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Cordy RJ, Patrapuvich R, Lili LN, Cabrera-Mora M, Chien JT, Tharp GK, Khadka M, Meyer EV, Lapp SA, Joyner CJ, Garcia A, Banton S, Tran V, Luvira V, Rungin S, Saeseu T, Rachaphaew N, Pakala SB, DeBarry JD, Kissinger JC, Ortlund EA, Bosinger SE, Barnwell JW, Jones DP, Uppal K, Li S, Sattabongkot J, Moreno A, Galinski MR. Distinct amino acid and lipid perturbations characterize acute versus chronic malaria. JCI Insight 2019; 4:125156. [PMID: 31045574 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.125156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic malaria is a major public health problem and significant challenge for disease eradication efforts. Despite its importance, the biological factors underpinning chronic malaria are not fully understood. Recent studies have shown that host metabolic state can influence malaria pathogenesis and transmission, but its role in chronicity is not known. Here, with the goal of identifying distinct modifications in the metabolite profiles of acute versus chronic malaria, metabolomics was performed on plasma from Plasmodium-infected humans and nonhuman primates with a range of parasitemias and clinical signs. In rhesus macaques infected with Plasmodium coatneyi, significant alterations in amines, carnitines, and lipids were detected during a high parasitemic acute phase and many of these reverted to baseline levels once a low parasitemic chronic phase was established. Plasmodium gene expression, studied in parallel in the macaques, revealed transcriptional changes in amine, fatty acid, lipid and energy metabolism genes, as well as variant antigen genes. Furthermore, a common set of amines, carnitines, and lipids distinguished acute from chronic malaria in plasma from human Plasmodium falciparum cases. In summary, distinct host-parasite metabolic environments have been uncovered that characterize acute versus chronic malaria, providing insights into the underlying host-parasite biology of malaria disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Joice Cordy
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Loukia N Lili
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Institute for Next Generation Healthcare, Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Monica Cabrera-Mora
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jung-Ting Chien
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Gregory K Tharp
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Manoj Khadka
- Emory Integrated Lipidomics Core, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Esmeralda Vs Meyer
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Stacey A Lapp
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Chester J Joyner
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - AnaPatricia Garcia
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Sophia Banton
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - ViLinh Tran
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Viravarn Luvira
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siriwan Rungin
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Teerawat Saeseu
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | | | | | | | - Jessica C Kissinger
- Institute of Bioinformatics.,Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, and.,Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Eric A Ortlund
- Emory Integrated Lipidomics Core, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Steven E Bosinger
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - John W Barnwell
- Malaria Branch, Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Dean P Jones
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Karan Uppal
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Shuzhao Li
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Alberto Moreno
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Mary R Galinski
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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52
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Chan JA, Boyle MJ, Moore KA, Reiling L, Lin Z, Hasang W, Avril M, Manning L, Mueller I, Laman M, Davis T, Smith JD, Rogerson SJ, Simpson JA, Fowkes FJI, Beeson JG. Antibody Targets on the Surface of Plasmodium falciparum-Infected Erythrocytes That Are Associated With Immunity to Severe Malaria in Young Children. J Infect Dis 2019; 219:819-828. [PMID: 30365004 PMCID: PMC6376912 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (IEs) in the microvasculature contributes to pathogenesis of severe malaria in children. This mechanism is mediated by antigens expressed on the IE surface. However, knowledge of specific targets and functions of antibodies to IE surface antigens that protect against severe malaria is limited. METHODS Antibodies to IE surface antigens were examined in a case-control study of young children in Papua New Guinea presenting with severe or uncomplicated malaria (n = 448), using isolates with a virulent phenotype associated with severe malaria, and functional opsonic phagocytosis assays. We used genetically modified isolates and recombinant P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) domains to quantify PfEMP1 as a target of antibodies associated with disease severity. RESULTS Antibodies to the IE surface and recombinant PfEMP1 domains were significantly higher in uncomplicated vs severe malaria and were boosted following infection. The use of genetically modified P. falciparum revealed that PfEMP1 was a major target of antibodies and that PfEMP1-specific antibodies were associated with reduced odds of severe malaria. Furthermore, antibodies promoting the opsonic phagocytosis of IEs by monocytes were lower in those with severe malaria. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that PfEMP1 is a dominant target of antibodies associated with reduced risk of severe malaria, and function in part by promoting opsonic phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jo-Anne Chan
- Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne
| | - Michelle J Boyle
- Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne
| | - Kerryn A Moore
- Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville
- Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne
| | - Linda Reiling
- Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne
| | - Zaw Lin
- Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne
| | - Wina Hasang
- Department of Medicine, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Marion Avril
- Center for Infectious Diseases Research, Seattle, Washington
| | - Laurens Manning
- Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, Madang
- University of Western Australia, Perth
| | - Ivo Mueller
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville
| | - Moses Laman
- Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, Madang
| | | | - Joseph D Smith
- Center for Infectious Diseases Research, Seattle, Washington
| | - Stephen J Rogerson
- Department of Medicine, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Julie A Simpson
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville
| | - Freya J I Fowkes
- Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne
- Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - James G Beeson
- Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne
- Department of Medicine, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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53
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Zhu L, Tripathi J, Rocamora FM, Miotto O, van der Pluijm R, Voss TS, Mok S, Kwiatkowski DP, Nosten F, Day NPJ, White NJ, Dondorp AM, Bozdech Z. The origins of malaria artemisinin resistance defined by a genetic and transcriptomic background. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5158. [PMID: 30514877 PMCID: PMC6279830 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07588-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The predisposition of parasites acquiring artemisinin resistance still remains unclear beyond the mutations in Pfk13 gene and modulation of the unfolded protein response pathway. To explore the chain of casualty underlying artemisinin resistance, we reanalyze 773 P. falciparum isolates from TRACI-study integrating TWAS, GWAS, and eQTL analyses. We find the majority of P. falciparum parasites are transcriptomically converged within each geographic site with two broader physiological profiles across the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS). We report 8720 SNP-expression linkages in the eastern GMS parasites and 4537 in the western. The minimal overlap between them suggests differential gene regulatory networks facilitating parasite adaptations to their unique host environments. Finally, we identify two genetic and physiological backgrounds associating with artemisinin resistance in the GMS, together with a farnesyltransferase protein and a thioredoxin-like protein which may act as vital intermediators linking the Pfk13 C580Y mutation to the prolonged parasite clearance time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhu
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Jaishree Tripathi
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | | | - Olivo Miotto
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Genomics and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Rob van der Pluijm
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Till S Voss
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, 4051, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, 4001, Switzerland
| | - Sachel Mok
- Columbia University Medical Center, Columbia University, New York, 10027, USA
| | - Dominic P Kwiatkowski
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre for Genomics and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - François Nosten
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
- Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Mae Sot, 63110, Thailand
| | - Nicholas P J Day
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Nicholas J White
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Arjen M Dondorp
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7LF, UK
| | - Zbynek Bozdech
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637551, Singapore.
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54
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Gallego-Lopez GM, Lau AOT, O'Connor RM, Ueti MW, Cooke BM, Laughery JM, Graça T, Madsen-Bouterse SA, Oldiges DP, Allred DR, Suarez CE. Up-regulated expression of spherical body protein 2 truncated copy 11 in Babesia bovis is associated with reduced cytoadhesion to vascular endothelial cells. Int J Parasitol 2018; 49:127-137. [PMID: 30367864 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The factors involved in gain or loss of virulence in Babesia bovis are unknown. Spherical body protein 2 truncated copy 11 (sbp2t11) transcripts in B. bovis were recently reported to be a marker of attenuation for B. bovis strains. Increased cytoadhesion of B. bovis-infected red blood cells (iRBC) to vascular endothelial cells is associated with severe disease outcomes and an indicator of parasite virulence. Here, we created a stable B. bovis transfected line over-expressing sbp2t11 to determine whether up-regulation of sbp2t11 is associated with changes in cytoadhesion. This line was designated sbp2t11up and five B. bovis clonal lines were derived from the sbp2t11up line by limiting dilution for characterisation. We compared the ability of iRBCs from the sbp2t11up line and its five derivative clonal lines to adhere to bovine brain endothelial cells, using an in vitro cytoadhesion assay. The same lines were selected for in vitro cytoadhesion and the levels of sbp2t11 transcripts in each selected line were quantified. Our results demonstrate that up-regulation of sbp2t11 is accompanied by a statistically significant reduction in cytoadhesion. Confirmed up-regulation of sbp2t11 in B. bovis concomitant with the reduction of iRBC in vitro cytoadhesion to bovine brain endothelial cell is consistent with our previous finding that up-regulation of sbp2t11 is an attenuation marker in B. bovis and suggests the involvement of sbp2t11 transcription in B. bovis virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina M Gallego-Lopez
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Audrey O T Lau
- The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, DEA, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
| | - Roberta M O'Connor
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Massaro W Ueti
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA; Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Pullman, WA 99164-6630, USA
| | - Brian M Cooke
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Jacob M Laughery
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Telmo Graça
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Sally A Madsen-Bouterse
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Daiane P Oldiges
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - David R Allred
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0880, USA
| | - Carlos E Suarez
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA; Animal Disease Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Pullman, WA 99164-6630, USA.
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55
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Comprehensive analysis of antibody responses to Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 domains. Vaccine 2018; 36:6826-6833. [PMID: 30262245 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Acquired antibodies directed towards antigens expressed on the surface of merozoites and infected erythrocytes play an important role in protective immunity to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1), the major parasite component of the infected erythrocyte surface, has been implicated in malaria pathology, parasite sequestration and host immune evasion. However, the extent to which unique PfEMP1 domains interact with host immune response remains largely unknown. In this study, we sought to comprehensively understand the naturally acquired antibody responses targeting different Duffy binding-like (DBL), and Cysteine-rich interdomain region (CIDR) domains in a Ugandan cohort. Consequently, we created a protein library consisting of full-length DBL (n = 163) and CIDR (n = 108) domains derived from 62-var genes based on 3D7 genome. The proteins were expressed by a wheat germ cell-free system; a system that yields plasmodial proteins that are comparatively soluble, intact, biologically active and immunoreactive to human sera. Our findings suggest that all PfEMP1 DBL and CIDR domains, regardless of PfEMP1 group, are targets of naturally acquired immunity. The breadth of the immune response expands with children's age. We concurrently identified 10 DBL and 8 CIDR domains whose antibody responses were associated with reduced risk to symptomatic malaria in the Ugandan children cohort. This study highlights that only a restricted set of specific domains are essential for eliciting naturally acquired protective immunity in malaria. In light of current data, tandem domains in PfEMP1s PF3D7_0700100 and PF3D7_0425800 (DC4) are recommended for extensive evaluation in larger population cohorts to further assess their potential as alternative targets for malaria vaccine development.
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56
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Abstract
Human malaria is a complex disease that can show a wide array of clinical outcomes, from asymptomatic carriage and chronic infection to acute disease presenting various life-threatening pathologies. The specific outcome of an infection is believed to be determined by a multifactorial interplay between the host and the parasite but with a general trend toward disease attenuation with increasing prior exposure. Therefore, the main burden of malaria in a population can be understood as a function of transmission intensity, which itself is intricately linked to the prevalence of infected hosts and mosquito vectors, the distribution of infection outcomes, and the parasite population diversity. Predicting the long-term impact of malaria intervention measures therefore requires an in-depth understanding of how the parasite causes disease, how this relates to previous exposures, and how different infection pathologies contribute to parasite transmission. Here, we provide a brief overview of recent advances in the molecular epidemiology of clinical malaria and how these might prove to be influential in our fight against this important disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Recker
- Centre for Mathematics and the Environment, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Peter C Bull
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Caroline O Buckee
- Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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57
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Smith ML, Styczynski MP. Systems Biology-Based Investigation of Host-Plasmodium Interactions. Trends Parasitol 2018; 34:617-632. [PMID: 29779985 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a serious, complex disease caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Plasmodium parasites affect multiple tissues as they evade immune responses, replicate, sexually reproduce, and transmit between vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. The explosion of omics technologies has enabled large-scale collection of Plasmodium infection data, revealing systems-scale patterns, mechanisms of pathogenesis, and the ways that host and pathogen affect each other. Here, we provide an overview of recent efforts using systems biology approaches to study host-Plasmodium interactions and the biological themes that have emerged from these efforts. We discuss some of the challenges in using systems biology for this goal, key research efforts needed to address those issues, and promising future malaria applications of systems biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maren L Smith
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Malaria Host-Pathogen Interaction Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Mark P Styczynski
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; Malaria Host-Pathogen Interaction Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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