of treadmill and bicycle workstations.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on these preliminary data from 26 studies, conducting large scale randomized controlled trials with ergonomic training as their essential component is recommended to understand the benefits of sit-stand workstations for prevention of sedentary work.

Cycling on a Bike Desk Positively Influences Cognitive Performance

Purpose

Cycling desks as a means to reduce sedentary time in the office has gained interest as excessive sitting has been associated with several health risks. However, the question rises if people will still be as efficient in performing their desk-based office work when combining this with stationary cycling. Therefore, the effect of cycling at 30% Wmax on typing, cognitive performance and brain activity was investigated.

Methods

After two familiarisation sessions, 23 participants performed a test battery [typing test, Rey auditory verbal learning test (RAVLT), Stroop test and Rosvold continuous performance test (RCPT)] with electroencephalography recording while cycling and sitting on a conventional chair.

Results

Typing performance, performance on the RAVLT and accuracy on the Stroop test and the RCPT did not differ between conditions. Reaction times on the Stroop test and the RCPT were shorter while cycling relative to sitting (p < 0.05). N200, P300, N450 and conflict SP latency and amplitude on the Stroop test and N200 and P300 on the RCPT did not differ between conditions.

Conclusions

This study showed that typing performance and short-term memory are not deteriorated when people cycle at 30% Wmax. Furthermore, cycling had a positive effect on response speed across tasks requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition.

Effects of Sitting and Standing Work Postures on Short-Term Typing Performance and Discomfort

The study evaluated effects of sitting and standing work postures on objective short-term computer typing performance and perceived discomfort. A randomized, repeated measures, study design was used to assess typing performance and perceived discomfort for 12 participants on a 15-minute computer-typing task. Typing performance was measured by number of characters typed and number of errors. Perceived discomfort was measured for the whole body, as well as for upper body and lower body, using a visual analog scale. Results suggest that for a short-term computer typing task, compared to a sitting work posture a standing work posture leads to fewer typing errors without impacting typing speed. Overall levels of perceived discomfort for the whole body are similar for sitting and standing work postures. However, for perceived discomfort there is an interaction of work posture and body region - upper body discomfort is higher in the sitting work posture while lower body discomfort is higher in the standing work posture.

Task Performance and Meta-Cognitive Outcomes When Using Activity Workstations and Traditional Desks

The purpose of the current study is to compare the effects of light physical activity to sedentary behavior on cognitive task performance and meta-cognitive responses. Thirty-eight undergraduate students participated in the study. The participants used a stationary bicycle with a desk top and a traditional desk while completing two complex cognitive tasks and measures of affect, motivation, morale, and engagement. The participants pedaled the stationary bicycle at a slow pace (similar in exertion to a normal walking pace) while working. The results indicated that cognitive task performance did not change between the two workstations. However, positive affect, motivation, and morale improved when using the stationary bicycle. These results suggest that activity workstations could be implemented in the work place and in educational settings to help decrease sedentary behavior without negatively affecting performance. Furthermore, individuals could experience a positive emotional response when working on activity workstations which in turn could help encourage individuals to choose to be more physical active during daily activities.

Active workstation allows office workers to work efficiently while sitting and exercising moderately

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effects of a moderate-intensity active workstation on time and error during simulated office work.

METHODS

The aim of the study was to analyse simultaneous work and exercise for non-sedentary office workers. We monitored oxygen uptake, heart rate, sweating stains area, self-perceived effort, typing test time with typing error count and cognitive performance during 30 min of exercise with no cycling or cycling at 40 and 80 W.

RESULTS

Compared baseline, we found increased physiological responses at 40 and 80 W, which corresponds to moderate physical activity (PA). Typing time significantly increased by 7.3% (p = 0.002) in C40W and also by 8.9% (p = 0.011) in C80W. Typing error count and cognitive performance were unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

Although moderate intensity exercise performed on cycling workstation during simulated office tasks increases working task execution time with, it has moderate effect size; however, it does not increase the error rate. Participants confirmed that such a working design is suitable for achieving the minimum standards for daily PA during work hours.

Motor-Driven (Passive) Cycling: A Potential Physical Inactivity Countermeasure?

We have previously shown that motor-driven (passive) stationary cycling elevates energy expenditure (EE).

PURPOSE

This study aimed to quantify how acute passive cycling affects glucose and insulin responses to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and basic cognition compared with sitting and moderate-intensity active cycling.

METHODS

Twenty-four physically inactive healthy males completed three trials in randomized order involving 30-min conditions of sitting, passive cycling, and moderate-intensity cycling. During each condition, EE was measured, and participants performed cognitive tests. After each condition, a 2-h OGTT was performed.

RESULTS

EE was significantly higher during the cycling conditions compared with sitting (1.36 ± 0.58 and 6.50 ± 1.73 kcal·min greater than sitting for passive and moderate-intensity, respectively). A significant correlation was found between body fat percentage and postsitting OGTT 2-h postplasma glucose (r = 0.30, P < 0.05); thus, participants were divided into lean (n = 11) and nonlean (n = 13) groups. In the nonlean group, compared with sitting, passive cycling lowered 2-h postplasma glucose (7.7 ± 1.3 vs 6.9 ± 1.6 mmol·L, respectively, P < 0.05), and the Matsuda whole-body insulin sensitivity index (WBISI) was higher (2.74 ± 0.86 vs 3.36 ± 1.08, P < 0.05). In addition, passive and moderate-intensity cycling had similar beneficial effects on 2-h postplasma glucose and WBISI. Cognitive performance did not significantly differ between the sitting and passive cycling conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Two-hour postplasma glucose was lower and WBISI after acute passive cycling was higher in nonlean participants. Given that and the increase in EE without changes in cognitive performance, we propose passive cycling as a promising intervention to counteract some of the deleterious effects of prolonged sitting in the workplace.

Comparison of the postural and physiological effects of two dynamic workstations to conventional sitting and standing workstations

Increasing evidence is being found for the association of health risk factors with work-related physical inactivity. An increasing number of people are being exposed to this form of inactivity, and as a result, various interventions aimed at increasing physical activity during working hours are being developed. This study aims to investigate the differences in postural, muscular and physical activities resulting from two dynamic workstations, namely an elliptical trainer and a treadmill workstation, compared with a conventional sitting and standing workstation. Twelve participants completed five standardised office tasks in a laboratory setting at all workstations. No significant effect was found regarding changes in posture and the muscular activity was only significantly higher for the trapezius muscle (50th percentile: 8.1 %MVC) at the dynamic workstations. For the dynamic workstations, physical activity ranged from 4.0 to 14.9 × 10(-2) g, heart rate from 14.3 to 27.5 %HRR and energy expenditure from 1.8 to 3.1 METs. Practitioner Summary: Work-related physical inactivity is associated with health risk factors. In this study, physiological and postural effects of dynamic workstations were assessed in comparison to conventional workstations. No significant effects were found regarding changes in posture and muscular activity. Physical activity, heart rate and energy expenditure increased for the dynamic workstations.

Validation of an integrated pedal desk and electronic behavior tracking platform

Background

This study tested the validity of revolutions per minute (RPM) measurements from the Pennington Pedal Desk™. Forty-four participants (73 % female; 39 ± 11.4 years-old; BMI 25.8 ± 5.5 kg/m² [mean ± SD]) completed a standardized trial consisting of guided computer tasks while using a pedal desk for approximately 20 min. Measures of RPM were concurrently collected by the pedal desk and the Garmin Vector power meter. After establishing the validity of RPM measurements with the Garmin Vector, we performed equivalence tests, quantified mean absolute percent error (MAPE), and constructed Bland–Altman plots to assess agreement between RPM measures from the pedal desk and the Garmin Vector (criterion) at the minute-by-minute and trial level (i.e., over the approximate 20 min trial period).

Results

The average (mean ± SD) duration of the pedal desk trial was 20.5 ± 2.5 min. Measures of RPM (mean ± SE) at the minute-by-minute (Garmin Vector: 54.8 ± 0.4 RPM; pedal desk: 55.8 ± 0.4 RPM) and trial level (Garmin Vector: 55.0 ± 1.7 RPM; pedal desk: 56.0 ± 1.7 RPM) were deemed equivalent. MAPE values for RPM measured by the pedal desk were small (minute-by-minute: 2.1 ± 0.1 %; trial: 1.8 ± 0.1 %) and no systematic relationships in error variance were evident by Bland–Altman plots.

Conclusion

The Pennington Pedal Desk™ provides a valid count of RPM, providing an accurate metric to promote usage.

Is Sitting Too Much Bad for Your Health?

Office workers spend a large part of their workday sitting down. Too much sitting seems bad for people’s health and puts them at risk for premature death. Workstation alternatives that allow desk work to be done while standing, walking, biking, or stepping reduce the total time spent sitting without affecting work performance much. Moreover, these alternatives seem acceptable to users. Future research is needed to determine long-term effects and whether results apply to different working populations. Ergonomists play an important role in developing recommendations for the setup and use of alternative workstations and in improving their feasibility.

The use of cycling workstations in public places - an observational study

OBJECTIVES

To determine the use of cycling workstations in public places; how long are they used, who uses them, and why do people use them.

STUDY DESIGN

Mixed methods study; observations in combination with questionnaires.

METHODS

Cycling desks with a charging feature (We-bike) at Brussels National Airport and Brussels South railway station were observed. Data about the number of users, time spent using the workstation, cycling and charging behaviour, were collected by observation. Data about sex, age, body mass index (BMI) and the reason of the use, were obtained via a survey.

RESULTS

Approximately three people per hour cycled on the workstation. Mean (SD) cycling time was 15.2 (11.9) minutes and mean (SD) cycling intensity was 2.11 (1.16) on the modified Borg scale. 88% of the users charged a device. About two-thirds of the observed people were male and the majority was between 26 and 45 years old (44%). The average BMI (SD) of the surveyed participants was 24.0 (3.1) kg/m(2), with 26.1% of the participants being overweight. People used the desks because they thought it was fun, relaxing, a good distraction, healthy, good for maintaining shape and/or eco-friendly. However, the majority of the participants (83%) used it because of the charging feature and only one-third of the people would also use the desk if a charging feature was not available.

CONCLUSIONS

Cycling desks at public places are used by approximately three people per hour. The charging feature is an important motivating factor as only one-third of the people would use the cycling workstation if there would not be a charging feature. As this easy-to-use machine brings about a decrease in sedentary behaviour and an increase in energy expenditure, the availability at places accessible to everyone, could contribute to a less sedentary society and could thus contribute to the prevention of diseases and mental problems related to prolonged sitting.

Slow walking on a treadmill desk does not negatively affect executive abilities: an examination of cognitive control, conflict adaptation, response inhibition, and post-error slowing

An increasing trend in the workplace is for employees to walk on treadmills while working to attain known health benefits; however, the effect of walking on a treadmill during cognitive control and executive function tasks is not well known. We compared the cognitive control processes of conflict adaptation (i.e., congruency sequence effects—improved performance following high-conflict relative to low-conflict trials), post-error slowing (i.e., Rabbitt effect), and response inhibition during treadmill walking (1.5 mph) relative to sitting. Understanding the influence of treadmill desks on these cognitive processes may have implications for worker health and productivity. Sixty-nine individuals were randomized to either a sitting (n = 35) or treadmill-walking condition (n = 34). Groups did not differ in age or body mass index. All participants completed a computerized Eriksen flanker task and a response-inhibition go/no-go task in random order while either walking on a treadmill or seated. Response times (RTs) and accuracy were analyzed separately for each task using mixed model analysis of variance. Separate ANOVAs for RTs and accuracy showed the expected conflict adaptation effects, post-error slowing, and response inhibition effects when collapsed across sitting and treadmill groups (all Fs > 78.77, Ps < 0.001). There were no main effects or interactions as a function of group for any analyses (Fs < 0.79, Ps > 0.38), suggesting no decrements or enhancements in conflict-related control and adjustment processes or response inhibition for those walking on a treadmill versus sitting. We conclude that cognitive control performance remains relatively unaffected during slow treadmill walking relative to sitting.

Cognitive and typing outcomes measured simultaneously with slow treadmill walking or sitting: implications for treadmill desks

Purpose

This study compared cognitive (attention, learning, and memory) and typing outcomes during slow treadmill walking or sitting. Seventy-five healthy individuals were randomly assigned to a treadmill walking group (n=37; 23 female) or sitting group (n=38; 17 female).

Methods

The treadmill walking group completed a series of tests while walking at 1.5 mph. The sitting group performed the same tests while sitting at a standard desk. Tests performed by both groups included: the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and a modified version of the Paced Auditory Serial Attention Test. In addition, typing performance was evaluated.

Results

Participants in the treadmill walking group performed worse on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test for total learning than the sitting group; the main effect was significant (F(1,73)=4.75, p=0.03, η_p²=0.06); however, short- and long-delay recall performance did not differ between groups (p>0.05). For the Paced Auditory Serial Attention Test, total number of correct responses was lower in the treadmill walking group relative to the sitting group; the main effect was significant (F(1,73)=4.97, p=0.03, η_p²=0.06). The performance of both groups followed the same learning slope (Group x Trial interactions were not significant) for the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and Paced Auditory Serial Attention Test. Individuals in the treadmill walking group performed significantly worse for all measures of typing (p<0.05).

Conclusion

Walking on a treadmill desk may result in a modest difference in total learning and typing outcomes relative to sitting, but those declines may not outweigh the benefit of the physical activity gains from walking on a treadmill.

The influence of active seating on car passengers' perceived comfort and activity levels

New technologies have led to an increasingly sedentary lifestyle. Sedentary behaviour is characterised by physical inactivity and is associated with several health risks. This excessive sitting does not only take place in the office or at home, but also during daily commute. Therefore, BMW AG developed an active seating system for the back seat of a car, consisting of sensors in the back rest that register upper body movements of the passenger, with which the passenger controls a game. This study evaluated three different aspects of active seating compared to other tasks (reading, working on laptop, and gaming on tablet). First, discomfort and comfort perception were measured in a 30-minute driving test. Discomfort was very low for all activities and participants felt significantly more challenged, more fit and more refreshed during active seating. Second, heart rate was measured, indicating a light intensity, but nevertheless non-sedentary, activity. Third, average and variability in activity of six postural muscles was measured by electromyography (EMG), showing a higher muscle activity and higher muscle variability for active seating compared to other activities. Active seating might stimulate movements, thereby increasing comfort and well-being.

Facilitators and barriers to using treadmill workstations under real working conditions: a qualitative study in female office workers

PURPOSE

Characterize barriers and facilitators to use treadmill workstations in real work sites.

DESIGN

For 6 months, workers tried a sit-stand-walk treadmill workstation at will with expert ergonomic support. Qualitative data were collected monthly.

SETTING

Administrative and academic departments at a higher education institution in Massachusetts, United States.

PARTICIPANTS

Five female administrative office workers.

METHOD

One monthly group interview and one personal interview per participant during 6 months. Emerging topics from previous interviews were used in successive data gatherings. Transcribed data were manually coded according to the predefined topics of usability, comfort, safety, and productivity.

RESULTS

The setup of the work station, communication difficulties while walking (disrespectful, noisy), and peer pressure to maximize use were the main usability barriers. There was no event of falls. Trips were minimized. About comfort, subjects reported it hard to get used to prolonged standing position during the first month. Treadmill speed affected productivity mostly while drawing and working in spreadsheets. Lack of job autonomy was revealed as a generic barrier.

CONCLUSION

In this female group, treadmill workstations had serious design problems for workers with not enough control of their jobs. The early identification and removal of barriers likely needs to be considered when offering these workstations to workers with low job autonomy.

A systematic review of standing and treadmill desks in the workplace

OBJECTIVES

Standing and treadmill desks are intended to reduce the amount of time spent sitting in today's otherwise sedentary office. Proponents of these desks suggest that health benefits may be acquired as standing desk use discourages long periods of sitting, which has been identified as an independent health risk factor. Our objectives were thus to analyze the evidence for standing and treadmill desk use in relation to physiological (chronic disease prevention and management) and psychological (worker productivity, well-being) outcomes.

METHODS

A computer-assisted systematic search of Medline, PubMed, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, CENTRAL, and EMBASE databases was employed to identify all relevant articles related to standing and treadmill desk use.

RESULTS

Treadmill desks led to the greatest improvement in physiological outcomes including postprandial glucose, HDL cholesterol, and anthropometrics, while standing desk use was associated with few physiological changes. Standing and treadmill desks both showed mixed results for improving psychological well-being with little impact on work performance.

DISCUSSION

Standing and treadmill desks show some utility for breaking up sitting time and potentially improving select components of health. At present; however, there exist substantial evidence gaps to comprehensively evaluate the utility of each type of desk to enhance health benefits by reducing sedentary time.

Effects of a standing and three dynamic workstations on computer task performance and cognitive function tests

Sedentary work entails health risks. Dynamic (or active) workstations, at which computer tasks can be combined with physical activity, may reduce the risks of sedentary behaviour. The aim of this study was to evaluate short term task performance while working on three dynamic workstations: a treadmill, an elliptical trainer, a bicycle ergometer and a conventional standing workstation. A standard sitting workstation served as control condition. Fifteen Dutch adults performed five standardised but common office tasks in an office-like laboratory setting. Both objective and perceived work performance were measured. With the exception of high precision mouse tasks, short term work performance was not affected by working on a dynamic or a standing workstation. The participant's perception of decreased performance might complicate the acceptance of dynamic workstations, although most participants indicate that they would use a dynamic workstation if available at the workplace.

Using a Desk-Compatible Recumbent Bike in an Office Workstation

Prolonged seated posture in a sedentary office workstation is one of the major reasons that is causing the rising trend in obesity. To promote exercise in the office, this study investigates in using a desk-compatible recumbent bike in a workstation from two aspects. One is to provide workstation design guidelines that would accommodate 95% of the U.S. population. The other is to see if reading and typing can be carried out without hindrance. Twelve participants were required to select their preferred workstation settings and perform the reading and typing tasks while pedaling at three different conditions: no cycling, 10 and 25 watts. By using the anthropometric variability and the user preference from the sample, the adjustable range of the workstation settings for the general U.S. population was derived: seat height 382 – 455 mm, desk clearance 692 – 835 mm, desk depth 595 – 832 mm, and required minimum total distance 1243 – 1487 mm. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that reading comprehension was not affected while pedaling ( p>0.05), but typing was affected at higher watts ( p<0.001).

Reducing occupational sedentary time: a systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence on activity-permissive workstations

Excessive sedentary time is detrimentally linked to obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and premature mortality. Studies have been investigating the use of activity-permissive workstations to reduce sedentary time in office workers, a highly sedentary target group. This review systematically summarizes the evidence for activity-permissive workstations on sedentary time, health-risk biomarkers, work performance and feasibility indicators in office workplaces. In July 2013, a literature search identified 38 relevant peer-reviewed publications. Key findings were independently extracted by two researchers. The average intervention effect on sedentary time was calculated via meta-analysis. In total, 984 participants across 19 field-based trials and 19 laboratory investigations were included, with sample sizes ranging from n = 2 to 66 per study. Sedentary time, health-risk biomarkers and work performance indicators were reported in 13, 23 and 23 studies, respectively. The pooled effect size from the meta-analysis was -77 min of sedentary time/8-h workday (95% confidence interval = -120, -35 min). Non-significant changes were reported for most health- and work-related outcomes. Studies with acceptability measures reported predominantly positive feedback. Findings suggest that activity-permissive workstations can be effective to reduce occupational sedentary time, without compromising work performance. Larger and longer-term randomized-controlled trials are needed to understand the sustainability of the sedentary time reductions and their longer-term impacts on health- and work-related outcomes.

Implementation and adherence issues in a workplace treadmill desk intervention

We report experiences, observations, and general lessons learned, specifically with regards to participant recruitment and adherence, while implementing a 6-month randomized controlled treadmill desk intervention (the WorkStation Pilot Study) in a real-world office-based health insurance workplace. Despite support from the company’s upper administration, relatively few employees responded to the company-generated e-mail to participate in the study. Ultimately only 41 overweight/obese participants were deemed eligible and enrolled from a recruitment pool of 728 workers. Participants allocated to the Treadmill Desk Group found the treadmill desk difficult to use for 45 min twice a day as scheduled. Overall attendance averaged 45%–50% of all possible scheduled sessions. The most frequently reported reasons for missing sessions included work conflict (35%), out of office (30%), and illness/injury/drop-out (20%). Although focus groups indicated consistently positive comments about treadmill desks, an apparent challenge was fitting a rigid schedule of shared use to an equally rigid and demanding work schedule punctuated with numerous tasks and obligations that could not easily be interrupted. Regardless, we documented that sedentary office workers average ∼43 min of light-intensity (∼2 METs) treadmill walking daily in response to a scheduled, facilitated, and shared access workplace intervention. Workstation alternatives that combine computer-based work with light-intensity physical activity are a potential solution to health problems associated with excessive sedentary behavior; however, there are numerous administrative, capital, and human resource challenges confronting employers considering providing treadmill desks to workers in a cost-effective and equitable manner.

Feasibility of using a compact elliptical device to increase energy expenditure during sedentary activities

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using a compact elliptical device to increase energy expenditure during sedentary activities. A secondary aim was to evaluate if two accelerometers attached to the elliptical device could provide reliable and valid assessments of participants' frequency and duration of elliptical device use.

DESIGN

Physically inactive adults (n=32, age range=25-65) were recruited through local advertisements and selected using stratified random sampling based on sex, body mass index (BMI), and age.

METHODS

Indirect calorimetry was used to assess participants' energy expenditure while seated and while using the elliptical device at a self-selected intensity level. Participants also self-reported their interest in using the elliptical device during sedentary activities. Two Actigraph GT3X accelerometers were attached to the elliptical device to record time-use patterns.

RESULTS

Participants expended a median of 179.1 kilocalories per hour while using the elliptical device (range=108.2-269.0), or a median of 87.9 more kilocalories (range=19.7-178.6) than they would expend per hour of sedentary sitting. Participants reported high interest in using the elliptical device during TV watching and computer work, but relatively low interest in using the device during office meetings. Women reported greater interest in using the elliptical device than men. The two accelerometers recorded identical time-use patterns on the elliptical device and demonstrated concurrent validity with time-stamped computer records.

CONCLUSIONS

Compact elliptical devices could increase energy expenditure during sedentary activities, and may provide proximal environmental cues for increasing energy expenditure across multiple life domains.

A cycling workstation to facilitate physical activity in office settings

Facilitating physical activity during the workday may help desk-bound workers reduce risks associated with sedentary behavior. We 1) evaluated the efficacy of a cycling workstation to increase energy expenditure while performing a typing task and 2) fabricated a power measurement system to determine the accuracy and reliability of an exercise cycle. Ten individuals performed 10 min trials of sitting while typing (SIT type) and pedaling while typing (PED type). Expired gases were recorded and typing performance was assessed. Metabolic cost during PED type was ∼ 2.5 × greater compared to SIT type (255 ± 14 vs. 100 ± 11 kcal h(-1), P < 0.01). Typing time and number of typing errors did not differ between PED type and SIT type (7.7 ± 1.5 vs. 7.6 ± 1.6 min, P = 0.51, 3.3 ± 4.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.7 errors, P = 0.80). The exercise cycle overestimated power by 14-138% compared to actual power but actual power was reliable (r = 0.998, P < 0.01). A cycling workstation can facilitate physical activity without compromising typing performance. The exercise cycle's inaccuracy could be misleading to users.

Tucker S, Leonhard C. Acceptability and effects of a seated active workstation during sedentary work

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to test the user acceptability (Phase 1) and effects (Phase 2) of completing sedentary work while using a seated active workstation.

Design/methodology/approach

– In Phase 1, 45 sedentary employees completed an acceptability questionnaire immediately after performing sedentary work tasks (typing, mousing) while using the seated active workstation for 30 minutes. In Phase 2, the paper tested the differential effects of completing sedentary work tasks at two different workstations (sedentary workstation vs seated active workstation) on physiological (energy expenditure, muscle activity, heart rate, blood pressure), cognitive (learning, memory, attention) and work performance (typing and mousing ability) outcomes among 18 sedentary employees.

Findings

– In Phase 1, 96 percent of participants reported they would use the seated active workstation “daily” if provided access in their office. In Phase 2, working while using the seated active workstation increased energy expenditure (p<0.001; d=3.49), heart rate (p<0.001; d=1.26), systolic blood pressure (p=0.02; d=0.79), and muscle activation of the biceps femoris (p<0.001; d=1.36) and vastus lateralis (p<0.001; d=1.88) over the sedentary workstation. No between-group differences were observed for any measures of cognitive function. Mouse point and click time was slower while using the seated active workstation (p=0.02).

Research limitations/implications

– These findings suggest this seated active workstation to be acceptable by users and effective for offsetting occupational sedentary time without compromising cognitive function and/or work performance.

Originality/value

– The present study is the first to test the potential of this seated active workstation in any capacity.

Treadmill workstations: the effects of walking while working on physical activity and work performance

We conducted a 12-month-long experiment in a financial services company to study how the availability of treadmill workstations affects employees' physical activity and work performance. We enlisted sedentary volunteers, half of whom received treadmill workstations during the first two months of the study and the rest in the seventh month of the study. Participants could operate the treadmills at speeds of 0-2 mph and could use a standard chair-desk arrangement at will. (a) Weekly online performance surveys were administered to participants and their supervisors, as well as to all other sedentary employees and their supervisors. Using within-person statistical analyses, we find that overall work performance, quality and quantity of performance, and interactions with coworkers improved as a result of adoption of treadmill workstations. (b) Participants were outfitted with accelerometers at the start of the study. We find that daily total physical activity increased as a result of the adoption of treadmill workstations.

Barriers and enablers for participation in healthy lifestyle programs by adolescents who are overweight: a qualitative study of the opinions of adolescents, their parents and community stakeholders

BACKGROUND

Overweight or obesity during adolescence affects almost 25% of Australian youth, yet limited research exists regarding recruitment and engagement of adolescents in weight-management or healthy lifestyle interventions, or best-practice for encouraging long-term healthy behaviour change. A sound understanding of community perceptions, including views from adolescents, parents and community stakeholders, regarding barriers and enablers to entering and engaging meaningfully in an intervention is critical to improve the design of such programs.

METHODS

This paper reports findings from focus groups and semi-structured interviews conducted with adolescents (n?=?44), parents (n?=?12) and community stakeholders (n?=?39) in Western Australia. Three major topics were discussed to inform the design of more feasible and effective interventions: recruitment, retention in the program and maintenance of healthy change. Data were analysed using content and thematic analyses.

RESULTS

Data were categorised into barriers and enablers across the three main topics. For recruitment, identified barriers included: the stigma associated with overweight, difficulty defining overweight, a lack of current health services and broader social barriers. The enablers for recruitment included: strategic marketing, a positive approach and subsidising program costs. For retention, identified barriers included: location, timing, high level of commitment needed and social barriers. Enablers for retention included: making it fun and enjoyable for adolescents, involving the family, having an on-line component, recruiting good staff and making it easy for parents to attend. For maintenance, identified barriers included: the high degree of difficulty in sustaining change and limited services to support change. Enablers for maintenance included: on-going follow up, focusing on positive change, utilisation of electronic media and transition back to community services.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights significant barriers for adolescents and parents to overcome to engage meaningfully with weight-management or healthy lifestyle programs. A number of enablers were identified to promote ongoing involvement with an intervention. This insight into specific contextual opinions from the local community can be used to inform the delivery of healthy lifestyle programs for overweight adolescents, with a focus on maximising acceptability and feasibility.

Changing the way we work: elevating energy expenditure with workstation alternatives

Emerging evidence supports the feasibility of raising daily energy expenditure (EE) by replacing office work-related sedentary behavior with low-intensity non-exercise physical activity (PA) via workstation alternatives to the traditional office chair and desktop computer-based combinations. The purpose of this review article is to introduce a simple taxonomy to facilitate classification and study of workstation alternatives, catalog the diversity of research undertaken to date related to energy balance, and present and summarize the gaps and opportunities for a research agenda for workstation alternatives moving forward. A PubMed search elicited 57 English language articles published since 2000; additional articles were identified by reviewing reference sections and contacting authors. Selection criteria ultimately focused on use of workstation alternatives during simulated or real work tasks. The EE of sitting on a stability ball or using sit-stand/standing desks is comparable to the traditional seated condition (≅1.2 kcal min(-1)). The treadmill and pedal desks (active workstation alternatives) offer the greatest promise in terms of EE (≅2-4 kcal min(-1)). Sitting on a stability ball or using sit-stand/standing desks does not impair task performance relative to the traditional seated condition. Some evidence of typing impairment is inconsistently reported with active workstation alternatives; the finer motor skills required for mouse-related tasks may be more affected. Little is known about learning or adaptation with practice. Users are generally accepting of workstation alternatives; however, there is evidence of less than optimal use. Active workstations (that is, treadmill desks and pedal desks) in particular represent a potential strategy for mitigating the diminished EE inherent to contemporary office-based workplaces, but only if they are scalable. The science supporting active workstations is young and heterogeneous; however, this means that there are many knowledge gaps and opportunities for research, including those focused on implementation issues related to optimizing both employers' and workers' uptake.

Participatory workplace interventions can reduce sedentary time for office workers--a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Occupational sedentary behaviour is an important contributor to overall sedentary risk. There is limited evidence for effective workplace interventions to reduce occupational sedentary time and increase light activity during work hours. The purpose of the study was to determine if participatory workplace interventions could reduce total sedentary time, sustained sedentary time (bouts >30 minutes), increase the frequency of breaks in sedentary time and promote light intensity activity and moderate/vigorous activity (MVPA) during work hours.

METHODS

A randomised controlled trial (ANZCTR NUMBER: ACTN12612000743864) was conducted using clerical, call centre and data processing workers (n = 62, aged 25-59 years) in 3 large government organisations in Perth, Australia. Three groups developed interventions with a participatory approach: 'Active office' (n = 19), 'Active Workstation' and promotion of incidental office activity; 'Traditional physical activity' (n = 14), pedometer challenge to increase activity between productive work time and 'Office ergonomics' (n = 29), computer workstation design and breaking up computer tasks. Accelerometer (ActiGraph GT3X, 7 days) determined sedentary time, sustained sedentary time, breaks in sedentary time, light intensity activity and MVPA on work days and during work hours were measured before and following a 12 week intervention period.

RESULTS

For all participants there was a significant reduction in sedentary time on work days (-1.6%, p = 0.006) and during work hours (-1.7%, p = 0.014) and a significant increase in number of breaks/sedentary hour on work days (0.64, p = 0.005) and during work hours (0.72, p = 0.015); there was a concurrent significant increase in light activity during work hours (1.5%, p = 0.012) and MVPA on work days (0.6%, p = 0.012).

CONCLUSIONS

This study explored novel ways to modify work practices to reduce occupational sedentary behaviour. Participatory workplace interventions can reduce sedentary time, increase the frequency of breaks and improve light activity and MVPA of office workers by using a variety of interventions.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTN12612000743864.

Variation in muscle activity among office workers when using different information technologies at work and away from work

OBJECTIVE

To determine differences in muscle activity amplitudes and variation of amplitudes when using different information and communication technologies (ICT).

BACKGROUND

Office workers use different ICT to perform tasks. Upper body musculoskeletal complaints are frequently reported by this occupational group. Increased muscle activity and insufficient variation are potential risk factors for musculoskeletal complaints.

METHOD

Muscle activity of right and left upper trapezius and right wrist extensor muscle bundle (extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis) of 24 office workers (performing their usual tasks requiring different ICT at work and away from work) were measured continuously over 10 to 12 hours. Muscle activity variation was quantified using two indices, amplitude probability distribution function and exposure variation analysis.

RESULTS

There was a trend for electronics-based New ICT tasks to involve less electromyography (EMG) variation than paper-based Old ICT tasks. Performing Combined ICT tasks (i.e., using paper- and electronics-based ICT simultaneously) resulted in the highest muscle activity levels and least variation; however, these Combined ICT tasks were rarely performed. Tasks involving no ICT (Non-ICT) had the greatest muscle activity variation.

CONCLUSION

Office workers in this study used various ICT during tasks at work and away from work. The high EMG amplitudes and low variation observed when using Combined ICT may present the greatest risk for musculoskeletal complaints, and use of Combined ICT by workers should be kept low in office work. Breaking up combined, New, and Old ICT tasks, for example, by interspersing highly variable Non-ICT tasks into office workers' daily tasks, could increase overall muscle activity variation and reduce risk for musculoskeletal complaints.

Effect of sitting or standing on touch screen performance and touch characteristics

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of sitting and standing on performance and touch characteristics during a digit entry touch screen task in individuals with and without motor-control disabilities.

BACKGROUND

Previously, researchers of touch screen design have not considered the effect of posture (sitting vs. standing) on touch screen performance (accuracy and timing) and touch characteristics (force and impulse).

METHOD

Participants with motor-control disabilities (n = 15) and without (n = 15) completed a four-digit touch screen number entry task in both sitting and standing postures. Button sizes varied from 10 mm to 30 mm (5-mm increments), and button gap was 3 mm or 5 mm.

RESULTS

Participants had more misses and took longer to complete the task during standing for smaller button sizes (< 20 mm). At larger button sizes, performance was similar for both sitting and standing. In general, misses, time to complete task, and touch characteristics were increased for standing. Although disability affected performance (misses and timing), similar trends were observed for both groups across posture and button size.

CONCLUSION

Standing affects performance at smaller button sizes (< 20 mm). For participants with and without motor-control disabilities, standing led to greater exerted force and impulse.

APPLICATION

Along with interface design considerations, environmental conditions should also be considered to improve touch screen accessibility and usability.

The contribution of office work to sedentary behaviour associated risk

BACKGROUND

Sedentary time has been found to be independently associated with poor health and mortality. Further, a greater proportion of the workforce is now employed in low activity occupations such as office work. To date, there is no research that specifically examines the contribution of sedentary work to overall sedentary exposure and thus risk. The purpose of the study was to determine the total exposure and exposure pattern for sedentary time, light activity and moderate/vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of office workers during work and non-work time.

METHODS

50 office workers from Perth, Australia wore an Actical (Phillips, Respironics) accelerometer during waking hours for 7 days (in 2008-2009). Participants recorded wear time, waking hours, work hours and daily activities in an activity diary. Time in activity levels (as percentage of wear time) during work and non-work time were analysed using paired t-tests and Pearson's correlations.

RESULTS

Sedentary time accounted for 81.8% of work hours (light activity 15.3% and MVPA 2.9%), which was significantly greater than sedentary time during non-work time (68.9% p < 0.001). Office workers experienced significantly more sustained sedentary time (bouts >30 minutes) and significantly less brief duration (0-10 minutes) light intensity activity during work hours compared to non-work time (p < 0.001). Further, office workers had fewer breaks in sedentary time during work hours compared to non-work time (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Office work is characterised by sustained sedentary time and contributes significantly to overall sedentary exposure of office workers.

A pilot study of increasing nonpurposeful movement breaks at work as a means of reducing prolonged sitting

There is a plethora of workplace physical activity interventions designed to increase purposeful movement, yet few are designed to alleviate prolonged occupational sitting time. A pilot study was conducted to test the feasibility of a workplace e-health intervention based on a passive approach to increase nonpurposeful movement as a means of reducing sitting time. The study was trialled in a professional workplace with forty-six participants (33 females and 13 males) for a period of twenty-six weeks. Participants in the first thirteen weeks received a passive prompt every 45 minutes on their computer screen reminding them to stand and engage in nonpurposeful activity throughout their workday. After thirteen weeks, the prompt was disabled, and participants were then free to voluntary engage the software. Results demonstrated that when employees were exposed to a passive prompt, as opposed to an active prompt, they were five times more likely to fully adhere to completing a movement break every hour of the workday. Based on this pilot study, we suggest that the notion that people are willing to participate in a coercive workplace e-health intervention is promising, and there is a need for further investigation.

Effect of Walking Speed on Typing Performance Using an Active Workstation

This study tested the effect of treadmill walking speed on typing performance when these tasks were performed simultaneously. 24 research participants ( M age = 23.2 yr.) performed a typing test under each of four conditions including the control (seated), treadmill walking at 1.3 km/hr., 2.25 km/hr., and 3.2 km/hr. Results indicated that treadmill walking had a detrimental effect on typing performance, but that the walking speed of 2.25 km/hr. would result in better typing performance than the slower and faster speeds. Seated typing was better than typing while walking at 1.3 km/hr. and typing while walking at 3.2 km/hr. Typing performance while walking at 2.25 km/hr. was not different than seated typing performance. The results support the potential of treadmill walking at 2.25 km/hr. to provide low-intensity physical activity without compromising typing performance.