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Replicability, Response Bias, and Judgments, Oh My! A New Checklist for Evaluating the Perceptual Nature of Action-Specific Effects. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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52
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Chen L, Yuan X, Xu Q, Wang Y, Jiang Y. Subliminal Impending Collision Increases Perceived Object Size and Enhances Pupillary Light Reflex. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1897. [PMID: 27994567 PMCID: PMC5133426 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fast detection of ambient danger is crucial for the survival of biological entities. Previous studies have shown that threatening information can bias human visual perception and enhance physiological reactions. It remains to be delineated whether the modulation of threat on human perceptual and physiological responses can take place below awareness. To probe this issue, we adopted visual looming stimuli and created two levels of threat by varying their motion trajectories to the observers, such that the stimuli could move in a path that either collided with the observers' heads or just nearly missed. We found that when the observers could not explicitly discriminate any difference between the collision and the near-miss stimuli, the visual stimuli on the collision course appeared larger and evoked greater pupil constrictions than those on the near-miss course. Furthermore, the magnitude of size overestimation was comparable to when the impending collision was consciously perceived. Our findings suggest that threatening information can bias human visual perception and strengthen pupil constrictions independent of conscious representation of the threat, and imply the existence of the subcortical visual pathway dedicated to automatically processing threat-related signals in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
| | - Xiangyong Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Qian Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
| | - Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China
| | - Yi Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijing, China
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53
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Ruggiero G, Frassinetti F, Coello Y, Rapuano M, di Cola AS, Iachini T. The effect of facial expressions on peripersonal and interpersonal spaces. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2016; 81:1232-1240. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-016-0806-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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54
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Deska JC, Lloyd EP, Hugenberg K. Advancing Our Understanding of the Interface Between Perception and Intergroup Relations. PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/1047840x.2016.1215208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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55
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Balcetis E, Stern C, Cole S. Perceiving Systematically, Not Just Differently: Calling for Perceptual Models With Explanatory Power. PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/1047840x.2016.1215215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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56
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Dissociating perception from judgment in the action-specific effect of blocking ease on perceived speed. Atten Percept Psychophys 2016; 79:283-297. [PMID: 27743265 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-016-1222-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The action-specific approach to perception claims that a person's ability to act directly influences perceptual processes related to spatial vision. For example, a person's ability to block a moving ball impacts perceptual judgments of the ball's speed. However, an alternative explanation is that action rather than perception influences judgments. Here, we explore this distinction directly. Our method produces two distinct effects, one that is clearly a judgment-based effect and is based on the outcome of the trial (trial-outcome effect) and one that is under debate as to whether or not it is perceptual and is based on the ease with which the ball can be blocked (paddle-size effect). We explored whether these two effects would produce convergence or dissociations across various populations and manipulations. A dissociation is evidence for two separate underlying processes, whereas if the two effects did not dissociate, this would be consistent with claims that both effects were judgment-based. In Experiment 1, we examined whether older and younger adults would show a dissociation between the two effects given some precedent for older adults to show greater susceptibility to nonperceptual factors in their judgments. In Experiment 2, we used a cover story to excuse poor performance and examined its effects on both types of effects. Both experiments revealed dissociations, suggesting that while one effect is judgment-based, the other effect is not. Coupled with prior research, we conclude that the action-specific effect of ease to block a ball on estimated ball speed is perceptual.
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57
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Kandula M, Hofman D, Dijkerman HC. Location estimation of approaching objects is modulated by the observer's inherent and momentary action capabilities. Exp Brain Res 2016; 234:2315-22. [PMID: 27117302 PMCID: PMC4923107 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-016-4637-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Action capability may be one of the factors that can influence our percept of the world. A distinction can be made between momentary action capability (action capability at that particular moment) and inherent action capability (representing a stable action capability). In the current study, we investigated whether there was a biasing effect of these two forms of action capability on visual perception of location. In a virtual reality room, subjects had to stop a moving ball from hitting a pillar. On some trials, the ball disappeared automatically during its motion. Subjects had to estimate the location of the ball's disappearance in these trials. We expected that if action is necessary but action capability (inherent or momentary) is limiting performance, the location of approaching objects with respect to the observer is underestimated. By judging the objects to be nearer than they really are, the need to select and execute the appropriate action increases, thereby facilitating quick action (Cole et al. in Psychol Sci 24(1):34-40, 2013. doi: 10.1177/0956797612446953 ). As a manipulation of inherent action capability in a virtual environment, two groups of participants (video game players vs. non-video game players) were entered into the study (high and low action capability). Momentary action capability was manipulated by using two difficulty levels in the experiment (Easy vs. Difficult). Results indicated that inherent and momentary action capabilities interacted together to influence online location judgments: Non-players underestimated locations when the task was Difficult. Taken together, our data suggest that both inherent and momentary action capabilities influence location judgments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manasa Kandula
- Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Dennis Hofman
- Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - H. Chris Dijkerman
- Helmholtz Institute, Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
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58
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Xiao YJ, Wohl MJA, Van Bavel JJ. Proximity under Threat: The Role of Physical Distance in Intergroup Relations. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0159792. [PMID: 27467267 PMCID: PMC4965044 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Throughout human history, social groups have invested immense amounts of wealth and time to keep threatening out-groups at a distance. In the current research, we explored the relationship between intergroup threat, physical distance, and discrimination. Specifically, we examined how intergroup threat alters estimates of physical distance to out-groups and how physical proximity affects intergroup relations. Previous research has found that people judge threatening out-groups as physically close. In Studies 1 and 2, we examined ways to attenuate this bias. In Study 1 a secure (vs. permeable) US-Mexico border reduced the estimated proximity to Mexico City among Americans who felt threatened by Mexican immigration. In Study 2, intergroup apologies reduced estimates of physical proximity to a threatening cross-town rival university, but only among participants with cross-group friendships. In Study 3, New York Yankees fans who received an experimental induction of physical proximity to a threatening out-group (Boston Red Sox) had a stronger relationship between their collective identification with the New York Yankees and support for discriminatory policies toward members of the out-group (Red Sox fans) as well as how far they chose to sit from out-group members (Red Sox fans). Together, these studies suggest that intergroup threat alters judgment of physical properties, which has important implications for intergroup relations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y. Jenny Xiao
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | | | - Jay J. Van Bavel
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York City, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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59
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Discovering your inner Gibson: reconciling action-specific and ecological approaches to perception-action. Psychon Bull Rev 2016; 21:1353-70. [PMID: 24683098 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-014-0623-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Both the action-specific perception account and the ecological approach to perception-action emphasize the role of action in perception. However, the action-specific perception account demonstrates that different percepts are possible depending on the perceiver's ability to act, even when the same optical information is available. These findings challenge one of the fundamental claims of the ecological approach--that perception is direct--by suggesting that perception is mediated by internal processes. Here, we sought to resolve this apparent discrepancy. We contend that perception is based on the controlled detection of the information available in a global array that includes higher-order patterns defined across interoceptive and exteroceptive stimulus arrays. These higher-order patterns specify the environment in relation to the perceiver, so direct sensitivity to them would be consistent with the ecological claims that perception of the environment is direct and animal-specific. In addition, the action-specific approach provides further evidence for the theory of affordances, by demonstrating that even seemingly abstract properties of the environment, such as distance and size, are ultimately perceived in terms of an agent's action capabilities.
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60
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Čehajić-Clancy S, Goldenberg A, Gross JJ, Halperin E. Social-Psychological Interventions for Intergroup Reconciliation: An Emotion Regulation Perspective. PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/1047840x.2016.1153945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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61
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Rabaglia CD, Maglio SJ, Krehm M, Seok JH, Trope Y. The sound of distance. Cognition 2016; 152:141-149. [PMID: 27062226 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2015] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Human languages may be more than completely arbitrary symbolic systems. A growing literature supports sound symbolism, or the existence of consistent, intuitive relationships between speech sounds and specific concepts. Prior work establishes that these sound-to-meaning mappings can shape language-related judgments and decisions, but do their effects generalize beyond merely the linguistic and truly color how we navigate our environment? We examine this possibility, relating a predominant sound symbolic distinction (vowel frontness) to a novel associate (spatial proximity) in five studies. We show that changing one vowel in a label can influence estimations of distance, impacting judgment, perception, and action. The results (1) provide the first experimental support for a relationship between vowels and spatial distance and (2) demonstrate that sound-to-meaning mappings have outcomes that extend beyond just language and can - through a single sound - influence how we perceive and behave toward objects in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sam J Maglio
- University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
| | | | - Jin H Seok
- University of Missouri Columbia, Columbia, MO, United States
| | - Yaacov Trope
- New York University, New York, NY, United States
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62
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Jung E, Takahashi K, Watanabe K, de la Rosa S, Butz MV, Bülthoff HH, Meilinger T. The Influence of Human Body Orientation on Distance Judgments. Front Psychol 2016; 7:217. [PMID: 27014108 PMCID: PMC4784476 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
People maintain larger distances to other peoples' front than to their back. We investigated if humans also judge another person as closer when viewing their front than their back. Participants watched animated virtual characters (avatars) and moved a virtual plane toward their location after the avatar was removed. In Experiment 1, participants judged avatars, which were facing them as closer and made quicker estimates than to avatars looking away. In Experiment 2, avatars were rotated in 30 degree steps around the vertical axis. Observers judged avatars roughly facing them (i.e., looking max. 60 degrees away) as closer than avatars roughly looking away. No particular effect was observed for avatars directly facing and also gazing at the observer. We conclude that body orientation was sufficient to generate the asymmetry. Sensitivity of the orientation effect to gaze and to interpersonal distance would have suggested involvement of social processing, but this was not observed. We discuss social and lower-level processing as potential reasons for the effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgard Jung
- Max Planck Institute for Biological CyberneticsTübingen, Germany; University of InnsbruckInnsbruck, Austria
| | - Kohske Takahashi
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo Tokyo, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of TokyoTokyo, Japan; Waseda UniversityTokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Heinrich H Bülthoff
- Max Planck Institute for Biological CyberneticsTübingen, Germany; Department of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, Korea UniversitySeoul, South Korea
| | - Tobias Meilinger
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics Tübingen, Germany
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63
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Action-specific effects in perception and their potential applications: A reply to commentaries. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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64
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Witt JK, Linkenauger SA, Wickens C. Action-specific effects in perception and their potential applications. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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65
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Balcetis E, Cole S. Motivating the action-in-perception hypothesis: Approach and avoidance motives as a process-model for action's effects on perception. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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66
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Sugovic M, Turk P, Witt JK. Perceived distance and obesity: It's what you weigh, not what you think. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2016; 165:1-8. [PMID: 26854404 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2016.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Action abilities are constrained by physical body size and characteristics, which, according to the action-specific account of perception, should influence perceived space. We examined whether physical body size or beliefs about body size affect distance perception by taking advantage of naturally-occurring dissociations typical in people who are obese but believe themselves to weigh less. Normal weight, overweight, and obese individuals made verbal distance estimates. We also collected measures of beliefs about body size and measures of physical body size. Individuals who weighed more than others estimated distances to be farther. Furthermore, physical body weight influenced perceived distance but beliefs about body size did not. The results illustrate that whereas perception is influenced by physical characteristics, it is not influenced by beliefs. The results also have implications for perception as a contributing factor for lifestyle choices: people who weigh more than others may choose to perform less physically demanding actions not as a result of how they perceive their bodies, but as a result of how they perceive the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mila Sugovic
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Philip Turk
- Department of Statistics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Jessica K Witt
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
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67
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Leibovich T, Cohen N, Henik A. Itsy bitsy spider?: Valence and self-relevance predict size estimation. Biol Psychol 2016; 121:138-145. [PMID: 26802365 PMCID: PMC5154329 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The current study explored the role of valence and self-relevance in size estimation of neutral and aversive animals. In Experiment 1, participants who were highly fearful of spiders and participants with low fear of spiders rated the size and unpleasantness of spiders and other neutral animals (birds and butterflies). We found that although individuals with both high and low fear of spiders rated spiders as highly unpleasant, only the highly fearful participants rated spiders as larger than butterflies. Experiment 2 included additional pictures of wasps (not self-relevant, but unpleasant) and beetles. The results of this experiment replicated those of Experiment 1 and showed a similar bias in size estimation for beetles, but not for wasps. Mediation analysis revealed that in the high-fear group both relevance and valence influenced perceived size, whereas in the low-fear group only valence affected perceived size. These findings suggest that the effect of highly relevant stimuli on size perception is both direct and mediated by valence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tali Leibovich
- Department of Cognitive Sciences and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel; Department of Psychology and the Brain and Mind Institute, the University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.
| | - Noga Cohen
- Department of Psychology and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
| | - Avishai Henik
- Department of Psychology and the Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
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68
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69
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Kinosada Y, Usui S. Predicting Driver's Intention Based on Own Vulnerability: A Social Interaction Process between Road Users at an Intersection in Japan. JAPANESE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/jpr.12099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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70
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Kanten AB, Teigen KH. A Magnitude Effect in Judgments of Subjective Closeness. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2015; 41:1712-22. [PMID: 26464033 DOI: 10.1177/0146167215609894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Events can be far away from or near an observer in several respects: They can be distant or close in a spatial, temporal, social, or hypothetical sense. They can also vary in magnitude, physically, or in terms of impact and importance. We examine the existence of a general effect of perceived magnitude on judgments of subjective closeness. Studies 1 to 4 show that proximity judgments, of any type, are affected by the severity of an event so that a highly severe event will be described as closer than a less severe one. Study 5 demonstrates the Magnitude Effect for positive events. Finally, Study 6 shows that the effect can be extended to distances between comparable events, in addition to the distance from an observer to an event. We see the Magnitude Effect as a spillover from the scales used to describe events to the scales used to describe distances.
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71
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Iachini T, Pagliaro S, Ruggiero G. Near or far? It depends on my impression: moral information and spatial behavior in virtual interactions. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2015; 161:131-6. [PMID: 26386781 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2015] [Revised: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Near body distance is a key component of action and social interaction. Recent research has shown that peripersonal space (reachability-distance for acting with objects) and interpersonal space (comfort-distance for interacting with people) share common mechanisms and reflect the social valence of stimuli. The social psychological literature has demonstrated that information about morality is crucial because it affects impression formation and the intention to approach-avoid others. Here we explore whether peripersonal/interpersonal spaces are modulated by moral information. Thirty-six participants interacted with male/female virtual confederates described by moral/immoral/neutral sentences. The modulation of body space was measured by reachability-distance and comfort-distance while participants stood still or walked toward virtual confederates. Results showed that distance expanded with immorally described confederates and contracted with morally described confederates. This pattern was present in both spaces, although it was stronger in comfort-distance. Consistent with an embodied cognition approach, the findings suggest that high-level socio-cognitive processes are linked to sensorimotor-spatial processes.
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72
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Gerhardsson A, Högman L, Fischer H. Viewing distance matter to perceived intensity of facial expressions. Front Psychol 2015; 6:944. [PMID: 26191035 PMCID: PMC4488603 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In our daily perception of facial expressions, we depend on an ability to generalize across the varied distances at which they may appear. This is important to how we interpret the quality and the intensity of the expression. Previous research has not investigated whether this so called perceptual constancy also applies to the experienced intensity of facial expressions. Using a psychophysical measure (Borg CR100 scale) the present study aimed to further investigate perceptual constancy of happy and angry facial expressions at varied sizes, which is a proxy for varying viewing distances. Seventy-one (42 females) participants rated the intensity and valence of facial expressions varying in distance and intensity. The results demonstrated that the perceived intensity (PI) of the emotional facial expression was dependent on the distance of the face and the person perceiving it. An interaction effect was noted, indicating that close-up faces are perceived as more intense than faces at a distance and that this effect is stronger the more intense the facial expression truly is. The present study raises considerations regarding constancy of the PI of happy and angry facial expressions at varied distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Gerhardsson
- Stress Research Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm Sweden ; Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm Sweden
| | - Lennart Högman
- Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm Sweden
| | - Håkan Fischer
- Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm Sweden
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73
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Abstract
AbstractWhat determines what we see? In contrast to the traditional “modular” understanding of perception, according to which visual processing is encapsulated from higher-level cognition, a tidal wave of recent research alleges that states such as beliefs, desires, emotions, motivations, intentions, and linguistic representations exert direct, top-down influences on what we see. There is a growing consensus that such effects are ubiquitous, and that the distinction between perception and cognition may itself be unsustainable. We argue otherwise: None of these hundreds of studies – either individually or collectively – provides compelling evidence for true top-down effects on perception, or “cognitive penetrability.” In particular, and despite their variety, we suggest that these studies all fall prey to only a handful of pitfalls. And whereas abstract theoretical challenges have failed to resolve this debate in the past, our presentation of these pitfalls is empirically anchored: In each case, we show not only how certain studies could be susceptible to the pitfall (in principle), but also how several alleged top-down effects actually are explained by the pitfall (in practice). Moreover, these pitfalls are perfectly general, with each applying to dozens of other top-down effects. We conclude by extracting the lessons provided by these pitfalls into a checklist that future work could use to convincingly demonstrate top-down effects on visual perception. The discovery of substantive top-down effects of cognition on perception would revolutionize our understanding of how the mind is organized; but without addressing these pitfalls, no such empirical report will license such exciting conclusions.
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74
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Abstract
The motivated distance perception theory (Balcetis, 2016) paradoxically is too parsimonious to account for a variety of findings, including those of the author. The theory poorly defines the features of eliciting situations, which fails to constrain the theory making it nonfalsifiable and allows for post hoc interpretation of the effects. Finally, the theory ignores the complexity of the motivational system and the automaticity of motivations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Storbeck
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, USA
- The Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA
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75
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Balcetis E. Approach and Avoidance as Organizing Structures for Motivated Distance Perception. EMOTION REVIEW 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/1754073915586225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Emerging demonstrations of the malleability of distance perception in affective situations require an organizing structure. These effects can be predicted by approach and avoidance orientation. Approach reduces perceptions of distance; avoidance exaggerates perceptions of distance. Moreover, hedonic valence, motivational intensity, and perceiver arousal cannot alone serve as organizing principles. Organizing the literature based on approach and avoidance can reconcile seeming inconsistent effects in the literature, and offers these motives as psychological mechanisms by which affective situations predict perceptions of distance. Moreover, this perspective complements functional models of perception claiming perceptions of distance serve adaptive responding, and in so doing suggests why perceptions of distance respond to affective situations. This review contributes to the building of a broader theory of motivated distance perception.
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76
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Tabor A, Catley MJ, Gandevia SC, Thacker MA, Spence C, Moseley GL. The close proximity of threat: altered distance perception in the anticipation of pain. Front Psychol 2015; 6:626. [PMID: 26029151 PMCID: PMC4429615 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain is an experience that powerfully influences the way we interact with our environment. What is less clear is the influence that pain has on the way we perceive our environment. We investigated the effect that the anticipation of experimental pain (THREAT) and its relief (RELIEF) has on the visual perception of space. Eighteen (11F) healthy volunteers estimated the distance to alternating THREAT and RELIEF stimuli that were placed within reachable space. The results determined that the estimated distance to the THREAT stimulus was significantly underestimated in comparison to the RELIEF stimulus. We conclude that pain-evoking stimuli are perceived as closer to the body than otherwise identical pain-relieving stimuli, an important consideration when applied to our decisions and behaviors in relation to the experience of pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abby Tabor
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia ; School of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Human and Aerospace Physiological Sciences and Pain Research Section, Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London London, UK
| | - Mark J Catley
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Simon C Gandevia
- Neuroscience Research Australia - University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Michael A Thacker
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia ; School of Biomedical Sciences, Center of Human and Aerospace Physiological Sciences and Pain Research Section, Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London London, UK
| | - Charles Spence
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
| | - G L Moseley
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia Adelaide, SA, Australia ; Neuroscience Research Australia - University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW, Australia
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77
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Goldenberg A, Halperin E, van Zomeren M, Gross JJ. The Process Model of Group-Based Emotion. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2015; 20:118-41. [DOI: 10.1177/1088868315581263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Scholars interested in emotion regulation have documented the different goals and strategies individuals have for regulating their emotions. However, little attention has been paid to the regulation of group-based emotions, which are based on individuals’ self-categorization as a group member and occur in response to situations perceived as relevant for that group. We propose a model for examining group-based emotion regulation that integrates intergroup emotions theory and the process model of emotion regulation. This synergy expands intergroup emotion theory by facilitating further investigation of different goals (i.e., hedonic or instrumental) and strategies (e.g., situation selection and modification strategies) used to regulate group-based emotions. It also expands emotion regulation research by emphasizing the role of self-categorization (e.g., as an individual or a group member) in the emotional process. Finally, we discuss the promise of this theoretical synergy and suggest several directions for future research on group-based emotion regulation.
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78
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Thomas LE, Davoli CC, Brockmole JR. Competitive interaction leads to perceptual distancing between actors. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2014; 40:2112-6. [PMID: 25365567 DOI: 10.1037/a0038307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
People physically distance themselves from competitors and the disliked, and cooperate less with those who are further away. We examine whether social interaction can also impact the space people perceive between themselves and others by measuring the influence of competitive dynamics on visual perception. In 2 experiments, participants played a ball toss game until they reached a target score. In Experiment 1, a confederate stood across the room from the participant and either (a) played the same game competitively, (b) played the same game cooperatively, or (c) observed the participant without playing, while in Experiment 2, 2 participants played the same versions of the game with each other. After the game, participants provided an estimate of the distance between themselves and the other player. Participants in Experiment 1 who competed with the confederate consistently judged her to be more distant than participants who cooperated with the confederate or played alone. In Experiment 2, players who lost the competition perceived more distance between themselves and their opponents than did players who won, suggesting that the experience of losing a competition drives this perceptual distancing. These findings demonstrate the power of a socially distancing interaction to create perceptual distance between people.
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79
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Focused and fired up: Narrowed attention produces perceived proximity and increases goal-relevant action. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-014-9432-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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80
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Abstract
According to evolutionary accounts of distinct emotions, these emotions are shaped by natural selection to adjust the physiological, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral parameters of an organism to facilitate its capacity to respond adaptively to threats and opportunities present in the environment. This account has a number of implications, most notably: (a) each distinct emotion serves, or served, an adaptive function, and (b) emotions are comprised of multiple components, all of which should be functional. In this article, I briefly outline an evolutionary approach to understanding distinct emotions, then explain how this approach could be falsified, how one’s own emotion experience differs from the observation of an emotion experience in someone else, and why variability in emotional responding should be expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Tracy
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Canada
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81
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Leith SA, Wilson AE. When size justifies: intergroup attitudes and subjective size judgments of “sacred space”. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2014.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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82
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Catching ease influences perceived speed: evidence for action-specific effects from action-based measures. Psychon Bull Rev 2014; 20:1364-70. [PMID: 23658059 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-013-0448-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
According to the action-specific account of perception, people perceive the environment in terms of their ability to act. Here, we directly tested this claim by using an action-based measure of perceived speed: Participants attempted to catch a virtual fish by releasing a virtual net. The net varied in size, making the task easier or harder. We measured perceived speed by using explicit judgment-based measures and an action-based measure (time to release the net). Participants released the net later when playing with the big as compared with the small net, indicating that the fish looked to be moving more slowly when participants played with the big net. Explicit judgments of fish speed were similarly influenced by net size. These results provide converging evidence from both explicit and action-based measures that a perceiver's ability to act influences a common underlying process, most likely perceived speed, rather than postperceptual processes such as response formation.
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83
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Vetter P, Newen A. Varieties of cognitive penetration in visual perception. Conscious Cogn 2014; 27:62-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2014.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Revised: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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84
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Storbeck J, Stefanucci JK. Conditions under which arousal does and does not elevate height estimates. PLoS One 2014; 9:e92024. [PMID: 24699393 PMCID: PMC3974728 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a series of experiments that explore the boundary conditions for how emotional arousal influences height estimates. Four experiments are presented, which investigated the influence of context, situation-relevance, intensity, and attribution of arousal on height estimates. In Experiment 1, we manipulated the environmental context to signal either danger (viewing a height from above) or safety (viewing a height from below). High arousal only increased height estimates made from above. In Experiment 2, two arousal inductions were used that contained either 1) height-relevant arousing images or 2) height-irrelevant arousing images. Regardless of theme, arousal increased height estimates compared to a neutral group. In Experiment 3, arousal intensity was manipulated by inserting an intermediate or long delay between the induction and height estimates. A brief, but not a long, delay from the arousal induction served to increase height estimates. In Experiment 4, an attribution manipulation was included, and those participants who were made aware of the source of their arousal reduced their height estimates compared to participants who received no attribution instructions. Thus, arousal that is attributed to its true source is discounted from feelings elicited by the height, thereby reducing height estimates. Overall, we suggest that misattributed, embodied arousal is used as a cue when estimating heights from above that can lead to overestimation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Storbeck
- Department of Psychology, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Jeanine K. Stefanucci
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
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85
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Abstract
AbstractWe counter Huang & Bargh's (H&B's) metaphoric description of the unconscious, selfish goal on three points. First, we argue, unconscious goals are rooted in conscious choices related to well-being. Second, unconscious goal pursuit occurs through early-stage orienting mechanisms that promote individuals' well-being. Third, unconscious goals work selflessly, resulting in their own demise.
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86
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Abstract
Distance describes more than physical space: we speak of close friends and distant relatives, and of the near future and distant past. Did these ubiquitous spatial metaphors arise in language coincidentally or did they arise because they are rooted in a common neural computation? To address this question, we used statistical pattern recognition techniques to analyze human fMRI data. First, a machine learning algorithm was trained to discriminate patterns of fMRI responses based on relative egocentric distance within trials from one distance domain (e.g., photographs of objects relatively close to or far away from the viewer in spatial distance trials). Next, we tested whether the decision boundary generated from this training could distinguish brain responses according to relative egocentric distance within each of two separate distance domains (e.g., phrases referring to the immediate or more remote future within temporal distance trials; photographs of participants' friends or acquaintances within social distance trials). This procedure was repeated using all possible combinations of distance domains for training and testing the classifier. In all cases, above-chance decoding across distance domains was possible in the right inferior parietal lobule (IPL). Furthermore, the representational similarity structure within this brain area reflected participants' own judgments of spatial distance, temporal soon-ness, and social familiarity. Thus, the right IPL may contain a parsimonious encoding of proximity to self in spatial, temporal, and social frames of reference.
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87
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Don't stand so close to me: A behavioral and ERP study of preferred interpersonal distance. Neuroimage 2013; 83:761-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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88
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Gross EB, Proffitt D. The economy of social resources and its influence on spatial perceptions. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:772. [PMID: 24312039 PMCID: PMC3832788 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Survival for any organism, including people, is a matter of resource management. To ensure survival, people necessarily budget their resources. Spatial perceptions contribute to resource budgeting by scaling the environment to an individual’s available resources. Effective budgeting requires setting a balance of income and expenditures around some baseline value. For social resources, this baseline assumes that the individuals are embedded in their social network. A review of the literature supports the proposal that our visual perceptions vary based on the implicit budgeting of physical and social resources, where social resources, as they fluctuate relative to a baseline, can directly alter our visual perceptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth B Gross
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville VA, USA
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89
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Pitts S, Wilson JP, Hugenberg K. When One Is Ostracized, Others Loom. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550613511502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Social rejection causes a host of interpersonal consequences, including increases in reaffiliative behaviors. In two experiments, we show that reaffiliation motivation stemming from rejection biases perceptions of one’s distance from a social target, making others seem closer than they are. In Experiment 1, participants who had written about rejection underthrew a beanbag when the goal was to land it at the feet of a new interaction partner, relative to control participants. In Experiment 2, rejected participants provided written underestimates of the distance to a person relative to control participants, but only when the target was a real person, and not a life-sized cardboard simulation of a person. Thus, using multiple manipulations of social rejection, and multiple measures of distance perception, this research demonstrates that rejection can bias basic perceptual processes, making actual sources of reaffiliation (actual people), but not mere images of people, loom toward the self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane Pitts
- Birmingham-Southern College, Birmingham, AL, USA
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90
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Robinson MD, Liu T. Perceptual Negativity Predicts Greater Reactivity to Negative Events in Daily Life. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2013; 55:926-930. [PMID: 24163492 DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Reinforcement sensitivity theory includes the idea that people differ in their sensitivity to negative events, but relevant process-based assessments have not been developed. The present studies assessed sensitivity to negative events in terms of the extent to which negative word stimuli were perceived to be larger than neutral word stimuli. There was a general tendency to overestimate the size of negative relative to neutral words, but individuals differed substantially in this form of what is termed perceptual negativity. Of more importance, two studies (total N = 151) found systematic relationships between individual differences in perceptual negativity and reactivity to negative events in daily diary protocols. Study 1 found that within-person variations in the occurrence of daily negative events undermined goal-related optimism to a greater extent at higher, relative to lower, levels of perceptual negativity. Study 2 conceptually replicated this interaction in the context of within-person associations between the occurrence of daily negative events and antisocial behavior. These findings are important in advancing reinforcement sensitivity theory, in operationalizing a particular component of it, and in extending it to reactivity processes in daily life.
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91
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Takahashi K, Meilinger T, Watanabe K, Bülthoff HH. Psychological influences on distance estimation in a virtual reality environment. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:580. [PMID: 24065905 PMCID: PMC3776303 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of embodied perception have revealed that social, psychological, and physiological factors influence space perception. While many of these influences were observed with real or highly realistic stimuli, the present work showed that even the orientation of abstract geometric objects in a non-realistic virtual environment could influence distance perception. Observers wore a head mounted display and watched virtual cones moving within an invisible cube for 5 s with their head movement recorded. Subsequently, the observers estimated the distance to the cones or evaluated their friendliness. The cones either faced the observer, a target behind the cones, or were oriented randomly. The average viewing distance to the cones varied between 1.2 and 2.0 m. At a viewing distance of 1.6 m, the observers perceived the cones facing them as closer than the cones facing a target in the opposite direction, or those oriented randomly. Furthermore, irrespective of the viewing distance, observers moved their head away from the cones more strongly and evaluated the cones as less friendly when the cones faced the observers. Similar distance estimation results were obtained with a 3-dimensional projection onto a large screen, although the effective viewing distances were farther away. These results suggest that factors other than physical distance influenced distance perception even with non-realistic geometric objects in a virtual environment. Furthermore, the distance perception modulation was accompanied by changes in subjective impression and avoidance movement. We propose that cones facing an observer are perceived as socially discomforting or threatening, and potentially violate an observer's personal space, which might influence the perceived distance of cones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohske Takahashi
- Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo Tokyo, Japan
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92
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93
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Witt JK, Sugovic M. Spiders appear to move faster than non-threatening objects regardless of one's ability to block them. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2013; 143:284-91. [PMID: 23692998 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined whether perception of a threatening object - a spider - was more accurate than of a non-threatening object. An accurate perception could promote better survival than a biased perception. However, if biases encourage faster responses and more appropriate behaviors, then under the right circumstances, perceptual biases could promote better survival. We found that spiders appeared to be moving faster than balls and ladybugs. Furthermore, the perceiver's ability to act on the object also influenced perceived speed: the object looked faster when it was more difficult to block. Both effects--the threat of the object and the perceiver's blocking abilities--acted independently from each other. The results suggest effects of multiple types of affordances on perception of speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica K Witt
- Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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94
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Riccio M, Cole S, Balcetis E. Seeing the Expected, the Desired, and the Feared: Influences on Perceptual Interpretation and Directed Attention. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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95
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Abstract
Across two studies, we investigate how perceptions of distances to out-group threats may be critically regulated by the presence or absence of one’s in-group and by beliefs regarding the potential for danger from the out-group. Threat regulation includes biases in the distance one perceives a threat, such that threats are perceived as relatively more distant by more formidable compared to less formidable individuals. We demonstrate that whether participants are alone or surrounded by their in-group modulates perceptual biases regarding an out-group male’s proximity, depending on the degree to which participants evaluate out-group males negatively. Our findings illustrate how investigations of the psychology of motivated biases may benefit from a consideration of such perceptual biases within the functional workings of defensive threat regulation systems (McNaughton & Corr, 2004) and the strategic logic of animal conflict (Parker, 1974).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Cesario
- Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Carlos David Navarrete
- Department of Psychology and Ecology, Evolutionary Biology and Behavior Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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96
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An older view on distance perception: older adults perceive walkable extents as farther. Exp Brain Res 2013; 226:383-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-013-3447-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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97
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Abstract
People assume that they perceive the world as it really is. In this article, we review research that questions this assumption and instead suggests that people see what they want to see. We discuss classic and current research demonstrating wishful seeing across two perceptual tasks, showing that people categorize ambiguous visual information and represent their environments in ways that align with their desires. Further, we outline when and how wishful seeing occurs. We suggest directions for future research in light of historical trends and contemporary revisions of the study of wishful seeing.
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98
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Boven LV, Loewenstein G, Dunning D, Nordgren LF. Changing Places. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-407188-9.00003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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