JAK inhibitors for the treatment of myeloproliferative neoplasms and other disorders

Risk of mortality and second malignancies in primary myelofibrosis before and after ruxolitinib approval

BACKGROUND

Primary myelofibrosis (PMF) is associated with morbidity and mortality. Ruxolitinib gained US FDA approval for treatment of intermediate/high-risk PMF in November 2011. We evaluated differences in survival and second primary malignancy (SPM) incidence among US PMF patients in the years before and after ruxolitinib approval.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study utilizing the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)-18 database for PMF patients. We divided patients into five-year cohorts pre- (2007-2011) and post-ruxolitinib (2012-2016) approval and compared relative survival rates (RSRs) to the standard population and standardized incidence rates (SIRs) of SPMs between cohorts.

RESULTS

We included 2020 patients diagnosed with PMF from 2007-2016 in this study. There was no difference in the four-year RSRs between cohorts (54 % vs. 57 %, p = 0.776). More patients developed SPMs in the post-ruxolitinib cohort (8% vs. 6%, p = 0.041). The majority of SPMs were hematologic with higher incidence of AML transformation in the post-ruxolitinib cohort (SIR 125.29 vs. 70.55).

CONCLUSIONS

PMF prognosis remains poor in the years following ruxolitinib's approval. SPM incidence including AML transformation is higher in the years after approval. Further studies are needed to determine the true impact of ruxolitnib on population outcomes.

LGR6 promotes glioblastoma malignancy and chemoresistance by activating the Akt signaling pathway

Chemoresistance is the primary cause of the poor outcome of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) therapy. Leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 6 (LGR6) is involved in the growth and proliferation of several types of cancer, including gastric cancer and ovarian cancer. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the role of LGR6 in GBM malignancy and chemoresistance. Cell counting kit-8 and Matrigel®-Transwell assays were conducted to assess GBM cell viability and invasion. The effect of LGR6 on cell cycle progression and activation of Akt signaling was analyzed by performing propidium iodide staining and western blotting, respectively. The results demonstrated that LGR6, a microRNA-1236-3p target candidate, promoted GBM cell viability and invasion, and mediated temozolomide sensitivity in SHG-44 and U251 GBM cells. In addition, LGR6 triggered the activation of the Akt signaling pathway during GBM progression. Collectively, the results of the present study suggested that LGR6 promoted GBM malignancy and chemoresistance, at least in part, by activating the Akt signaling pathway. The results may aid with the identification of a novel therapeutic target and strategy for GBM.

Platelet transcriptome identifies progressive markers and potential therapeutic targets in chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms

Predicting disease progression remains a particularly challenging endeavor in chronic degenerative disorders and cancer, thus limiting early detection, risk stratification, and preventive interventions. Here, profiling the three chronic subtypes of myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), we identify the blood platelet transcriptome as a proxy strategy for highly sensitive progression biomarkers that also enables prediction of advanced disease via machine-learning algorithms. The MPN platelet transcriptome reveals an incremental molecular reprogramming that is independent of patient driver mutation status or therapy. Subtype-specific markers offer mechanistic and therapeutic insights, and highlight impaired proteostasis and a persistent integrated stress response. Using a LASSO model with validation in two independent cohorts, we identify the advanced subtype MF at high accuracy and offer a robust progression signature toward clinical translation. Our platelet transcriptome snapshot of chronic MPNs demonstrates a proof-of-principle for disease risk stratification and progression beyond genetic data alone, with potential utility in other progressive disorders.

Second-Generation Jak2 Inhibitors for Advanced Prostate Cancer: Are We Ready for Clinical Development?

Simple Summary

Prostate Cancer (PC) is currently estimated to affect 1 in 9 men and is the second leading cause of cancer in men in the US. While androgen deprivation therapy, which targets the androgen receptor, is one of the front-line therapies for advanced PC and for recurrence of organ-confined PC treated with surgery, lethal castrate-resistant PC develops consistently in patients. PC is a multi-focal cancer with different grade carcinoma areas presenting simultaneously. Jak2-Stat5 signaling pathway has emerged as a potentially highly effective molecular target in PCs with positive areas for activated Stat5 protein. Activated Jak2-Stat5 signaling can be readily targeted by the second-generation Jak2-inhibitors that have been developed for myeloproliferative and autoimmune disorders and hematological malignancies. In this review, we analyze and summarize the Jak2 inhibitors that are currently in preclinical and clinical development.

Abstract

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) for metastatic and high-risk prostate cancer (PC) inhibits growth pathways driven by the androgen receptor (AR). Over time, ADT leads to the emergence of lethal castrate-resistant PC (CRPC), which is consistently caused by an acquired ability of tumors to re-activate AR. This has led to the development of second-generation anti-androgens that more effectively antagonize AR, such as enzalutamide (ENZ). However, the resistance of CRPC to ENZ develops rapidly. Studies utilizing preclinical models of PC have established that inhibition of the Jak2-Stat5 signaling leads to extensive PC cell apoptosis and decreased tumor growth. In large clinical cohorts, Jak2-Stat5 activity predicts PC progression and recurrence. Recently, Jak2-Stat5 signaling was demonstrated to induce ENZ-resistant PC growth in preclinical PC models, further emphasizing the importance of Jak2-Stat5 for therapeutic targeting for advanced PC. The discovery of the Jak2V617F somatic mutation in myeloproliferative disorders triggered the rapid development of Jak1/2-specific inhibitors for a variety of myeloproliferative and auto-immune disorders as well as hematological malignancies. Here, we review Jak2 inhibitors targeting the mutated Jak2V617F vs. wild type (WT)-Jak2 that are currently in the development pipeline. Among these 35 compounds with documented Jak2 inhibitory activity, those with potency against WT-Jak2 hold strong potential for advanced PC therapy.

Targets in MPNs and potential therapeutics

Philadelphia-negative classical Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPNs), including Polycythemia Vera (PV), Essential Thrombocythemia (ET) and Primary Myelofibrosis (PMF), are clonal hemopathies that emerge in the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) compartment. MPN driver mutations are restricted to specific exons (14 and 12) of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), thrombopoietin receptor (MPL/TPOR) and calreticulin (CALR) genes, are involved directly in clonal myeloproliferation and generate the MPN phenotype. As a result, an increased number of fully functional erythrocytes, platelets and leukocytes is observed in the peripheral blood. Nevertheless, the complexity and heterogeneity of MPN clinical phenotypes cannot be solely explained by the type of driver mutation. Other factors, such as additional somatic mutations affecting epigenetic regulators or spliceosomes components, mutant allele burdens and modifiers of signaling by driver mutants, clonal architecture and the order of mutation acquisition, signaling events that occur downstream of a driver mutation, the presence of specific germ-line variants, the interaction of the neoplastic clone with bone marrow microenvironment and chronic inflammation, all can modulate the disease phenotype, influence the MPN clinical course and therefore, might be useful therapeutic targets.

TYK2 in Cancer Metastases: Genomic and Proteomic Discovery

Advances in genomic analysis and proteomic tools have rapidly expanded identification of biomarkers and molecular targets important to cancer development and metastasis. On an individual basis, personalized medicine approaches allow better characterization of tumors and patient prognosis, leading to more targeted treatments by detection of specific gene mutations, overexpression, or activity. Genomic and proteomic screens by our lab and others have revealed tyrosine kinase 2 (TYK2) as an oncogene promoting progression and metastases of many types of carcinomas, sarcomas, and hematologic cancers. TYK2 is a Janus kinase (JAK) that acts as an intermediary between cytokine receptors and STAT transcription factors. TYK2 signals to stimulate proliferation and metastasis while inhibiting apoptosis of cancer cells. This review focuses on the growing evidence from genomic and proteomic screens, as well as molecular studies that link TYK2 to cancer prevalence, prognosis, and metastasis. In addition, pharmacological inhibition of TYK2 is currently used clinically for autoimmune diseases, and now provides promising treatment modalities as effective therapeutic agents against multiple types of cancer.

Small molecule inhibition of deubiquitinating enzyme JOSD1 as a novel targeted therapy for leukemias with mutant JAK2

Mutations in the Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2) gene resulting in constitutive kinase activation represent the most common genetic event in myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN), a group of diseases involving overproduction of one or more kinds of blood cells, including red cells, white cells, and platelets. JAK2 kinase inhibitors, such as ruxolitinib, provide clinical benefit, but inhibition of wild-type (wt) JAK2 limits their clinical utility due to toxicity to normal cells, and small molecule inhibition of mutated JAK2 kinase activity can lead to drug resistance. Here, we present a strategy to target mutated JAK2 for degradation, using the cell's intracellular degradation machinery, while sparing non-mutated JAK2. We employed a chemical genetics screen, followed by extensive selectivity profiling and genetic studies, to identify the deubiquitinase (DUB), JOSD1, as a novel regulator of mutant JAK2. JOSD1 interacts with and stabilizes JAK2-V617F, and inactivation of the DUB leads to JAK2-V617F protein degradation by increasing its ubiquitination levels, thereby shortening its protein half-life. Moreover, targeting of JOSD1 leads to the death of JAK2-V617F-positive primary acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. These studies provide a novel therapeutic approach to achieving selective targeting of mutated JAK2 signaling in MPN.

Ruxolitinib Alleviates Uveitis Caused by Salmonella typhimurium Endotoxin

Uveitis is characterized by inflammatory lesions of intraocular structures. It is one of the important manifestations in patients with Reiter’s syndrome, an inflammatory arthritis, which is caused by enteric infection with bacteria, including Salmonella typhimurium. Corticosteroids remain the most frequently used therapies against uveitis associating with inflammatory arthritis. However, the long-term administration of steroids results in many side effects, and some uveitis patients do not respond to steroid treatment. Non-steroidal treatments are needed for uveitis patients. Our previous study found that Janus kinase (JAK) 1/2 inhibitor, ruxolitinib could suppress the expression of proinflammatory mediators in the ciliary body and iris. However, the impacts of ruxolitinib on ophthalmic features in uveitic eyes are still unknown. In this study, Salmonella typhimurium endotoxin-induced uveitis (EIU) was induced in Sprague Dawley rats by the injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Compared with LPS-induced rats treated with water, ruxolitinib significantly attenuated the clinical manifestations, infiltrating cells and protein exudation in the aqueous humor, and retina–choroid thickening. Amplitudes of b-wave in both scotopic and photopic electroretinogram (ERG), and the amplitude of a-wave in scotopic ERG in EIU animals were alleviated by ruxolitinib. Collectively, we propose ruxolitinib could attenuate endotoxin-induced uveitis and rescue visual functions in rats by inhibiting the JAK2-STAT3 pathway.

Scientific considerations for global drug development

Requiring regional or in-country confirmatory clinical trials before approval of drugs already approved elsewhere delays access to medicines in low- and middle-income countries and raises drug costs. Here, we discuss the scientific and technological advances that may reduce the need for in-country or in-region clinical trials for drugs approved in other countries and limitations of these advances that could necessitate in-region clinical studies.

Effects of strong and moderate CYP3A4 inducers on the pharmacokinetics of fedratinib in healthy adult participants

PURPOSE

Fedratinib is an oral and selective Janus kinase 2 inhibitor that is indicated for treatment of adults with intermediate-2 or high-risk primary or secondary myelofibrosis. Fedratinib is metabolized by cytochrome P450s (CYPs), primarily CYP3A4. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of the strong CYP3A4 inducer rifampin and moderate CYP3A4 inducer efavirenz on the pharmacokinetics of single doses of fedratinib.

METHODS

This Phase 1, open-label, two-part study (Part 1 for rifampin and Part 2 for efavirenz) was conducted in healthy adult men and women. A single dose of fedratinib (500 mg) was administered on Day 1. Participants received rifampin 600 mg daily or efavirenz 600 mg daily on Days 9-18. On Day 17, a single dose of fedratinib (500 mg) was coadministered with rifampin or efavirenz. Plasma fedratinib concentrations were measured using validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Maximum observed plasma fedratinib concentrations were lowered by approximately 70% and 30% during coadministration with rifampin or efavirenz, respectively, compared with fedratinib alone. Geometric means of fedratinib area under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to infinity were decreased by 81% (90% confidence interval [CI], 77-83%) and 47% (90% CI, 40-53%) during coadministration with rifampin or efavirenz, respectively. Fedratinib was generally well tolerated when administered alone or in combination with rifampin or efavirenz.

CONCLUSION

Significant reductions in fedratinib exposure were observed in the presence of strong or moderate CYP3A4 inducers. These results suggest that agents that are strong or moderate inducers of CYP3A4 should be avoided when coadministered with fedratinib.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT03983239 (Registration date: June 12, 2019).

JAK inhibition synergistically potentiates BCL2, BET, HDAC, and proteasome inhibition in advanced CTCL

Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) is a malignancy of skin-homing T lymphocytes that is more likely to involve the peripheral blood in advanced stages. For such patients with advanced disease, there are few available systemic treatment options, and prognosis remains poor. Exome sequencing studies of CTCL have suggested therapeutic targets, including within the JAK/STAT pathway, but JAK inhibition strategies may be limited by patient-specific mutational status. Because our recent research has highlighted the potential roles of single and combination approaches specifically using BCL2, bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET), and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition, we aimed to investigate the effects of JAK inhibition on CTCL cells and established CTCL cell lines when paired with these and other targeting agents. Peripheral blood malignant CTCL isolates exhibited differential responses to JAK inhibition, with JAK2 expression levels negatively correlating to 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values. Regardless of single-agent sensitivity, JAK inhibition potentiated malignant cell cytotoxicity in combination with BCL2, BET, HDAC, or proteasome inhibition. Combination inhibition of JAK and BCL2 showed the strongest potentiation of CTCL cytotoxicity, driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways. JAK inhibition decreased expression of BCL2 in the high-responder samples, suggesting a putative mechanism for this combination activity. These results indicate that JAK inhibition may have major effects on CTCL cells, and that combination strategies using JAK inhibition may allow for more generalized cytotoxic effects against the malignant cells from patients with CTCL. Such preclinical assessments help inform prioritization for combination targeted drug approaches for clinical utilization in the treatment of CTCL.

Analytical validation and performance characteristics of a 48-gene next-generation sequencing panel for detecting potentially actionable genomic alterations in myeloid neoplasms

Identification of genomic mutations by molecular testing plays an important role in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of myeloid neoplasms. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is an efficient method for simultaneous detection of clinically significant genomic mutations with high sensitivity. Various NGS based in-house developed and commercial myeloid neoplasm panels have been integrated into routine clinical practice. However, some genes frequently mutated in myeloid malignancies are particularly difficult to sequence with NGS panels (e.g., CEBPA, CARL, and FLT3). We report development and validation of a 48-gene NGS panel that includes genes that are technically challenging for molecular profiling of myeloid neoplasms including acute myeloid leukemia (AML), myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), and myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN). Target regions were captured by hybridization with complementary biotinylated DNA baits, and NGS was performed on an Illumina NextSeq500 instrument. A bioinformatics pipeline that was developed in-house was used to detect single nucleotide variations (SNVs), insertions/deletions (indels), and FLT3 internal tandem duplications (FLT3-ITD). An analytical validation study was performed on 184 unique specimens for variants with allele frequencies ≥5%. Variants identified by the 48-gene panel were compared to those identified by a 35-gene hematologic neoplasms panel using an additional 137 unique specimens. The developed assay was applied to a large cohort (n = 2,053) of patients with suspected myeloid neoplasms. Analytical validation yielded 99.6% sensitivity (95% CI: 98.9-99.9%) and 100% specificity (95% CI: 100%). Concordance of variants detected by the 2 tested panels was 100%. Among patients with suspected myeloid neoplasms (n = 2,053), 54.5% patients harbored at least one clinically significant mutation: 77% in AML patients, 48% in MDS, and 45% in MPN. Together, these findings demonstrate that the assay can identify mutations associated with diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment options of myeloid neoplasms even in technically challenging genes.

Novel Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Thrombosis in Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Thrombosis remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in BCR/ABL negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN). Circulating blood cells are both increased in quantity and qualitatively abnormal in MPN, resulting in an increased thrombotic risk. Herein, we review recently elucidated mechanisms of MPN thrombosis and discuss implications of drugs currently under investigation for MPN.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies highlight that in JAK2^V617F granulocytes and platelets, thrombo-inflammatory genes are upregulated. Furthermore, in JAK2^V617F granulocytes, protein expression of integrin CD11b, tissue factor, and leukocyte alkaline phosphatase are all increased. Overall, myeloid cells, namely neutrophils, may contribute in several ways, such as through increased adhesion via β1 integrin binding to VCAM1, increased infiltration, and enhanced inducibility to extrude neutrophil extracellular traps. Non-myeloid inflammatory cells may also contribute via secretion of cytokines. With regard to red blood cells, number, rigidity, adhesion, and generation of microvesicles may lead to increased vascular resistance as well as increased cell-cell interactions that promote rolling and adhesion. Platelets may also contribute in a similar fashion. Lastly, the vasculature is also increasingly appreciated, as several studies have demonstrated increased endothelial expression of pro-coagulant and pro-adhesive proteins, such as von Willebrand factor or P-selectin in JAK2^V617F endothelial cells. With the advent of molecular diagnostics, MPN therapeutics are advancing beyond cytoreduction. Our increased understanding of pro-inflammatory and thrombotic pathophysiology in MPN provides a rational basis for evaluation of in-development MPN therapeutics to reduce thrombosis.

MOMENTUM: momelotinib vs danazol in patients with myelofibrosis previously treated with JAKi who are symptomatic and anemic

Hallmark features of myelofibrosis (MF) are cytopenias, constitutional symptoms and splenomegaly. Anemia and transfusion dependency are among the most important negative prognostic factors and are exacerbated by many JAK inhibitors (JAKi). Momelotinib (MMB) has been investigated in over 820 patients with MF and possesses a pharmacological and clinical profile differentiated from other JAKi by inhibition of JAK1, JAK2 and ACVR1. MMB is designed to address the complex drivers of iron-restricted anemia and chronic inflammation in MF and should improve constitutional symptoms and splenomegaly while maintaining or improving hemoglobin in JAKi-naive and previously JAKi-treated patients. The MOMENTUM Phase III study is designed to confirm and extend observations of safety and clinical activity of MMB.

Nifuroxazide as JAK2 inhibitor: A binding mode proposal and Hel cell proliferation assay

Nifuroxazide has been employed as an anti-diarrheic agent since 1966, but in the last decade has brought to the research spotlight again due to its recently described antitumoral activity through the JAK2 inhibitory potential. Since 2008, more than 70 papers have been published about the issue and more are expected to the following years. Herein we discuss the findings of molecular modelling studies which were performed to elucidate the potential binding mode of this drug into the JAK2 ATP recognition site and also into the allosteric region near the catalytic site. Molecular modelling followed by dynamics simulations indicated the NFZ could bind at both sites, such as a Type II kinase inhibitor since residues from both ATP and modulatory site would exhibit contacts with the drug when in a stable complex. Synthesis of NFZ and its sulfur bioisosteric analogue GPQF-63 were performed and experimental assays against HEL cells indicate the potential of NFZ and, mainly of its analogue GPQF-63 in acting as inhibitors of cell growth. HEL-cells present the JAK2 V617F mutation which leads to an enhanced JAK/STAT pathway and they have never been tested by the NFZ activity before. A mechanistic approach was also performed and revealed that both compounds induce cell apoptosis.Taken together, both the theoretical and experimental approaches point out the N-acylhydrazones as good starting points in the search for JAK2 modulatory small molecules which could then, be studied as promising leads toward new alternatives to control the JAK-STAT pathway related pathologies. This is the first study, as far as we have known, to propose a potential binding mode for NFZ as well as reporting the activity of this drug against HEL cells, which are a usual cellular model to human erythroleukemia and other myeloproliferative diseases.

The Binary Classification of Protein Kinases

In an earlier publication a binary model for chronic diseases classification has been proposed. According to the model, chronic diseases were classified as “high Treg” or “low Treg” diseases, depending on whether the immune response is anti- or pro-inflammatory and assuming that regulatory T cells are major determinants of the response. It turned out that most cancers are “high Treg” diseases, while autoimmune diseases are “low Treg”. This paper proposes a molecular cause for this binary response. The mechanism proposed depends on the effect of protein kinases on the immune system. Thus, protein kinases are classified as anti- or pro-inflammatory kinases depending on whether they drive “high Treg” or “low Treg” diseases. Observations reported in the earlier publication can be described in terms of anti-inflammatory kinase (AIK) or pro-inflammatory kinase (PIK) activity. Analysis of literature data reveals that the two classes of kinases display distinctive properties relating to their interactions with pathogens and environmental factors. Pathogens that promote Treg activity (“high Treg” pathogens) activate AIKs, while pathogens that suppress Treg activity (“low Treg” pathogens) activate PIKs. Diseases driven by AIKs are associated with “high Treg” pathogens while those diseases driven by PIKs are associated with “low Treg” pathogens. By promoting the activity of AIKs, alcohol consumption increases the risk of “high Treg” cancers but decreases the risk of some “low Treg” autoimmune diseases. JAK1 gain-of-function mutations are observed at high frequencies in autoimmune diseases while JAK1 loss-of-function mutations are observed at high frequencies in cancers with high tumor-infiltrating Tregs. It should also be noted that the corresponding two classes of protein kinase inhibitors are mutually exclusive in terms of their approved therapeutic indications. There is no protein kinase inhibitor that is approved for the treatment of both autoimmune diseases and “high Treg” cancers. Although there are exceptions to the conclusions presented above, these conclusions are supported by the great bulk of published data. It therefore seems that the binary division of protein kinases is a useful tool for elucidating (at the molecular level) many distinctive properties of cancers and autoimmune diseases.

Potential therapeutic and pharmacological strategies for SARS-CoV2

BACKGROUND

At the end of 2019, the new Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) strain causing severe acute respiratory syndrome swept the world. From November 2019 till February 2021, this virus infected nearly 104 million, with more than two million deaths and about 25 million active cases. This has prompted scientists to discover effective drugs to combat this pandemic.

AREA COVERED

Drug repurposing is the magic bullet for treating severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2). Therefore, several drugs have been investigated in silico, in vitro, as well as through human trials such as anti-SARS-CoV2 agents, or to prevent the complications resulting from the virus. In this review, the mechanisms of action of different therapeutic strategies are summarized. According to the WHO, different classes of drugs can be used, including anti-malarial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-coagulant drugs, as well as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, antibiotics, vitamins, zinc, neutralizing antibodies, and convalescent plasma therapy. Recently, there are some vaccines which are approved against SARS-CoV2.

EXPERT OPINION

A complete understanding of the structure and function of all viral proteins that play a fundamental role in viral infection, which contribute to the therapeutic intervention and the development of vaccine in order to reduce the mortality rate.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40005-021-00520-4.

Erythrocyte-derived microvesicles induce arterial spasms in JAK2V617F myeloproliferative neoplasm

Arterial cardiovascular events are the leading cause of death in patients with JAK2V617F myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). However, their mechanisms are poorly understood. The high prevalence of myocardial infarction without significant coronary stenosis or atherosclerosis in patients with MPNs suggests that vascular function is altered. The consequences of JAK2V617F mutation on vascular reactivity are unknown. We observe here increased responses to vasoconstrictors in arteries from Jak2V617F mice resulting from a disturbed endothelial NO pathway and increased endothelial oxidative stress. This response was reproduced in WT mice by circulating microvesicles isolated from patients carrying JAK2V617F and by erythrocyte-derived microvesicles from transgenic mice. Microvesicles of other cellular origins had no effect. This effect was observed ex vivo on isolated aortas, but also in vivo on femoral arteries. Proteomic analysis of microvesicles derived from JAK2V617F erythrocytes identified increased expression of myeloperoxidase as the likely mechanism accounting for their effect. Myeloperoxidase inhibition in microvesicles derived from JAK2V617F erythrocytes suppressed their effect on oxidative stress. Antioxidants such as simvastatin and N-acetyl cysteine improved arterial dysfunction in Jak2V617F mice. In conclusion, JAK2V617F MPNs are characterized by exacerbated vasoconstrictor responses resulting from increased endothelial oxidative stress caused by circulating erythrocyte-derived microvesicles. Simvastatin appears to be a promising therapeutic strategy in this setting.

Differential in vitro interactions of the Janus kinase inhibitor ruxolitinib with human SLC drug transporters

Interactions of the Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor ruxolitinib with solute carriers (SLCs) remain incompletely characterised. The present study was therefore designed to investigate this issue.The interactions of ruxolitinib with SLCs were analysed using transporter-overexpressing human embryonic kidney HEK293 cells. Substrate accumulation was detected by spectrofluorimetry, liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry or scintillation counting.Ruxolitinib was found to potently inhibit the activities of organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3), organic cation transporter 2 (OCT2), multidrug and toxin extrusion 1 (MATE1) and MATE2-K (half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) < 10 µM). It blocked OAT1, OAT4, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, OATP2B1 and OCT3, but in a weaker manner (IC₅₀ > 10 µM), whereas OCT1 was not impacted. No time-dependent inhibition was highlighted. When applying the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) criteria for transporters-related drug-drug interaction risk, OCT2 and MATE2-K, unlike MATE1 and OAT3, were predicted to be in vivo inhibited by ruxolitinib. Cellular uptake studies additionally indicated that ruxolitinib is a substrate for MATE1 and MATE2-K, but not for OAT3 and OCT2.Ruxolitinib in vitro blocked activities of most of SLC transporters. Only OCT2 and MATE-2K may be however clinically inhibited by the JAK inhibitor, with the caution for OCT2 that in vitro inhibition data were generated with an FDA-non recommended fluorescent substrate. Ruxolitinib MATEs-mediated transport may additionally deserve attention for its possible pharmacological consequences in MATE-positive cells.

In vitro pharmacological effects of peficitinib on lymphocyte activation: a potential treatment for systemic sclerosis with JAK inhibitors

Objectives

Peficitinib, a novel Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor, demonstrated promising results in treating RA in phase 3 clinical trials. This in vitro study was undertaken to characterize the pharmacological properties of peficitinib and investigate the involvement of JAK and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathways in the pathological processes of SSc, which is also an autoimmune disease.

Methods

Phosphorylation levels of STAT molecules were assessed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells collected from patients with RA or SSc and healthy subjects, and in skin specimens obtained from 19 patients with SSc. In vitro inhibition of STAT phosphorylation and cytokine/chemokine production by peficitinib, tofacitinib and baricitinib were also characterized.

Results

Higher spontaneous STAT1 or STAT3 phosphorylation was observed in peripheral T-cells and monocytes from patients with RA and SSc compared with healthy subjects. In skin sections from patients with SSc, phosphorylated STAT3–positive cells were found in almost all cases, irrespective of disease subtype or patient characteristics. Conversely, phosphorylated STAT1-positive cells were observed only in samples from untreated patients with diffuse disease of short duration. Peficitinib inhibited STAT phosphorylation induced by various cytokines, with comparable efficacy to tofacitinib and baricitinib. Peficitinib also suppressed cytokine and chemokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells and skin fibroblasts.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that JAK/STAT pathways are constitutively activated in SSc and RA, and that the JAK inhibitor may represent a novel therapeutic option for SSc.

Off-label Studies on the Use of Ruxolitinib in Dermatology

PURPOSE

Ruxolitinib (Jakafi) is a Janus kinase 1 and 2 small molecule inhibitor that the Food and Drug Administration approved for myelofibrosis and polycythemia vera. It has been expanded to off-label treatment for a variety of dermatologic conditions, with several clinical trials ongoing. A review of available studies and cases of off-label uses was performed to guide clinicians seeking evidence on the efficacy of this Janus kinase inhibitor for dermatologic disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, Scopus, and ClinicalTrials.gov databases were searched with the term "ruxolitinib," and results were manually reviewed to identify published data on off-label uses of ruxolitinib. Studies included are structured by quality of evidence available.

RESULTS

Ruxolitinib may have utility in the treatment of atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, and vitiligo, with data from open-label and randomized trials supporting efficacy of topical formulations. Evidence of utility for alopecia areata is mixed and differs depending on topical versus oral form. Evidence for numerous other conditions is available through case reports and case series.

CONCLUSIONS

There is growing evidence supporting potential off-label use of oral and topical ruxolitinib for a wide range of skin conditions. There are several ongoing investigations of ruxolitinib use in dermatology that will undoubtedly better define its efficacy and appropriate use in dermatology.

Interactions of janus kinase inhibitors with drug transporters and consequences for pharmacokinetics and toxicity

Introduction: Janus kinase inhibitors (JAKinibs) constitute an emerging and promising pharmacological class of anti-inflammatory or anti-cancer drugs, used notably for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and some myeloproliferative neoplasms.Areas covered: This review provides an overview of the interactions between marketed JAKinibs and major uptake and efflux drug transporters. Consequences regarding pharmacokinetics, drug-drug interactions and toxicity are summarized.Expert opinion: JAKinibs interact in vitro with transporters in various ways, as inhibitors or as substrates of transporters or as regulators of transporter expression. This may theoretically result in drug-drug interactions (DDIs), with JAKinibs acting as perpetrators or as victims, or in toxicity, via impairment of thiamine transport. Clinical significance in terms of DDIs for JAKinib-transporter interactions remains however poorly documented. In this context, the in vivo unbound concentration of JAKinibs is likely a key parameter to consider for evaluating the clinical relevance of JAKinibs-mediated transporter inhibition. Additionally, the interplay with drug metabolism as well as possible interactions with transporters of emerging importance and time-dependent inhibition have to be taken into account. The role drug transporters may play in controlling cellular JAKinib concentrations and efficacy in target cells is also an issue of interest.

Challenges and Perspectives for Therapeutic Targeting of Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are hematopoietic stem cell disorders with dysregulated myeloid blood cell production and propensity for transformation to acute myeloid leukemia, thrombosis, and bleeding. Acquired mutations in JAK2, MPL, and CALR converge on hyperactivation of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) signaling as a central feature of MPN. Accordingly, JAK2 inhibitors have held promise for therapeutic targeting. After the JAK1/2 inhibitor ruxolitinib, similar JAK2 inhibitors as fedratinib are entering clinical use. While patients benefit with reduced splenomegaly and symptoms, disease-modifying effects on MPN clone size and clonal evolution are modest. Importantly, response to ruxolitinib may be lost upon treatment suggesting the MPN clone acquires resistance. Resistance mutations, as seen with other tyrosine kinase inhibitors, have not been described in MPN patients suggesting that functional processes reactivate JAK2 signaling. Compensatory signaling, which bypasses JAK2 inhibition, and other processes contribute to intrinsic resistance of MPN cells restricting efficacy of JAK2 inhibition overall. Combinations of JAK2 inhibition with pegylated interferon-α, a well-established therapy of MPN, B-cell lymphoma 2 inhibition, and others are in clinical development with the potential to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Novel single-agent approaches targeting other molecules than JAK2 are being investigated clinically. Special focus should be placed on myelofibrosis patients with anemia and thrombocytopenia, a delicate patient population at high need for options. The extending range of new treatment approaches will increase the therapeutic options for MPN patients. This calls for concomitant improvement of our insight into MPN biology to inform tailored therapeutic strategies for individual MPN patients.

Kinase inhibition in autoimmunity and inflammation

Despite recent advances in the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, unmet medical needs in some areas still exist. One of the main therapeutic approaches to alleviate dysregulated inflammation has been to target the activity of kinases that regulate production of inflammatory mediators. Small-molecule kinase inhibitors have the potential for broad efficacy, convenience and tissue penetrance, and thus often offer important advantages over biologics. However, designing kinase inhibitors with target selectivity and minimal off-target effects can be challenging. Nevertheless, immense progress has been made in advancing kinase inhibitors with desirable drug-like properties into the clinic, including inhibitors of JAKs, IRAK4, RIPKs, BTK, SYK and TPL2. This Review will address the latest discoveries around kinase inhibitors with an emphasis on clinically validated autoimmunity and inflammatory pathways.

Metabolic Vulnerabilities and Epigenetic Dysregulation in Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

The Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)-driven myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are associated with clonal myelopoiesis, elevated risk of death due to thrombotic complications, and transformation to acute myeloid leukemia (AML). JAK2 inhibitors improve the quality of life for MPN patients, but these approved therapeutics do not readily reduce the natural course of disease or antagonize the neoplastic clone. An understanding of the molecular and cellular changes requisite for MPN development and progression are needed to develop improved therapies. Recently, murine MPN models were demonstrated to exhibit metabolic vulnerabilities due to a high dependence on glucose. Neoplastic hematopoietic progenitor cells in these mice express elevated levels of glycolytic enzymes and exhibit enhanced levels of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, and the disease phenotype of these MPN model mice is antagonized by glycolytic inhibition. While all MPN-driving mutations lead to aberrant JAK2 activation, these mutations often co-exist with mutations in genes that encode epigenetic regulators, including loss of function mutations known to enhance MPN progression. In this perspective we discuss how altered activity of epigenetic regulators (e.g., methylation and acetylation) in MPN-driving stem and progenitor cells may alter cellular metabolism and contribute to the MPN phenotype and progression of disease. Specific metabolic changes associated with epigenetic deregulation may identify patient populations that exhibit specific metabolic vulnerabilities that are absent in normal hematopoietic cells, and thus provide a potential basis for the development of more effective personalized therapeutic approaches.

Streptomyces hygroscopicus UFPEDA 3370: A valuable source of the potent cytotoxic agent nigericin and its evaluation against human colorectal cancer cells

Streptomyces hygroscopicus UFPEDA 3370 was fermented in submerged cultivation and the biomass extract was partitioned, obtaining a fraction purified named EB1. After purification of EB1 fraction, nigericin free acid was obtained and identified. Nigericin presented cytotoxic activity against several cancer cell lines, being most active against HL-60 (human leukemia) and HCT-116 (human colon carcinoma) cell lines, presenting IC₅₀ and (IS) values: 0.0014 μM, (30.0) and 0.0138 μM (3.0), respectively. On HCT-116, nigericin caused apoptosis and autophagy. In this study, nigericin was also screened both in vitro and in silico against a panel of cancer-related kinases. Nigericin was able to inhibit both JAK3 and GSK-3β kinases in vitro and its binding affinities were mapped through the intermolecular interactions with each target in silico.

The rationale for targeting the JAK/STAT pathway in scleroderma-associated interstitial lung disease

The etiopathogenesis of systemic sclerosis (SSc)-associated interstitial lung disease (ILD) is still debated and no therapeutic options have proved fully effective to date. The intracellular Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway is highly conserved among either immune or nonimmune cells and involved in inflammation and fibrosis. Evidence from preclinical studies shows that the JAK/STAT signaling cascade has a crucial role in the differentiation of autoreactive cells as well as in the extracellular matrix remodeling that occurs in SSc. Therefore, it is likely that the use of oral small molecule JAK-inhibitors, especially if prescribed early, may prevent or slow the progression of SSc-associated ILD, but few clinical studies currently support this hypothesis.

Novel and combination therapies for polycythemia vera and essential thrombocythemia: the dawn of a new era

INTRODUCTION

Essential thrombocythemia (ET) and polycythemia vera (PV) belong to the BCR-ABL1-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms and are characterized by the clonal proliferation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. The contribution of aberrant immune regulation within the bone marrow microenvironment to ET and PV pathogenesis as well as the underlying molecular landscape is becoming increasingly understood.

AREAS COVERED

Authors searched PubMed and conference abstracts in August 2020 for preclinical and clinical studies to provide an overview of the immune pathobiology in ET and PV and the rationale for several novel agents. A discussion of recent clinical trials on interferon and ruxolitinib in ET and PV patients is provided followed by an outline of the future challenges in the field particularly for novel therapeutics and an increasingly individualized, molecularly driven approach to treatment selection. Several novel agents are currently being actively evaluated and are reviewed herein as well.

EXPERT OPINION

While hydroxyurea remains the first-line treatment for cytoreduction in most high-risk ET and PV patients, the disease-modifying potential of IFN is promising and could make it a preferred option for selected patients. Advances in molecular testing will enable a more individualized approach to prognostication and treatment selection.

Loss of NFKB1 Results in Expression of Tumor Necrosis Factor and Activation of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 1 to Promote Gastric Tumorigenesis in Mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Activity of nuclear factor κB transcription factors and signaling via signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) are frequently altered in gastric cancer cells. Mice lacking NFKB1 (Nfkb1^-/- mice) develop invasive gastric cancer, and their gastric tissues have increased levels of cytokines, such as interleukin (IL) 6, IL22, IL11, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), as well as increased activation of STAT1. We investigated whether these cytokines were required for STAT1 activation in gastric tissues of mice and critical for gastric tumorigenesis.

METHODS

We crossed Nfkb1^-/- mice with Il6^-/-, Il22^-/-, Il11Rα^-/-, and Tnf^-/- mice. Stomach tissues from compound mutant mice were analyzed by histology, immunoblotting, and RNA sequencing. Lymphoid, myeloid, and epithelial cells were isolated from stomachs, and the levels of cytokines were determined by flow cytometric analysis.

RESULTS

Nfkb1^-/- mice developed gastritis, oxyntic atrophy, gastric dysplasia, and invasive tumors, whereas Nfkb1^-/-Stat1^-/- mice did not, even when followed for as long as 2 years. The levels of Il6, Il11, Il22, and Tnf messenger RNA were increased in the body and antrum of the stomachs from Nfkb1^-/- mice, from 3-6 months of age. However, Nfkb1^-/-Il6^-/-, Nfkb1^-/-Il22^-/-, and Nfkb1^-/-Il11Rα^-/- mice still developed gastric tumors, although the absence of IL11 receptor (IL11R) significantly reduced development of invasive gastric tumors. Stomachs from Nfkb1^-/-Tnf^-/- mice exhibited significantly less gastritis and oxyntic atrophy and fewer tumors than Nfkb1^-/- mice. This correlated with reduced activation of STAT1 and STAT3 and fewer numbers of T cells and B cells infiltrating the gastric body. Loss of STAT1 or TNF significantly reduced expression of PD-L1 on epithelial and myeloid (CD11b⁺) cells in the gastric mucosa of Nfkb1^-/- mice-indeed, to the levels observed on the corresponding cells from wild-type mice.

CONCLUSIONS

In studies of gastric tumor development in knockout mice, we found that loss of NFKB1 causes increased expression of TNF in the stomach and thereby drives activation of STAT1, resulting in an inflammatory immune response and the development of gastric cancer. IL11R appears to be required for the progression of gastric tumors to the invasive stage. These findings suggest that inhibitors of TNF, and possibly also inhibitors of IL11/IL11Rα, might be useful in the treatment of gastric cancer.

Erythropoietin regulation of red blood cell production: from bench to bedside and back

More than 50 years of efforts to identify the major cytokine responsible for red blood cell (RBC) production (erythropoiesis) led to the identification of erythropoietin (EPO) in 1977 and its receptor (EPOR) in 1989, followed by three decades of rich scientific discovery. We now know that an elaborate oxygen-sensing mechanism regulates the production of EPO, which in turn promotes the maturation and survival of erythroid progenitors. Engagement of the EPOR by EPO activates three interconnected signaling pathways that drive RBC production via diverse downstream effectors and simultaneously trigger negative feedback loops to suppress signaling activity. Together, the finely tuned mechanisms that drive endogenous EPO production and facilitate its downstream activities have evolved to maintain RBC levels in a narrow physiological range and to respond rapidly to erythropoietic stresses such as hypoxia or blood loss. Examination of these pathways has elucidated the genetics of numerous inherited and acquired disorders associated with deficient or excessive RBC production and generated valuable drugs to treat anemia, including recombinant human EPO and more recently the prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors, which act partly by stimulating endogenous EPO synthesis. Ongoing structure-function studies of the EPOR and its essential partner, tyrosine kinase JAK2, suggest that it may be possible to generate new "designer" drugs that control selected subsets of cytokine receptor activities for therapeutic manipulation of hematopoiesis and treatment of blood cancers.

A real life use of ruxolitinib in patients with acute and chronic graft versus host disease refractory to corticosteroid treatment in Latin American patients

Introduction

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a serious complication in allogeneic transplantation. The first-line treatment is high doses of corticosteroids. In the absence of response to corticosteroids, several immunosuppressive drugs can be used, but they entail an elevated risk of severe infections. Added to this, there are patients who do not improve on any immunosuppressive treatment, with subsequent deteriorated quality of life and high mortality. Ruxolitinib has been shown to induce responses in refractory patients. In this study we have presented our real-life experience.

Methods

A retrospective analysis was performed on patients with severe GVHD refractory to corticosteroids. Demographic, previous treatment, response and mortality data were collected.

Results

Since 2014, seventeen patients with GVHD were treated with ruxolitinib due to refractoriness to corticosteroids and immunosuppressants and a few to extracorporeal photopheresis, 8 with acute GVHD (1 pulmonary, 4 cutaneous grade IV and 3 digestive grade IV) and 9 with chronic GHVD (5 cutaneous sclerodermiform, 2 pulmonary and 1 multisystemic). The overall response to ruxolitinib treatment for acute GVHD was 80%, 40% with partial response and 40% with complete remission. Global response in chronic GVHD was 79%. The GVHD mortality was only seen in acute disease and was 40%. Causes of mortality in those patients were severe viral pneumonia, post-transplantation hemophagocytic syndrome and meningeal GVHD refractory to ruxolitinib.

Conclusions

In our series, the use of ruxolitinib as a rescue strategy in acute or chronic GVHD was satisfactory. Ruxolitinib treatment in patients with a very poor prognosis showed encouraging results. However, the GVHD mortality remains high in refractory patients, showing that better therapeutic strategies are needed.

Finding a Jill for JAK: Assessing Past, Present, and Future JAK Inhibitor Combination Approaches in Myelofibrosis

Myelofibrosis (MF) is a myeloproliferative neoplasm hallmarked by the upregulation of the Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway with associated extramedullary hematopoiesis and a high burden of disease-related symptoms. While JAK inhibitor therapy is central to the management of MF, it is not without limitations. In an effort to improve treatment for MF patients, there have been significant efforts to identify combination strategies that build upon the substantial benefits of JAK inhibition. Early efforts to combine agents with additive therapeutic profiles have given way to rationally designed combinations hoping to demonstrate clinical synergism and modify the underlying disease. In this article, we review the preclinical basis and existing clinical data for JAK inhibitor combination strategies while highlighting emerging strategies of particular interest.

The relationship between JAK2(V617F) mutation and dermatomyositis-a case report and literature review

The JAK family (JAK1, JAK2, JAK3, and TYK2) have recently emerged as a potential therapeutic management in controlling severe and refractory dermatomyositis. Meanwhile, the progress in the discovery of JAK blockers is significant, with an increasing number of selective JAK inhibitors reported and some are in or prepare for clinical trials. However, the importance of each JAK in dermatomyositis is unclear, which is critical for a comprehensive understanding of dermatomyositis and significant for forming mechanism-based strategy. Here, we presented a case with clinically amyopathic dermatomyositis and essential thrombocytosis with a somatic constitutive active mutation of JAK2(V617F). The coexistence of these two uncommon diseases attracted us to investigate their underlying relationship. To this end, we characterized the clinical course and laboratory findings of this patient. Particularly, we correlated JAK2(V617F) mutation burden in affected peripheral blood subset with clinical activity score of dermatomyositis. Based on our observation, we concluded that these two diseases are independent disorders, and JAK2(V617F) mutation burden is irrelevant to the severity of dermatomyositis. Finally, we reviewed the literature and summarized them with a thorough discussion.

Cancer Immune Therapy for Philadelphia Chromosome-Negative Chronic Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

Philadelphia chromosome-negative chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN) are neoplastic diseases of the hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. MPN are characterized by chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation. Of interest, the potent immunostimulatory cytokine interferon-α has been used to treat MPN for decades. A deeper understanding of the anti-cancer immune response and of the different immune regulatory mechanisms in patients with MPN has paved the way for an increased perception of the potential of cancer immunotherapy in MPN. Therapeutic vaccination targeting the driver mutations in MPN is one recently described potential new treatment modality. Furthermore, T cells can directly react against regulatory immune cells because they recognize proteins like arginase and programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1). Therapeutic vaccination with arginase or PD-L1 therefore offers a novel way to directly affect immune inhibitory pathways, potentially altering tolerance to tumor antigens like mutant CALR and mutant JAK2. Other therapeutic options that could be used in concert with therapeutic cancer vaccines are immune checkpoint-blocking antibodies and interferon-α. For more advanced MPN, adoptive cellular therapy is a potential option that needs more preclinical investigation. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the immune system in MPN and discuss the many opportunities for anti-cancer immunotherapy in patients with MPN.

"Small" Intestinal Immunopathology Plays a "Big" Role in Lethal Cytokine Release Syndrome, and Its Modulation by Interferon-γ, IL-17A, and a Janus Kinase Inhibitor

Chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CART) therapy, administration of certain T cell-agonistic antibodies, immune check point inhibitors, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome–coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) caused by streptococcal as well as staphylococcal superantigens share one common complication, that is T cell-driven cytokine release syndrome (CRS) accompanied by multiple organ dysfunction (MOD). It is not understood whether the failure of a particular organ contributes more significantly to the severity of CRS. Also not known is whether a specific cytokine or signaling pathway plays a more pathogenic role in precipitating MOD compared to others. As a result, there is no specific treatment available to date for CRS, and it is managed only symptomatically to support the deteriorating organ functions and maintain the blood pressure. Therefore, we used the superantigen-induced CRS model in HLA-DR3 transgenic mice, that closely mimics human CRS, to delineate the immunopathogenesis of CRS as well as to validate a novel treatment for CRS. Using this model, we demonstrate that (i) CRS is characterized by a rapid rise in systemic levels of several Th1/Th2/Th17/Th22 type cytokines within a few hours, followed by a quick decline. (ii) Even though multiple organs are affected, small intestinal immunopathology is the major contributor to mortality in CRS. (iii) IFN-γ deficiency significantly protected from lethal CRS by attenuating small bowel pathology, whereas IL-17A deficiency significantly increased mortality by augmenting small bowel pathology. (iv) RNA sequencing of small intestinal tissues indicated that IFN-γ-STAT1-driven inflammatory pathways combined with enhanced expression of pro-apoptotic molecules as well as extracellular matrix degradation contributed to small bowel pathology in CRS. These pathways were further enhanced by IL-17A deficiency and significantly down-regulated in mice lacking IFN-γ. (v) Ruxolitinib, a selective JAK-1/2 inhibitor, attenuated SAg-induced T cell activation, cytokine production, and small bowel pathology, thereby completely protecting from lethal CRS in both WT and IL-17A deficient HLA-DR3 mice. Overall, IFN-γ-JAK-STAT-driven pathways contribute to lethal small intestinal immunopathology in T cell-driven CRS.

The role of circulating monocytes and JAK inhibition in the infectious-driven inflammatory response of myelofibrosis

Myelofibrosis (MF) is characterized by chronic inflammation and hyper-activation of the JAK-STAT pathway. Infections are one of the main causes of morbidity/mortality. Therapy with Ruxolitinib (RUX), a JAK1/2 inhibitor, may further increase the infectious risk. Monocytes are critical players in inflammation/immunity through cytokine production and release of bioactive extracellular vesicles. However, the functional behavior of MF monocytes, particularly during RUX therapy, is still unclear. In this study, we found that monocytes from JAK2V617F-mutated MF patients show an altered expression of chemokine (CCR2, CXCR3, CCR5) and cytokine (TNF-α-R, IL10-R, IL1β-R, IL6-R) receptors. Furthermore, their ability to produce and secrete free and extracellular vesicles-linked cytokines (IL1β, TNF-α, IL6, IL10) under lipopolysaccharides (LPS) stimulation is severely impaired. Interestingly, monocytes from RUX-treated patients show normal level of chemokine, IL10, IL1β, and IL6 receptors together with a restored ability to produce intracellular and to secrete extracellular vesicles-linked cytokines after LPS stimulation. Conversely, RUX therapy does not normalize TNF-R1/2 receptors expression and the LPS-driven secretion of free pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines. Accordingly, upon LPS stimulation, in vitro RUX treatment of monocytes from MF patients increases their secretion of extracellular vesicles-linked cytokines but inhibits the secretion of free pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, we demonstrated that in MF the infection-driven response of circulating monocytes is defective. Importantly, RUX promotes their infection-driven cytokine production suggesting that infections following RUX therapy may not be due to monocyte failure. These findings contribute to better interpreting the immune vulnerability of MF and to envisaging strategies to improve the infection-driven immune response.

Fedratinib in patients with myelofibrosis previously treated with ruxolitinib: An updated analysis of the JAKARTA2 study using stringent criteria for ruxolitinib failure

Fedratinib is an oral, selective Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) inhibitor. The phase II JAKARTA2 study assessed fedratinib in patients with intermediate‐ or high‐risk myelofibrosis (MF) who were resistant or intolerant to prior ruxolitinib per investigator assessment. Patients received fedratinib 400 mg/day in 28‐day cycles. The JAKARTA2 outcomes were initially reported using a last‐observation‐carried forward (LOCF) analysis in a “Per Protocol” population. This updated analysis of JAKARTA2 employs intention‐to‐treat analysis principles without LOCF for all treated patients (ITT Population; N = 97), and for a patient subgroup who met more stringent definitions of prior ruxolitinib failure (Stringent Criteria Cohort; n = 79). Median duration of prior ruxolitinib exposure was 10.7 months. The primary endpoint was spleen volume response rate (SVRR; ≥35% spleen volume decrease from baseline to end of cycle 6 [EOC6]). The SVRR was 31% in the ITT Population and 30% in the Stringent Criteria Cohort. Median duration of spleen volume response was not reached. Symptom response rate (≥50% reduction from baseline to EOC6 in total symptom score [TSS] on the modified Myelofibrosis Symptom Assessment Form [MFSAF]) was 27%. Grade 3‐4 anemia and thrombocytopenia rates were 38% and 22%, respectively. Patients with advanced MF substantially pretreated with ruxolitinib attained robust spleen responses and reduced symptom burden with fedratinib.

Management of myelofibrosis after ruxolitinib failure

Myelofibrosis is a BCR-ABL1-negative myeloproliferative neoplasm characterized by anemia, progressive splenomegaly, extramedullary hematopoiesis, bone marrow fibrosis, constitutional symptoms, leukemic progression, and shortened survival. Constitutive activation of the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway, and other cellular pathways downstream, leads to myeloproliferation, proinflammatory cytokine expression, and bone marrow remodeling. Transplant is the only curative option for myelofibrosis, but high rates of morbidity and mortality limit eligibility. Several prognostic models have been developed to facilitate treatment decisions. Until the recent approval of fedratinib, a JAK2 inhibitor, ruxolitinib was the only available JAK inhibitor for treatment of intermediate- or high-risk myelofibrosis. Ruxolitinib reduces splenomegaly to some degree in almost all treated patients; however, many patients cannot tolerate ruxolitinib due to dose-dependent drug-related cytopenias, and even patients with a good initial response often develop resistance to ruxolitinib after 2-3 years of therapy. Currently, there is no consensus definition of ruxolitinib failure. Until fedratinib approval, strategies to overcome ruxolitinib resistance or intolerance were mainly different approaches to continued ruxolitinib therapy, including dosing modifications and ruxolitinib rechallenge. Fedratinib and two other JAK2 inhibitors in later stages of clinical development, pacritinib and momelotinib, have been shown to induce clinical responses and improve symptoms in patients previously treated with ruxolitinib. Fedratinib induces robust spleen responses, and pacritinib and momelotinib may have preferential activity in patients with severe cytopenias. Reviewed here are strategies to ameliorate ruxolitinib resistance or intolerance, and outcomes of clinical trials in patients with myelofibrosis receiving second-line JAK inhibitors after ruxolitinib treatment.

Next-generation sequencing implicates oncogenic roles for p53 and JAK/STAT signaling in microcystic adnexal carcinomas

Microcystic adnexal carcinoma is a locally aggressive sweat gland carcinoma characterized by its infiltrative growth and histopathologic overlap with benign adnexal tumors, often posing challenges to both diagnosis and management. Understanding the molecular underpinnings of microcystic adnexal carcinoma may allow for more accurate diagnosis and identify potential targetable oncogenic drivers. We characterized 18 microcystic adnexal carcinomas by targeted, multiplexed PCR-based DNA next-generation sequencing of the coding sequence of over 400 cancer-relevant genes. The majority of cases had relatively few (<8) prioritized somatic mutations, and lacked an ultraviolet (UV) signature. The most recurrent mutation was TP53 inactivation in four (22%) tumors. Frame-preserving insertions affecting the kinase domain of JAK1 were detected in three (17%) cases, and were nonoverlapping with TP53 mutations. Seven (39%) cases demonstrated copy number gain of at least one oncogene. By immunohistochemistry, p53 expression was significantly higher in microcystic adnexal carcinomas with TP53 mutations compared with those without such mutations and syringomas. Similarly, phospho-STAT3 expression was significantly higher in microcystic adnexal carcinomas harboring JAK1 kinase insertions compared with those with wild-type JAK1 and syringomas. In conclusion, microcystic adnexal carcinomas are molecularly heterogeneous tumors, with inactivated p53 or activated JAK/STAT signaling in a subset. Unlike most other nonmelanoma skin cancers involving sun-exposed areas, most microcystic adnexal carcinomas lack evidence of UV damage, and hence likely originate from a relatively photo-protected progenitor population in the dermis. These findings have implications for the biology, diagnosis, and treatment of microcystic adnexal carcinomas, including potential for therapeutic targeting of p53 or the JAK/STAT pathway in advanced tumors.

JAK3 restrains inflammatory responses and protects against periodontal disease through Wnt3a signaling

Homeostasis between pro- and anti- inflammatory responses induced by bacteria is critical for the maintenance of health. In the oral cavity, pro-inflammatory mechanisms induced by pathogenic bacteria are well-established; however, the anti-inflammatory responses that act to restrain innate responses remain poorly characterized. Here, we demonstrate that infection with the periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis enhances the activity of Janus kinase 3 (JAK3) in innate immune cells, and subsequently phospho-inactivates Nedd4-2, an ubiquitin E3 ligase. In turn, Wingless-INT (Wnt) 3 (Wnt3) ubiquitination is decreased, while total protein levels are enhanced, leading to a reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. In contrast, JAK3 or Wnt3a inhibition robustly enhances nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells activity and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in P. gingivalis-stimulated innate immune cells. Moreover, using gain- and loss-of-function approaches, we demonstrate that downstream molecules of Wnt3a signaling, including Dvl3 and β-catenin, are responsible for the negative regulatory role of Wnt3a. In addition, using an in vivo P. gingivalis-mediated periodontal disease model, we show that JAK3 inhibition enhances infiltration of inflammatory cells, reduces expression of Wnt3a and Dvl3 in P. gingivalis-infected gingival tissues, and increases disease severity. Together, our results reveal a new anti-inflammatory role for JAK3 in innate immune cells and show that the underlying signaling pathway involves Nedd4-2-mediated Wnt3a ubiquitination.

Inhibition of JAK1/2 can overcome EGFR-TKI resistance in human NSCLC

Non-small lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common cancer in the world. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene is mutated in approximately 10% of lung cancer cases in the US and 50% of lung cancer in Asia. The representative target therapeutic agent, erlotinib (EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor; EGFR TKI), is effective in inactivating EGFR in lung cancer patients. However, approximately 50-60% of patients are resistant to EGFR TKI. These populations are associated with the EGFR mutation. To overcome resistance to EGFR TKI, we discovered a JAK1 inhibitor, CJ14939. We investigated the efficacy of CJ14939 in human NSCLC cell lines in vitro and in vivo. Our results showed that CJ14939 induced the inhibition of cell growth. Moreover, we demonstrated that combination treatment with erlotinib and CJ14939 induced cell death in vitro and inhibited tumor growth in vivo. In addition, we confirmed the suppression of phosphorylated EGFR, JAK1, and Stat3 expression in erlotinib and CJ14939-treated human NSCLC cell lines. Our results provide evidence that JAK inhibition overcomes resistance to EGFR TKI in human NSCLCs.

The neonatal microenvironment programs innate γδ T cells through the transcription factor STAT5

IL-17-producing RORγt+ γδ T cells (γδT17 cells) are innate lymphocytes that participate in type 3 immune responses during infection and inflammation. Herein, we show that γδT17 cells rapidly proliferate within neonatal lymph nodes and gut, where, upon entry, they upregulate T-bet and coexpress IL-17, IL-22, and IFN-γ in a STAT3- and retinoic acid-dependent manner. Neonatal expansion was halted in mice conditionally deficient in STAT5, and its loss resulted in γδT17 cell depletion from all adult organs. Hyperactive STAT5 mutant mice showed that the STAT5A homolog had a dominant role over STAT5B in promoting γδT17 cell expansion and downregulating gut-associated T-bet. In contrast, STAT5B preferentially expanded IFN-γ-producing γδ populations, implying a previously unknown differential role of STAT5 gene products in lymphocyte lineage regulation. Importantly, mice lacking γδT17 cells as a result of STAT5 deficiency displayed a profound resistance to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Our data identify that the neonatal microenvironment in combination with STAT5 is critical for post-thymic γδT17 development and tissue-specific imprinting, which is essential for infection and autoimmunity.

Use of molecularly-cloned haematopoietic growth factors in persons exposed to acute high-dose, high-dose rate whole-body ionizing radiations

Exposure to acute, high-dose, high dose-rate whole-body ionizing radiations damages the bone marrow resulting in rapid decreases in concentrations of blood cells, especially lymphocytes, granulocytes and platelets with associated risks of infection and bleeding. In several experimental models including non-human primate radiation exposure models giving molecularly cloned haematopoietic growth factor including granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (G/M-CSF; sargramostim) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF; filgrastim and pegylated G-CSF [peg-filgrastim]) accelerates bone marrow recovery and increases survival. Based on these data these molecules are US FDA approved for treating victims of radiation and nuclear incidents, accident and events such as nuclear terrorism and are included in the US National Strategic Stockpile. We discuss the immediate medical response to these events including how to estimate radiation dose and uniformity and which interventions are appropriate in different radiation exposures settings. We also discuss similarities and differences between molecularly cloned haematopoietic growth factors.

How does methotrexate work?

Developed over 70 years ago as an anti-folate chemotherapy agent, methotrexate (MTX) is a WHO ‘essential medicine’ that is now widely employed as a first-line treatment in auto-immune, inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriasis and Crone's disease. When used for these diseases patients typically take a once weekly low-dose of MTX — a therapy which provides effective inflammatory control to tens of millions of people worldwide. While undoubtedly effective, our understanding of the anti-inflammatory mechanism-of-action of low-dose MTX is incomplete. In particular, the long-held dogma that this disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug (DMARD) acts via the folate pathway does not appear to hold up to scrutiny. Recently, MTX has been identified as an inhibitor of JAK/STAT pathway activity, a suggestion supported by many independent threads of evidence. Intriguingly, the JAK/STAT pathway is central to both the inflammatory and immune systems and is a pathway already targeted by other RA treatments. We suggest that the DMARD activity of MTX is likely to be largely mediated by its inhibition of JAK/STAT pathway signalling while many of its side effects are likely associated with the folate pathway. This insight into the mechanism-of-action of MTX opens the possibility for repurposing this low cost, safe and effective drug for the treatment of other JAK/STAT pathway-associated diseases.

Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is a new therapeutic target in JAK2V617F-positive myeloproliferative neoplasms

Classical Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN) are a heterogeneous group of hematopoietic malignancies including polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocythemia (ET), and primary myelofibrosis (PMF). The JAK2V617F mutation plays a central role in these disorders and can be found in 90% of PV and ~50-60% of ET and PMF. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is a master transcriptional regulator of the response to decreased oxygen levels. We demonstrate the impact of pharmacological inhibition and shRNA-mediated knockdown (KD) of HIF-1α in JAK2V617F-positive cells. Inhibition of HIF-1 binding to hypoxia response elements (HREs) with echinomycin, verified by ChIP, impaired growth and survival by inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in Jak2V617F-positive 32D cells, but not Jak2WT controls. Echinomycin selectively abrogated clonogenic growth of JAK2V617F cells and decreased growth, survival, and colony formation of bone marrow and peripheral blood mononuclear cells and iPS cell-derived progenitor cells from JAK2V617F-positive patients, while cells from healthy donors were unaffected. We identified HIF-1 target genes involved in the Warburg effect as a possible underlying mechanism, with increased expression of Pdk1, Glut1, and others. That was underlined by transcriptome analysis of primary patient samples. Collectively, our data show that HIF-1 is a new potential therapeutic target in JAK2V617F-positive MPN.

Adopting solutions for annotation and reporting of next generation sequencing in clinical practice

With advancements in the understanding of human cancers (carcinomas, sarcomas, and hematopoietic malignancies), molecular profiling, especially by Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), is playing an increasingly important role in the diagnosis, prognostication, and therapeutic management of cancer patients. The final and critical step in NGS is the annotation of detected variants and reporting of their clinical significance. Automated bioinformatics tools are available to assist with annotation, but the final responsibility for interpretation and validation of the annotation rests with the pathologist who may be constrained by the pressures of clinical sign-out and limited training in NGS. In this manuscript, we detail our experience in outsourcing variant annotation to a high-quality vendor to improve quality, standardize reporting, and decrease turn-around time of NGS reporting in clinical practice. We describe the composition of the evaluation team, steps that should be taken to evaluate potential annotation vendors, and detailed parameters that should be addressed before contracting with a vendor to guarantee the clinical reliability of the reported annotations.

Pharmacological Inhibition of Oncogenic STAT3 and STAT5 Signaling in Hematopoietic Cancers

Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) 3 and 5 are important effectors of cellular transformation, and aberrant STAT3 and STAT5 signaling have been demonstrated in hematopoietic cancers. STAT3 and STAT5 are common targets for different tyrosine kinase oncogenes (TKOs). In addition, STAT3 and STAT5 proteins were shown to contain activating mutations in some rare but aggressive leukemias/lymphomas. Both proteins also contribute to drug resistance in hematopoietic malignancies and are now well recognized as major targets in cancer treatment. The development of inhibitors targeting STAT3 and STAT5 has been the subject of intense investigations during the last decade. This review summarizes the current knowledge of oncogenic STAT3 and STAT5 functions in hematopoietic cancers as well as advances in preclinical and clinical development of pharmacological inhibitors.