Mechanism of neuronal versus endothelial cell uptake of Alzheimer's disease amyloid beta protein

Delivery of drugs to the brain via the blood brain barrier using colloidal carriers

Delivering drugs to the brain is challenging given the selective permeability of the blood brain barrier (BBB). Targeted colloidal carriers containing drug payloads offer some promise for enhanced and perhaps selective delivery to brain. This review examines the recent literature and identifies issues to be addressed if these systems are to be rationally designed. These include opsonization of nanoparticles and off-target clearance; the cerebral microvasculature, flow of nanoparticles in capillaries and binding to the capillary wall; and transcytosis. Capillary architecture, blood flow and BBB permeability are affected by disease and age and there are species differences. These complexities caution against making extravagant claims for a particular nanosystem but they also highlight the rich opportunities and need for critical research in this field.

Amyloid beta protein-induced zinc sequestration leads to synaptic loss via dysregulation of the ProSAP2/Shank3 scaffold

Background

Memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease (AD) manifest together with the loss of synapses caused by the disruption of the postsynaptic density (PSD), a network of scaffold proteins located in dendritic spines. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Since it was shown that ProSAP2/Shank3 scaffold assembly within the PSD is Zn²⁺-dependent and that the amyloid beta protein (Aβ) is able to bind Zn²⁺, we hypothesize that sequestration of Zn²⁺ ions by Aβ contributes to ProSAP/Shank platform malformation.

Results

To test this hypothesis, we designed multiple in vitro and in vivo assays demonstrating ProSAP/Shank dysregulation in rat hippocampal cultures following Aβ oligomer accumulation. These changes were independent from alterations on ProSAP/Shank transcriptional level. However, application of soluble Aβ prevented association of Zn²⁺ ions with ProSAP2/Shank3 in a cell-based assay and decreased the concentration of Zn²⁺ clusters within dendrites. Zn²⁺ supplementation or saturation of Aβ with Zn²⁺ ions prior to cell treatment was able to counter the effects induced by Aβ on synapse density and ProSAP2/Shank3 levels at the PSD. Interestingly, intracellular Zn²⁺ levels in APP-PS1 mice and human AD hippocampus are reduced along with a reduction in synapse density and synaptic ProSAP2/Shank3 and Shank1 protein levels.

Conclusions

We conclude that sequestration of Zn²⁺ ions by Aβ significantly contributes to changes in ProSAP2/Shank3 platforms. These changes in turn lead to less consolidated (mature) synapses reflected by a decrease in Shank1 protein levels at the PSD and decreased synapse density in hippocampal neurons.

Infection of primary neurons mediated by nipah virus envelope proteins: role of host target cells in antiviral action

We have previously described heterotypic peptides from parainfluenza virus that potently inhibit Nipah virus in vitro but are not efficacious in vivo. In contrast, our second-generation inhibitors, featuring a cholesterol moiety, are also efficacious in vivo. The difference between in vitro and in vivo results led us to investigate the basis for this discrepancy. Here, we compare the activities of the compounds in standard laboratory cells and in cells relevant to the natural tropism of Nipah virus, i.e., primary neurons, and show that while our first-generation inhibitors are poorly active in primary neurons, the cholesterol-conjugated compounds are highly potent. These results highlight the advantage of evaluating antiviral potency in cells relevant to natural host target tissue.

Mechanisms of amyloid-Beta Peptide uptake by neurons: the role of lipid rafts and lipid raft-associated proteins

A hallmark pathological feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the accumulation of extracellular plaques composed of the amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide. Thus, classically experiments were designed to examine Aβ toxicities within the central nervous system (CNS) from the extracellular space. However, a significant amount of evidence now suggests that intraneuronal accumulation of Aβ is neurotoxic and may play an important role in the disease progression of AD. One of the means by which neurons accumulate intracellular Aβ is through uptake of extracellular Aβ peptides, and this process may be a potential link between Aβ generation, synaptic dysfunction, and AD pathology. Recent studies have found that neuronal internalization of Aβ involves lipid rafts and various lipid raft-associated receptor proteins. Uptake mechanisms independent of lipid rafts have also been implicated. The aim of this paper is to summarize these findings and discuss their significance in the pathogenesis of AD.

An apolipoprotein E4 fragment can promote intracellular accumulation of amyloid peptide beta 42

Apolipoprotein E (apoE) plays a crucial role in lipid transport in circulation and the brain. The apoE4 isoform is a major risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE4 is more susceptible to proteolysis than other apoE isoforms and apoE4 fragments have been found in brains of AD patients. These apoE4 fragments have been hypothesized to be involved in the pathogenesis of AD, although the mechanism is not clear. In this study we examined the effect of lipid-free apoE4 on amyloid precursor protein processing and 40-amino-acid Aβ variant and 42-amino-acid Aβ variant levels in human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cells. We discovered that a specific apoE4 fragment, apoE4[Δ(166-299)], can promote the cellular uptake of extracellular 40-amino-acid Aβ variant and 42-amino-acid Aβ variant either generated after amyloid precursor protein transfection or added exogenously. A longer length fragment, apoE4[Δ(186-299)], or full-length apoE4 failed to elicit this effect. ApoE4[Δ(166-299)] effected a 20% reduction of cellular sphingomyelin levels, as well as changes in cellular membrane micro-fluidity. Following uptake, approximately 50% of 42-amino-acid Aβ variant remained within the cell for at least 24 h, and led to increased formation of reactive oxygen species. Overall, our findings suggest a direct link between two early events in the pathogenesis of AD, apoE4 proteolysis and intraneuronal presence of amyloid beta peptide.

Astrocytic A beta 1-42 uptake is determined by A beta-aggregation state and the presence of amyloid-associated proteins

Intracerebral accumulation of amyloid-beta (A beta) leading to A beta plaque formation, is the main hallmark of Alzheimer's disease and might be caused by defective A beta-clearance. We previously found primary human astrocytes and microglia able to bind and ingest A beta 1-42 in vitro, which appeared to be limited by A beta 1-42 fibril formation. We now confirm that astrocytic A beta-uptake depends on size and/or composition of A beta-aggregates as astrocytes preferably take up oligomeric A beta over fibrillar A beta. Upon exposure to either fluorescence-labelled A beta 1-42 oligomers (A beta(oligo)) or fibrils (A beta(fib)), a larger (3.7 times more) proportion of astrocytes ingested oligomers compared to fibrils, as determined by flow cytometry. A beta-internalization was verified using confocal microscopy and live-cell imaging. Neither uptake of A beta(oligo) nor A beta(fib), triggered proinflammatory activation of the astrocytes, as judged by quantification of interleukin-6 and monocyte-chemoattractant protein-1 release. Amyloid-associated proteins, including alpha1-antichymotrypsin (ACT), serum amyloid P component (SAP), C1q and apolipoproteins E (ApoE) and J (ApoJ) were earlier found to influence A beta-aggregation. Here, astrocytic uptake of A beta(fib) increased when added to the cells in combination with SAP and C1q (SAP/C1q), but was unchanged in the presence of ApoE, ApoJ and ACT. Interestingly, ApoJ and ApoE dramatically reduced the number of A beta(oligo)-positive astrocytes, whereas SAP/C1q slightly reduced A beta(oligo) uptake. Thus, amyloid-associated proteins, especially ApoJ and ApoE, can alter A beta-uptake in vitro and hence may influence A beta clearance and plaque formation in vivo.

Alzheimer's disease: effects of β-amyloid on mitochondria

The impairment of the respiratory chain or defects in the detoxification system can decrease electron transfer efficiency, reduce ATP production, and increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by mitochondria. Accumulation of ROS results in oxidative stress, a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). β-amyloid has been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD, and its accumulation may lead to degeneration of neuronal or non-neuronal cells. There is evidence that β-amyloid interacts with mitochondria but little is known concerning the significance of this interaction in the physiopathology of AD. This review explores possible mechanisms of β-amyloid-induced mitochondrial toxicity.

Synaptotoxicity of Alzheimer beta amyloid can be explained by its membrane perforating property

The mechanisms that induce Alzheimer's disease (AD) are largely unknown thereby deterring the development of disease-modifying therapies. One working hypothesis of AD is that Aβ excess disrupts membranes causing pore formation leading to alterations in ionic homeostasis. However, it is largely unknown if this also occurs in native brain neuronal membranes. Here we show that similar to other pore forming toxins, Aβ induces perforation of neuronal membranes causing an increase in membrane conductance, intracellular calcium and ethidium bromide influx. These data reveal that the target of Aβ is not another membrane protein, but that Aβ itself is the cellular target thereby explaining the failure of current therapies to interfere with the course of AD. We propose that this novel effect of Aβ could be useful for the discovery of anti AD drugs capable of blocking these “Aβ perforates”. In addition, we demonstrate that peptides that block Aβ neurotoxicity also slow or prevent the membrane-perforating action of Aβ.

Synapses, synaptic activity and intraneuronal abeta in Alzheimer's disease

β-Amyloid peptide accumulation plays a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Aberrant β-amyloid buildup in the brain has been shown to be present both in the extracellular space and within neurons. Synapses are important targets of β-amyloid, and alterations in synapses better correlate with cognitive impairment than amyloid plaques or neurofibrillary tangles. The link between β-amyloid and synapses became even tighter when it was discovered that β-amyloid accumulates within synapses and that synaptic activity modulates β-amyloid secretion. Currently, a central question in Alzheimer's disease research is what role synaptic activity plays in the disease process, and how specifically β-amyloid is involved in the synaptic dysfunction that characterizes the disease.

Endocytic pathways mediating oligomeric Abeta42 neurotoxicity

BACKGROUND

One pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is amyloid plaques, composed primarily of amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta). Over-production or diminished clearance of the 42 amino acid form of Abeta (Abeta42) in the brain leads to accumulation of soluble Abeta and plaque formation. Soluble oligomeric Abeta (oAbeta) has recently emerged to be as a likely proximal cause of AD.

RESULTS

Here we demonstrate that endocytosis is critical in mediating oAbeta42-induced neurotoxicity and intraneuronal accumulation of Abeta. Inhibition of clathrin function either with a pharmacological inhibitor, knock-down of clathrin heavy chain expression, or expression of the dominant-negative mutant of clathrin-assembly protein AP180 did not block oAbeta42-induced neurotoxicity or intraneuronal accumulation of Abeta. However, inhibition of dynamin and RhoA by expression of dominant negative mutants reduced neurotoxicity and intraneuronal Abeta accumulation. Pharmacologic inhibition of the dynamin-mediated endocytic pathway by genistein also reduced neurotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that dynamin-mediated and RhoA-regulated endocytosis are integral steps for oligomeric Abeta42-induced neurotoxicity and intraneuronal Abeta accumulation.

HH domain of Alzheimer's disease Abeta provides structural basis for neuronal binding in PC12 and mouse cortical/hippocampal neurons

A key question in understanding AD is whether extracellular Aβ deposition of parenchymal amyloid plaques or intraneuronal Aβ accumulation initiates the AD process. Amyloid precursor protein (APP) is endocytosed from the cell surface into endosomes where it is cleaved to produce soluble Aβ which is then released into the brain interstitial fluid. Intraneuronal Aβ accumulation is hypothesized to predominate from the neuronal uptake of this soluble extracellular Aβ rather than from ER/Golgi processing of APP. We demonstrate that substitution of the two adjacent histidine residues of Aβ40 results in a significant decrease in its binding with PC12 cells and mouse cortical/hippocampal neurons. These substitutions also result in a dramatic enhancement of both thioflavin-T positive fibril formation and binding to preformed Aβ fibrils while maintaining its plaque-binding ability in AD transgenic mice. Hence, alteration of the histidine domain of Aβ prevented neuronal binding and drove Aβ to enhanced fibril formation and subsequent amyloid plaque deposition - a potential mechanism for removing toxic species of Aβ. Substitution or even masking of these Aβ histidine residues might provide a new therapeutic direction for minimizing neuronal uptake and subsequent neuronal degeneration and maximizing targeting to amyloid plaques.

Real-time imaging and quantification of amyloid-beta peptide aggregates by novel quantum-dot nanoprobes

BACKGROUND

Protein aggregation plays a major role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease. However, direct real-time imaging of protein aggregation, including oligomerization and fibrillization, has never been achieved. Here we demonstrate the preparation of fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystal (quantum dot; QD)-labeled amyloid-beta peptide (QDAbeta) and its advanced applications.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The QDAbeta construct retained Abeta oligomer-forming ability, and the sizes of these oligomers could be estimated from the relative fluorescence intensities of the imaged spots. Both QDAbeta coaggregation with intact Abeta42 and insertion into fibrils were detected by fluorescence microscopy. The coaggregation process was observed by real-time 3D imaging using slit-scanning confocal microscopy, which showed a typical sigmoid curve with 1.5 h in the lag-time and 12 h until saturation. Inhibition of coaggregation using an anti-Abeta antibody can be observed as 3D images on a microscopic scale. Microglia ingested monomeric QDAbeta more significantly than oligomeric QDAbeta, and the ingested QDAbeta was mainly accumulated in the lysosome.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

These data demonstrate that QDAbeta is a novel nanoprobe for studying Abeta oligomerization and fibrillization in multiple modalities and may be applicable for high-throughput drug screening systems.