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Abstract
Several studies have shown that minocycline, a semisynthetic, second-generation tetracycline derivative, is neuroprotective in animal models of central nervous system trauma and several neurodegenerative diseases. Common to all these reports are the beneficial effects of minocycline in reducing neural inflammation and preventing cell death. Here, the authors review the proposed mechanisms of action of minocycline and suggest that minocycline may inhibit several aspects of the inflammatory response and prevent cell death through the inhibition of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, an important regulator of immune cell function and cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Stirling
- ICORD (International Collaboration On Repair Discoveries), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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52
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Kumar H, Ropper AE, Lee SH, Han I. Propitious Therapeutic Modulators to Prevent Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier Disruption in Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:3578-3590. [PMID: 27194298 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9910-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) is a specialized protective barrier that regulates the movement of molecules between blood vessels and the spinal cord parenchyma. Analogous to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the BSCB plays a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis and internal environmental stability of the central nervous system (CNS). After spinal cord injury (SCI), BSCB disruption leads to inflammatory cell invasion such as neutrophils and macrophages, contributing to permanent neurological disability. In this review, we focus on the major proteins mediating the BSCB disruption or BSCB repair after SCI. This review is composed of three parts. Section 1. SCI and the BSCB of the review describes critical events involved in the pathophysiology of SCI and their correlation with BSCB integrity/disruption. Section 2. Major proteins involved in BSCB disruption in SCI focuses on the actions of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), angiopoietins (Angs), bradykinin, nitric oxide (NO), and endothelins (ETs) in BSCB disruption and repair. Section 3. Therapeutic approaches discusses the major therapeutic compounds utilized to date for the prevention of BSCB disruption in animal model of SCI through modulation of several proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemant Kumar
- Department of Neurosurgery, CHA University, CHA Bundang Medical Center, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13496, Republic of Korea
| | - Alexander E Ropper
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Soo-Hong Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science, CHA University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13488, Republic of Korea.
| | - Inbo Han
- Department of Neurosurgery, CHA University, CHA Bundang Medical Center, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13496, Republic of Korea.
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Chen C, Lu J, Yu Q, Xiao JR, Wei HF, Song XJ, Ge JB, Tao WD, Qian R, Yu XW, Zhao J. Expression of CDc6 after acute spinal cord injury in adult rats. Neuropeptides 2016; 56:59-67. [PMID: 26899166 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Revised: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The cell division cycle 6 (CDc6) protein has been primarily investigated as a component of the pre-replicative complex for the initiation of DNA replication. Some studies have shown that CDc6 played a critical role in the development of human carcinoma. However, the expression and roles of CDc6 in the central nervous system remain unknown. We have performed an acute spinal cord injury (SCI) model in adult rats and investigated the dynamic changes of CDc6 expression in spinal cord. Western blot have found that CDc6 protein levels first significantly increase, reach a peak at day 3, and then gradually return to normal level at day 14 after SCI. Double immunofluorescence staining showed that CDc6 immunoreactivity was found in neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. Additionally, colocalization of CDc6/active caspase-3 has been detected in neurons and colocalization of CDc6/proliferating cell nuclear antigen has been detected in astrocytes and microglial. In vitro, CDc6 depletion by short interfering RNA inhibits astrocyte proliferation and reduces cyclin A and cyclin D1 protein levels. CDc6 knockdown also decreases neuronal apoptosis. We speculate that CDc6 might play crucial roles in CNS pathophysiology after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Chen
- Department of orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jian Lu
- Department of Neurology, Nantong Second People's Hospital, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qin Yu
- Department of Medical image, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jian-Ru Xiao
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, 200000 Shanghai, China
| | - Hai-Feng Wei
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, 200000 Shanghai, China
| | - Xin-jian Song
- Department of Neurology, Nantong Second People's Hospital, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jian-Bing Ge
- Department of Neurology, Nantong Second People's Hospital, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Wei-Dong Tao
- Department of Neurology, Nantong Second People's Hospital, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Rong Qian
- Department of orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiao-Wei Yu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, 200233 Shanghai, China.
| | - Jian Zhao
- Department of Orthopedics, Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, 200000 Shanghai, China.
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Matrix Metalloproteinases During Axonal Regeneration, a Multifactorial Role from Start to Finish. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:2114-2125. [PMID: 26924318 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9801-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
By proteolytic cleavage, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) not only remodel the extracellular matrix (ECM) but they also modify the structure and activity of other proteinases, growth factors, signaling molecules, cell surface receptors, etc. Their vast substrate repertoire adds a complex extra dimension of biological control and turns MMPs into important regulatory nodes in the protease web. In the central nervous system (CNS), the detrimental impact of elevated MMP activities has been well-described for traumatic injuries and many neurodegenerative diseases. Nonetheless, there is ample proof corroborating MMPs as fine regulators of CNS physiology, and well-balanced MMP activity is instrumental to development, plasticity, and repair. In this manuscript, we review the emerging evidence for MMPs as beneficial modulators of axonal regeneration in the mammalian CNS. By exploring the multifactorial causes underlying the inability of mature axons to regenerate, and describing how MMPs can help to overcome these hurdles, we emphasize the benign actions of these Janus-faced proteases.
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Spinal Glia Division Contributes to Conditioning Lesion-Induced Axon Regeneration Into the Injured Spinal Cord: Potential Role of Cyclic AMP-Induced Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-1. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2015; 74:500-11. [PMID: 25933384 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0000000000000192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Regeneration of sensory neurons after spinal cord injury depends on the function of dividing neuronal-glial antigen 2 (NG2)-expressing cells. We have shown that increases in the number of dividing NG2-positive cells through short-term pharmacologic inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases contributes to recovery after spinal cord injury. A conditioning sciatic nerve crush (SNC) preceding spinal cord injury stimulates central sensory axon regeneration via the intraganglionic action of cyclic adenosine monophosphate. Here, using bromodeoxyuridine, mitomycin (mitosis inhibitor), and cholera toxin B tracer, we demonstrate that SNC-induced division of spinal glia is related to the spinal induction of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 and contributes to central sensory axon growth into the damaged spinal cord. Dividing cells were mainly NG2-positive and Iba1-positive and included myeloid NG2-positive populations. The cells dividing in response to SNC mainly matured into oligodendrocytes and microglia within the injured spinal cord. Some postmitotic cells remained NG2-reactive and were associated with regenerating fibers. Moreover, intraganglionic tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 expression was induced after administration of SNC or cyclic adenosine monophosphate analog (dbcAMP) to dorsal root ganglia in vivo and in primary adult dorsal root ganglia cultures. Collectively, these findings support a novel model whereby a cyclic adenosine monophosphate-activated regeneration program induced in sensory neurons by a conditioning peripheral nerve lesion uses tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 to protect against short-term proteolysis, enabling glial cell division and promoting axon growth into the damaged CNS.
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56
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Hong J, Nandiwada V, Jones V, Lu M, Warner DS, Mukhopadhyay S, Sheng H. CB1 cannabinoid receptor agonist inhibits matrix metalloproteinase activity in spinal cord injury: A possible mechanism of improved recovery. Neurosci Lett 2015; 597:19-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/09/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Lee YJ, Song KY, Lee EY, Kang HS, Song YW. Compound K, a Metabolite of Ginsenosides, Attenuates Collagen-induced Arthritis in Mice. JOURNAL OF RHEUMATIC DISEASES 2015. [DOI: 10.4078/jrd.2015.22.3.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yun Jong Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kye Yong Song
- Department of Dermatology and Histopathology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eun Young Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Heun Soo Kang
- Metabolab Inc., Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yeong Wook Song
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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58
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Lee JY, Choi HY, Ahn HJ, Ju BG, Yune TY. Matrix metalloproteinase-3 promotes early blood-spinal cord barrier disruption and hemorrhage and impairs long-term neurological recovery after spinal cord injury. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2014; 184:2985-3000. [PMID: 25325922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 06/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
After spinal cord injury (SCI), blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) disruption by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) leads to BSCB permeability and blood cell infiltration, contributing to permanent neurological disability. Herein, we report that MMP-3 plays a critical role in BSCB disruption after SCI in mice. MMP-3 was induced in infiltrated neutrophils and blood vessels after SCI, and NF-κB as a transcription factor was involved in MMP-3 expression. BSCB permeability and blood cell infiltration after injury were more reduced in Mmp3 knockout (KO) mice than in wild-type (WT) mice, which was significantly inhibited by Mmp3 siRNA or a general inhibitor of MMPs, N-isobutyl-N-(4-methoxyphenylsulfonyl)glycyl hydroxamic acid. The level of tight junction proteins, such as occludin and zonula occludens-1, which decreased after SCI, was also higher in Mmp3 KO than in WT mice. Exogenously, MMP-3 injection into the normal spinal cord also induced BSCB permeability. Furthermore, MMP-9 activation after injury was mediated by MMP-3 activation. Finally, improved functional recovery was observed in Mmp3 KO mice compared with WT mice after injury. These results demonstrated the role of MMP-3 in BSCB disruption after SCI for the first time and suggest that the regulation of MMP-3 can be considered a therapeutic target to inhibit BSCB disruption and hemorrhage, and thereby enhance functional recovery after acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Youn Lee
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Neurodegeneration Control Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Young Choi
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Neurodegeneration Control Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Jong Ahn
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bong Gun Ju
- Department of Life Science, Sogang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Young Yune
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Neurodegeneration Control Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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59
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Gaudet AD, Popovich PG. Extracellular matrix regulation of inflammation in the healthy and injured spinal cord. Exp Neurol 2014; 258:24-34. [PMID: 25017885 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Throughout the body, the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides structure and organization to tissues and also helps regulate cell migration and intercellular communication. In the injured spinal cord (or brain), changes in the composition and structure of the ECM undoubtedly contribute to regeneration failure. Less appreciated is how the native and injured ECM influences intraspinal inflammation and, conversely, how neuroinflammation affects the synthesis and deposition of ECM after CNS injury. In all tissues, inflammation can be initiated and propagated by ECM disruption. Molecules of ECM newly liberated by injury or inflammation include hyaluronan fragments, tenascins, and sulfated proteoglycans. These act as "damage-associated molecular patterns" or "alarmins", i.e., endogenous proteins that trigger and subsequently amplify inflammation. Activated inflammatory cells, in turn, further damage the ECM by releasing degradative enzymes including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). After spinal cord injury (SCI), destabilization or alteration of the structural and chemical compositions of the ECM affects migration, communication, and survival of all cells - neural and non-neural - that are critical for spinal cord repair. By stabilizing ECM structure or modifying their ability to trigger the degradative effects of inflammation, it may be possible to create an environment that is more conducive to tissue repair and axon plasticity after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Gaudet
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 670 Biomedical Research Tower, 460 West 12th Ave., Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Phillip G Popovich
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 670 Biomedical Research Tower, 460 West 12th Ave., Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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60
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Bastien D, Lacroix S. Cytokine pathways regulating glial and leukocyte function after spinal cord and peripheral nerve injury. Exp Neurol 2014; 258:62-77. [PMID: 25017888 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2013] [Revised: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Injury to the nervous system causes the almost immediate release of cytokines by glial cells and neurons. These cytokines orchestrate a complex array of responses leading to microgliosis, immune cell recruitment, astrogliosis, scarring, and the clearance of cellular debris, all steps that affect neuronal survival and repair. This review will focus on cytokines released after spinal cord and peripheral nerve injury and the primary signalling pathways triggered by these inflammatory mediators. Notably, the following cytokine families will be covered: IL-1, TNF, IL-6-like, TGF-β, and IL-10. Whether interfering with cytokine signalling could lead to novel therapies will also be discussed. Finally, the review will address whether manipulating the above-mentioned cytokine families and signalling pathways could exert distinct effects in the injured spinal cord versus peripheral nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Bastien
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec-CHUL, Département de médecine moléculaire, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Steve Lacroix
- Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier universitaire de Québec-CHUL, Département de médecine moléculaire, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada..
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61
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Sajjan S, Holsinger RMD, Fok S, Ebrahimkhani S, Rollo JL, Banati RB, Graeber MB. Up-regulation of matrix metallopeptidase 12 in motor neurons undergoing synaptic stripping. Neuroscience 2014; 274:331-40. [PMID: 24907602 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.05.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Revised: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Axotomy of the rodent facial nerve represents a well-established model of synaptic plasticity. Post-traumatic "synaptic stripping" was originally discovered in this system. We report upregulation of matrix metalloproteinase MMP12 in regenerating motor neurons of the mouse and rat facial nucleus. Matrix metalloproteinases (matrix metallopeptidases, MMPs) are zinc-binding proteases capable of degrading components of the extracellular matrix and of regulating extracellular signaling networks including within synapses. MMP12 protein expression in facial motor neurons was enhanced following axotomy and peaked at day 3 after the operation. The peak of neuronal MMP12 expression preceded the peak of experimentally induced synaptic plasticity. At the same time, MMP12 redistributed intracellularly and became predominantly localized beneath the neuronal somatic cytoplasmic membrane. Both findings point to a role of MMP12 in the neuronal initiation of the synaptic stripping process. MMP12 is the first candidate molecule for such a trigger function and has potential as a therapeutic target. Moreover, since statins have been shown to increase the expression of MMP12, interference with synaptic stability may represent one mechanism by which these widely used drugs exert their side effects on higher CNS functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sajjan
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - R M D Holsinger
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; Discipline of Biomedical Science, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Lidcombe, NSW, Australia
| | - S Fok
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - S Ebrahimkhani
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - J L Rollo
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - R B Banati
- Discipline of Medical Radiation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland, NSW, Australia; Ramaciotti Imaging Center, Brain and Mind Research Institute, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization, Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia
| | - M B Graeber
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
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Levine JM, Cohen ND, Heller M, Fajt VR, Levine GJ, Kerwin SC, Trivedi AA, Fandel TM, Werb Z, Modestino A, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Efficacy of a metalloproteinase inhibitor in spinal cord injured dogs. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96408. [PMID: 24788791 PMCID: PMC4006832 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase-9 is elevated within the acutely injured murine spinal cord and blockade of this early proteolytic activity with GM6001, a broad-spectrum matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor, results in improved recovery after spinal cord injury. As matrix metalloproteinase-9 is likewise acutely elevated in dogs with naturally occurring spinal cord injuries, we evaluated efficacy of GM6001 solubilized in dimethyl sulfoxide in this second species. Safety and pharmacokinetic studies were conducted in naïve dogs. After confirming safety, subsequent pharmacokinetic analyses demonstrated that a 100 mg/kg subcutaneous dose of GM6001 resulted in plasma concentrations that peaked shortly after administration and were sustained for at least 4 days at levels that produced robust in vitro inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9. A randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled study was then conducted to assess efficacy of GM6001 given within 48 hours of spinal cord injury. Dogs were enrolled in 3 groups: GM6001 dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (n = 35), dimethyl sulfoxide (n = 37), or saline (n = 41). Matrix metalloproteinase activity was increased in the serum of injured dogs and GM6001 reduced this serum protease activity compared to the other two groups. To assess recovery, dogs were a priori stratified into a severely injured group and a mild-to-moderate injured group, using a Modified Frankel Scale. The Texas Spinal Cord Injury Score was then used to assess long-term motor/sensory function. In dogs with severe spinal cord injuries, those treated with saline had a mean motor score of 2 (95% CI 0–4.0) that was significantly (P<0.05; generalized linear model) less than the estimated mean motor score for dogs receiving dimethyl sulfoxide (mean, 5; 95% CI 2.0–8.0) or GM6001 (mean, 5; 95% CI 2.0–8.0). As there was no independent effect of GM6001, we attribute improved neurological outcomes to dimethyl sulfoxide, a pleotropic agent that may target diverse secondary pathogenic events that emerge in the acutely injured cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M. Levine
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Noah D. Cohen
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Michael Heller
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Virginia R. Fajt
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Gwendolyn J. Levine
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Sharon C. Kerwin
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Alpa A. Trivedi
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Thomas M. Fandel
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Zena Werb
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Augusta Modestino
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Linda J. Noble-Haeusslein
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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Genome-wide gene expression profiling of stress response in a spinal cord clip compression injury model. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:583. [PMID: 23984903 PMCID: PMC3846681 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aneurysm clip impact-compression model of spinal cord injury (SCI) is a standard injury model in animals that closely mimics the primary mechanism of most human injuries: acute impact and persisting compression. Its histo-pathological and behavioural outcomes are extensively similar to human SCI. To understand the distinct molecular events underlying this injury model we analyzed global mRNA abundance changes during the acute, subacute and chronic stages of a moderate to severe injury to the rat spinal cord. Results Time-series expression analyses resulted in clustering of the majority of deregulated transcripts into eight statistically significant expression profiles. Systematic application of Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment pathway analysis allowed inference of biological processes participating in SCI pathology. Temporal analysis identified events specific to and common between acute, subacute and chronic time-points. Processes common to all phases of injury include blood coagulation, cellular extravasation, leukocyte cell-cell adhesion, the integrin-mediated signaling pathway, cytokine production and secretion, neutrophil chemotaxis, phagocytosis, response to hypoxia and reactive oxygen species, angiogenesis, apoptosis, inflammatory processes and ossification. Importantly, various elements of adaptive and induced innate immune responses span, not only the acute and subacute phases, but also persist throughout the chronic phase of SCI. Induced innate responses, such as Toll-like receptor signaling, are more active during the acute phase but persist throughout the chronic phase. However, adaptive immune response processes such as B and T cell activation, proliferation, and migration, T cell differentiation, B and T cell receptor-mediated signaling, and B cell- and immunoglobulin-mediated immune response become more significant during the chronic phase. Conclusions This analysis showed that, surprisingly, the diverse series of molecular events that occur in the acute and subacute stages persist into the chronic stage of SCI. The strong agreement between our results and previous findings suggest that our analytical approach will be useful in revealing other biological processes and genes contributing to SCI pathology.
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Díez-Torre A, Díaz-Núñez M, Eguizábal C, Silván U, Aréchaga J. Evidence for a role of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in primordial germ cell migration. Andrology 2013; 1:779-86. [PMID: 23843195 DOI: 10.1111/j.2047-2927.2013.00109.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms that enable migrating cells to reach their targets is of vital importance, as several pathologies, including cardiac defects and some tumours, are consequences of altered cell migration. With a view to evaluating if matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) play a role in the active migration of primordial germ cells (PGCs) from their place of origin in extra-embryonic sites towards their final destination in the developing gonads, we analysed the expression of mRNAs encoding nine MMPs and four TIMPs in migrating (E10.5) and post-migrating (E12.5) PGCs by means of quantitative polymerase chain reaction and the presence of MT1-MMP in the membrane of these cells. Our results show that PGCs express MMP-2, MMP-9, MMP-11, MT1-MMP, TIMP-1, TIMP-2 and TIMP-3 at both migrating and non-migrating stages. Comparing expression levels of MMP genes between E10.5 and E12.5 PGCs revealed higher expression in migrating PGCs of MT1- MMP (10.3-fold), MMP-2 (4.8-fold), MMP-11 (3.2-fold) and MMP-9 (2.1-fold). Similarly, the levels of TIMP gene expression were always higher in E12.5 genital ridge somatic cells: TIMP-3 (3.4-fold), TIMP-1 (2.4-fold) and TIMP-2 (1.8-fold). Moreover, the analysis at protein level showed the presence of MT1-MMP in the membrane of migrating PGCs whereas the expression of these metalloproteinase is not detected once the PGCs have reach the urogenital ridges and stop migrating. These results suggest that the change from the motile to non-motile phenotype that occurs during PGC maturation to gonocytes may be mediated in part by enhanced expression of MMPs in migrating PGCs together with higher expression of TIMPs in E12.5 genital ridges.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Díez-Torre
- Laboratory of Stem Cells, Development & Cancer, Department of Cell Biology & Histology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Vizcaya, Spain
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Yoon H, Radulovic M, Wu J, Blaber SI, Blaber M, Fehlings MG, Scarisbrick IA. Kallikrein 6 signals through PAR1 and PAR2 to promote neuron injury and exacerbate glutamate neurotoxicity. J Neurochem 2013; 127:283-98. [PMID: 23647384 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
CNS trauma generates a proteolytic imbalance contributing to secondary injury, including axonopathy and neuron degeneration. Kallikrein 6 (Klk6) is a serine protease implicated in neurodegeneration, and here we investigate the role of protease-activated receptors 1 (PAR1) and PAR2 in mediating these effects. First, we demonstrate Klk6 and the prototypical activator of PAR1, thrombin, as well as PAR1 and PAR2, are each elevated in murine experimental traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) at acute or subacute time points. Recombinant Klk6 triggered extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) signaling in cerebellar granule neurons and in the NSC34 spinal cord motoneuron cell line, in a phosphoinositide 3-kinae and MEK-dependent fashion. Importantly, lipopeptide inhibitors of PAR1 or PAR2, and PAR1 genetic deletion, each reduced Klk6-ERK1/2 activation. In addition, Klk6 and thrombin promoted degeneration of cerebellar neurons and exacerbated glutamate neurotoxicity. Moreover, genetic deletion of PAR1 blocked thrombin-mediated cerebellar neurotoxicity and reduced the neurotoxic effects of Klk6. Klk6 also increased glutamate-mediated Bim signaling, poly-ADP-ribose polymerase cleavage and lactate dehydrogenase release in NSC34 motoneurons and these effects were blocked by PAR1 and PAR2 lipopeptide inhibitors. Taken together, these data point to a novel Klk6-signaling axis in CNS neurons that is mediated by PAR1 and PAR2 and is positioned to contribute to neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyesook Yoon
- Neurobiology of Disease Program, Mayo Medical and Graduate School, Rochester, Minnesota, USA; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Medical and Graduate School, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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Murray MY, Birkland TP, Howe JD, Rowan AD, Fidock M, Parks WC, Gavrilovic J. Macrophage migration and invasion is regulated by MMP10 expression. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63555. [PMID: 23691065 PMCID: PMC3653827 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was designed to identify metalloproteinase determinants of macrophage migration and led to the specific hypothesis that matrix metalloproteinase 10 (MMP10/stromelysin-2) facilitates macrophage migration. We first profiled expression of all MMPs in LPS-stimulated primary murine bone marrow-derived macrophages and Raw264.7 cells and found that MMP10 was stimulated early (3 h) and down-regulated later (24 h). Based on this pattern of expression, we speculated that MMP10 plays a role in macrophage responses, such as migration. Indeed, using time lapse microscopy, we found that RNAi silencing of MMP10 in primary macrophages resulted in markedly reduced migration, which was reversed with exogenous active MMP10 protein. Mmp10 (-/-) bone marrow-derived macrophages displayed significantly reduced migration over a two-dimensional fibronectin matrix. Invasion of primary wild-type macrophages into Matrigel supplemented with fibronectin was also markedly impaired in Mmp10 (-/-) cells. MMP10 expression in macrophages thus emerges as an important moderator of cell migration and invasion. These findings support the hypothesis that MMP10 promotes macrophage movement and may have implications in understanding the control of macrophages in several pathologies, including the abnormal wound healing response associated with pro-inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Y. Murray
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy P. Birkland
- Center for Lung Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jonathan D. Howe
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D. Rowan
- Musculoskeletal Research Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, The Medical School, Newcastle University, Newcastle, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Fidock
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, Sandwich, Kent, United Kingdom
| | - William C. Parks
- Center for Lung Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jelena Gavrilovic
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, Norfolk, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Demircan K, Yonezawa T, Takigawa T, Topcu V, Erdogan S, Ucar F, Armutcu F, Yigitoglu MR, Ninomiya Y, Hirohata S. ADAMTS1, ADAMTS5, ADAMTS9 and aggrecanase-generated proteoglycan fragments are induced following spinal cord injury in mouse. Neurosci Lett 2013; 544:25-30. [PMID: 23562508 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.02.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2012] [Revised: 02/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
ADAMTS (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs) proteinases are involved in a variety of biological processes such as angiogenesis, cancer and arthritis. ADAMTSs appears to be responsible for the cleavage of proteoglycans in several tissues including brain and cartilage. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) maintains the integrity of the brain extracellular matrix and major inhibitory contributors for glial scar and neural plasticity. The activity of aggrecanases in the central nervous system (CNS) has been reported. ADAMTSs are an enzyme degrading CSPGs in the brain. However, there is a little knowledge regarding ADAMTSs in the CNS. We investigated the expression levels of ADAMTSs mRNAs by RT-PCR after spinal cord injury in mouse. Transcripts encoding 4 of the 19 known ADAMTSs were evaluated in the mouse spinal cord following injury. ADAMTS1, -5 and -9 expression levels were found to be upregulated. No change was observed in ADAMTS4 expression. By means of immunohistochemistry, ADAMTSs were detected in the astrocytes implying its cellular source in SCI. Western blot analyses indicated that aggrecanase-generated proteoglycan fragments are produced after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kadir Demircan
- Department of Medical Biology, Turgut Ozal University School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey.
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68
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Simulated microgravity facilitates cell migration and neuroprotection after bone marrow stromal cell transplantation in spinal cord injury. Stem Cell Res Ther 2013; 4:35. [PMID: 23548163 PMCID: PMC3706926 DOI: 10.1186/scrt184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Recently, cell-based therapy has gained significant attention for the treatment of central nervous system diseases. Although bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) are considered to have good engraftment potential, challenges due to in vitro culturing, such as a decline in their functional potency, have been reported. Here, we investigated the efficacy of rat BMSCs (rBMSCs) cultured under simulated microgravity conditions, for transplantation into a rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI). Methods rBMSCs were cultured under two different conditions: standard gravity (1G) and simulated microgravity attained by using the 3D-clinostat. After 7 days of culture, the rBMSCs were analyzed morphologically, with RT-PCR and immunostaining, and were used for grafting. Adult rats were used for constructing SCI models by using a weight-dropping method and were grouped into three experimental groups for comparison. rBMSCs cultured under 1 g and simulated microgravity were transplanted intravenously immediately after SCI. We evaluated the hindlimb functional improvement for 3 weeks. Tissue repair after SCI was examined by calculating the cavity area ratio and immunohistochemistry. Results rBMSCs cultured under simulated microgravity expressed Oct-4 and CXCR4, in contrast to those cultured under 1 g conditions. Therefore, rBMSCs cultured under simulated microgravity were considered to be in an undifferentiated state and thus to possess high migration ability. After transplantation, grafted rBMSCs cultured under microgravity exhibited greater survival at the periphery of the lesion, and the motor functions of the rats that received these grafts improved significantly compared with the rats that received rBMSCs cultured in 1 g. In addition, rBMSCs cultured under microgravity were thought to have greater trophic effects on reestablishment and survival of host spinal neural tissues because cavity formations were reduced, and apoptosis-inhibiting factor expression was high at the periphery of the SCI lesion. Conclusions Here we show that transplantation of rBMSCs cultured under simulated microgravity facilitates functional recovery from SCI rather than those cultured under 1 g conditions.
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Liu Y, Zhang M, Hao W, Mihaljevic I, Liu X, Xie K, Walter S, Fassbender K. Matrix metalloproteinase-12 contributes to neuroinflammation in the aged brain. Neurobiol Aging 2013; 34:1231-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2011] [Revised: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Cua RC, Lau LW, Keough MB, Midha R, Apte SS, Yong VW. Overcoming neurite-inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in the astrocyte matrix. Glia 2013; 61:972-84. [PMID: 23554135 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Acute trauma to the central nervous system (CNS) can result in permanent damage and loss of function related to the poor regeneration of injured axons. Injured axons encounter several barriers to regeneration, such as the glial scar at the injury site. The glial scar contains extracellular matrix (ECM) macromolecules deposited by reactive astrocytes in response to injury. The scar ECM is rich in chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), macromolecules that inhibit axonal growth. CSPGs consist of a core protein with attachment sites for glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains. An extensive literature demonstrates that enzymatic removal of the GAG chains by chondroitinase ABC permits some axonal regrowth; however, the remaining intact core proteins also possess inhibitory domains. Because metalloproteinases can degrade core proteins of CSPGs, we have evaluated five matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and a related protease-a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs-4 (ADAMTS-4)-for their capacity to overcome CSPG inhibition of neuritic growth in culture. The metalloproteinases were selected for their known expression after CNS injuries. Of the MMPs, MMP-3, -7 and -8 reduced or abolished inhibition of neurite outgrowth on a purified CSPG substrate and on an astrocyte-derived ECM. ADAMTS-4 also attenuated CSPG inhibition of neurites and had the additional benefits of neither degrading laminin nor causing neurotoxicity. The efficacy of ADAMTS-4 matched that of blocking the EGFR signaling previously reported to mediate CSPG inhibition. These findings highlight ADAMTS-4 as a superior protease for overcoming CSPG inhibition of axonal regeneration in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowena C Cua
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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71
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Li J, Wang JJ, Peng Q, Chen C, Humphrey MB, Heinecke J, Zhang SX. Macrophage metalloelastase (MMP-12) deficiency mitigates retinal inflammation and pathological angiogenesis in ischemic retinopathy. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52699. [PMID: 23285156 PMCID: PMC3527600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathological angiogenesis is a major cause of vision loss in ischemic and inflammatory retinal diseases. Recent evidence implicates macrophage metalloelastase (MMP-12), a macrophage-derived elastinolytic protease in inflammation, tissue remodeling and angiogenesis. However, little is known about the role of MMP-12 in retinal pathophysiology. The present study aims to explore the enzyme’s contributions to retinal angiogenesis in oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) using MMP-12 knockout (KO) mice. We find that MMP-12 expression was upregulated in OIR, accompanied by elevated macrophage infiltration and increased inflammatory markers. Compared to wildtype mice, MMP-12 KO mice had decreased levels of adhesion molecule and inflammatory cytokines and reduced vascular leakage in OIR. Concomitantly, these mice had markedly reduced macrophage content in the retina with impaired macrophage migratory capacity. Significantly, loss of MMP-12 attenuated retinal capillary dropout in early OIR and mitigated pathological retinal neovascularization (NV). Similar results were observed in the study using MMP408, a pharmacological inhibitor of MMP-12. Intriguingly, in contrast to reducing pathological angiogenesis, lack of MMP-12 accelerated revascularization of avascular retina in OIR. Taken together, we conclude that MMP-12 is a key regulator of macrophage infiltration and inflammation, contributing to retinal vascular dysfunction and pathological angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingming Li
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Harold Hamm Oklahoma Diabetes, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Joshua J. Wang
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Harold Hamm Oklahoma Diabetes, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Qisheng Peng
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Chen Chen
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Harold Hamm Oklahoma Diabetes, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Mary Beth Humphrey
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Jay Heinecke
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Sarah X. Zhang
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Harold Hamm Oklahoma Diabetes, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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An upregulation of SENP3 after spinal cord injury: implications for neuronal apoptosis. Neurochem Res 2012; 37:2758-66. [PMID: 23054070 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0869-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2012] [Revised: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
SENP3 (SUMO-specific proteases 3), a member of the small ubiquitin-like modifier specific protease family, was identified as a molecule that deconjugates SUMOylation of modified protein substrates and functions as an isopeptidase by disrupting SUMO homeostasis to facilitate cancer development and progression. However, its expression and function in nervous system injury and repair are still unclear. In this study, we employed an acute spinal cord injury (SCI) model in adult rats and investigated the dynamic changes of SENP3 expression in the spinal cord. Western blot analysis indicated a gradual increase in SENP3 expression, which peaked 3 days after SCI, and then declined over the following days. Immunohistochemistry results further confirmed that SENP3 was expressed at low levels in the gray and white matter in the non-injured condition and increased after SCI. Moreover, immunofluorescence double-labeling showed that SENP3 was co-expressed with the neuronal marker, NeuN. Furthermore, the SENP3-positive cells that were co-expressed with NeuN had also expressed active caspase-3 after injury. To investigate whether SENP3 plays a role in neuronal apoptosis, we applied H(2)O(2) to induce neuronal apoptosis in vitro. Western blot analysis showed a significant upregulation of SENP3 and active caspase-3 following H(2)O(2) stimulation. Taken together, these results suggest that SENP3 may play important roles in the pathophysiology of SCI.
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73
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Matrix metalloproteinases in neuropathic pain and migraine: friends, enemies, and therapeutic targets. PAIN RESEARCH AND TREATMENT 2012; 2012:952906. [PMID: 22970361 PMCID: PMC3434407 DOI: 10.1155/2012/952906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2012] [Revised: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) constitute a family of zinc-dependent endopeptidases that mediate extracellular matrix turnover and associated processes, such as cell survival, growth, and differentiation. This paper discusses important functions of MMP in the normal and injured nervous system, focusing on the role played by these proteases in neurological pain syndromes, most prominently in neuropathic pain and migraine headaches. In the past decade, metalloproteinases emerged as key modulators of neuropathic pain, with MMP-9 acting as an initiator of the neuropathic cascade. Increased MMP activity was detected in migraine patients, independent of aura, in tight association with metabolic derangements. The therapeutic implications of MMP inhibition are considered in the context of neurogenic pain regulation.
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Veeravalli KK, Dasari VR, Rao JS. Regulation of proteases after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29:2251-62. [PMID: 22709139 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2012.2460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a major medical problem worldwide. Unfortunately, we still do not have suitable therapeutic agents for the treatment of spinal cord injury and prevention of its devastating consequences. Scientists and physicians are baffled by the challenges of controlling progressive neurodegeneration in spinal cord injury, which has not been healed with any currently-available treatments. Although extensive work has been carried out to better understand the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury, our current understanding of the repair mechanisms of secondary injury processes is still meager. Several investigators reported the crucial role played by various proteases after spinal cord injury. Understanding the beneficial and harmful roles these proteases play after spinal cord injury will allow scientists to plan and design appropriate treatment strategies to improve functional recovery after spinal cord injury. This review will focus on various proteases such as matrix metalloproteinases, cysteine proteases, and serine proteases and their inhibitors in the context of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Kumar Veeravalli
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pharmacology, University of Illinois College of Medicine at Peoria, Peoria, Illinois 61605, USA
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Lee JY, Kim HS, Choi HY, Oh TH, Yune TY. Fluoxetine inhibits matrix metalloprotease activation and prevents disruption of blood-spinal cord barrier after spinal cord injury. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 135:2375-89. [PMID: 22798270 DOI: 10.1093/brain/aws171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
After spinal cord injury, the disruption of blood-spinal cord barrier by activation of matrix metalloprotease is a critical event leading to infiltration of blood cells, inflammatory responses and neuronal cell death, contributing to permanent neurological disability. Recent evidence indicates that fluoxetine, an anti-depressant drug, is shown to have neuroprotective effects in ischaemic brain injury, but the precise mechanism underlying its protective effects is largely unknown. Here, we show that fluoxetine prevented blood-spinal cord barrier disruption via inhibition of matrix metalloprotease activation after spinal cord injury. After a moderate contusion injury at the T9 level of spinal cord with an infinite horizon impactor in the mouse, fluoxetine (10 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally and further administered once a day for indicated time points. Fluoxetine treatment significantly inhibited messenger RNA expression of matrix metalloprotease 2, 9 and 12 after spinal cord injury. By zymography and fluorimetric enzyme activity assay, fluoxetine also significantly reduced matrix metalloprotease 2 and matrix metalloprotease 9 activities after injury. In addition, fluoxetine inhibited nuclear factor kappa B-dependent matrix metalloprotease 9 expression in bEnd.3, a brain endothelial cell line, after oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation. Fluoxetine also attenuated the loss of tight junction molecules such as zona occludens 1 and occludin after injury in vivo as well as in bEnd.3 cultures. By immunofluorescence staining, fluoxetine prevented the breakdown of the tight junction integrity in endothelial cells of blood vessel after injury. Furthermore, fluoxetine inhibited the messenger RNA expression of chemokines such as Groα, MIP1α and 1β, and prevented the infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages, and reduced the expression of inflammatory mediators after injury. Finally, fluoxetine attenuated apoptotic cell death and improved locomotor function after injury. Thus, our results indicate that fluoxetine improved functional recovery in part by inhibiting matrix metalloprotease activation and preventing blood-spinal cord barrier disruption after spinal cord injury. Furthermore, our study suggests that fluoxetine may represent a potential therapeutic agent for preserving blood-brain barrier integrity following ischaemic brain injury and spinal cord injury in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Y Lee
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Centre, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
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Light M, Minor KH, DeWitt P, Jasper KH, Davies SJA. Multiplex array proteomics detects increased MMP-8 in CSF after spinal cord injury. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:122. [PMID: 22687332 PMCID: PMC3439361 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction A variety of methods have been used to study inflammatory changes in the acutely injured spinal cord. Recently novel multiplex assays have been used in an attempt to overcome limitations in numbers of available targets studied in a single experiment. Other technical challenges in developing pre-clinical rodent models to investigate biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) include relatively small volumes of sample and low concentrations of target proteins. The primary objective of this study was to characterize the inflammatory profile present in CSF at a subacute time point in a clinically relevant rodent model of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Our other aim was to test a microarray proteomics platform specifically for this application. Methods A 34 cytokine sandwich ELISA microarray was used to study inflammatory changes in CSF samples taken 12 days post-cervical SCI in adult rats. The difference between the median foreground signal and the median background signal was measured. Bonferroni and Benjamini-Hochburg multiple testing corrections were applied to limit the False Discovery Rate (FDR), and a linear mixed model was used to account for repeated measures in the array. Results We report a novel subacute SCI biomarker, elevated levels of matrix metalloproteinase-8 protein in CSF, and discuss application of statistical models designed for multiplex testing. Conclusions Major advantages of this assay over conventional methods include high-throughput format, good sensitivity, and reduced sample consumption. This method can be useful for creating comprehensive inflammatory profiles, and biomarkers can be used in the clinic to assess injury severity and to objectively grade response to therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Light
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Building RC-1 North, Room P18-9400, 12800 E 19th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Analysis of cartilage oligomeric matrix protein and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in cerebrospinal fluid of miniature dachshund with intervertebral disc herniation. Res Vet Sci 2012; 93:1487-92. [PMID: 22440362 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2012.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2011] [Revised: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated whether the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentration of cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) is related to disease severity, prognosis and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 activity of the CSF in miniature dachshund with intervertebral disc herniation. Samples were obtained from 23 patients and 6 normal dogs, and all patients received hemilaminectomy. Twenty dogs recovered successfully and 3 of 11 dogs without deep nociception had MMP-9 activity in the CSF and an unsuccessful outcome. The COMP levels from patients were significantly higher than those from normal dogs. MMP-9 activity and neurological severity were not related to the COMP levels. However, the COMP levels from 3 unsuccessful cases that had MMP-9 activity were significantly lower than those from all recovered cases and/or successful cases without deep nociception. Concerning severe cases, increased proteolytic activity might affect the COMP concentration and prognosis due to MMP-9 associated deleterious effects.
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Tauchi R, Imagama S, Ohgomori T, Natori T, Shinjo R, Ishiguro N, Kadomatsu K. ADAMTS-13 is produced by glial cells and upregulated after spinal cord injury. Neurosci Lett 2012; 517:1-6. [PMID: 22425718 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2011] [Revised: 01/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
ADAMTS-13, a member of the family of disintegrins and metalloproteinases with thrombospondin motifs, is produced primarily in the liver, particularly by hepatic stellate cells. This metalloproteinase cleaves von Willebrand factor multimers and thereby regulates blood coagulation. Here, we investigated the expression of ADAMTS-13 in the central nervous system. ADAMTS-13 mRNA was expressed in cultured astrocytes and microglia but not in neurons. The protein production of ADAMTS-13 was also detected in these cultured glial cells. Furthermore, we found that the expression of ADAMTS-13 was significantly increased in the rat spinal cord after injury. Supporting the in vivo data, ADAMTS-13 protein was detected in GFAP- and CD11b-positive glial cells in injured spinal cord. Consistent with this, the proteolytic activity of ADAMTS-13 was increased after spinal cord injury. Our data suggest that ADAMTS-13 may have a critical role in the central nervous system, particularly after neuronal injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoji Tauchi
- Department of Biochemistry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan
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Calcium/calmodulin dependent kinase II contributes to persistent central neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury. Pain 2012; 153:710-721. [PMID: 22296735 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2011.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2010] [Revised: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Chronic central neuropathic pain after central nervous system injuries remains refractory to therapeutic interventions. A novel approach would be to target key intracellular signaling proteins that are known to contribute to continued activation by phosphorylation of kinases, transcription factors, and/or receptors that contribute to changes in membrane excitability. We demonstrate that one signaling kinase, calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII), is critical in maintaining aberrant dorsal horn neuron hyperexcitability in the neuropathic pain condition after spinal cord injury (SCI). After contusion SCI at spinal level T10, activated CaMKII (phosphorylated, pCaMKII) expression is significantly upregulated in the T7/8 spinal dorsal horn in neurons, but not glial cells, and in oligodendrocytes in the dorsal column in the same rats that displayed at-level mechanical allodynia. Furthermore, identified spinothalamic neurons demonstrated significant increases of pCaMKII after SCI compared to sham-treated control animals. However, neither astrocytes nor microglia showed pCaMKII expression in either sham-treated or SCI rats. To demonstrate causality, treatment of SCI rats with KN-93, which prevents CaMKII activation, significantly attenuated at-level mechanical allodynia and aberrant wide dynamic range neuronal activity evoked by brush, pressure, and pinch stimuli and a graded series of von Frey stimuli, respectively. Persistent CaMKII activation contributes to chronic central neuropathic pain by mechanisms that involve maintained hyperexcitability of wide dynamic range dorsal horn neurons. Furthermore, targeting key signaling proteins is a novel, useful therapeutic strategy for treating chronic central neuropathic pain.
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Vascular Pathology as a Potential Therapeutic Target in SCI. Transl Stroke Res 2011; 2:556-74. [PMID: 24323683 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-011-0128-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Revised: 10/21/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Acute traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is characterized by a progressive secondary degeneration which exacerbates the loss of penumbral tissue and neurological function. Here, we first provide an overview of the known pathophysiological mechanisms involving injured microvasculature and molecular regulators that contribute to the loss and dysfunction of existing and new blood vessels. We also highlight the differences between traumatic and ischemic injuries which may yield clues as to the more devastating nature of traumatic injuries, possibly involving toxicity associated with hemorrhage. We also discuss known species differences with implications for choosing models, their relevance and utility to translate new treatments towards the clinic. Throughout this review, we highlight the potential opportunities and proof-of-concept experimental studies for targeting therapies to endothelial cell-specific responses. Lastly, we comment on the need for vascular mechanisms to be included in drug development and non-invasive diagnostics such as serum and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers and imaging of spinal cord pathology.
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81
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Human matrix metalloproteinases: an ubiquitarian class of enzymes involved in several pathological processes. Mol Aspects Med 2011; 33:119-208. [PMID: 22100792 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2011.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 10/29/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Human matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) belong to the M10 family of the MA clan of endopeptidases. They are ubiquitarian enzymes, structurally characterized by an active site where a Zn(2+) atom, coordinated by three histidines, plays the catalytic role, assisted by a glutamic acid as a general base. Various MMPs display different domain composition, which is very important for macromolecular substrates recognition. Substrate specificity is very different among MMPs, being often associated to their cellular compartmentalization and/or cellular type where they are expressed. An extensive review of the different MMPs structural and functional features is integrated with their pathological role in several types of diseases, spanning from cancer to cardiovascular diseases and to neurodegeneration. It emerges a very complex and crucial role played by these enzymes in many physiological and pathological processes.
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82
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The efficacy of antioxidants in functional recovery of spinal cord injured rats: an experimental study. Neurol Sci 2011; 33:785-91. [PMID: 22068217 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-011-0829-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2011] [Accepted: 10/20/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A total of 30 female Sprague-Dawley rats (180-220 g) subjected to spinal cord injury (SCI) were divided into three groups of ten rats each. Group 1 served as control (SCI + Saline), Group 2 received daily dose of ascorbic acid 2,000 mg/kg body weight and group 3 rats received alpha tocopherol daily with the dose of 2,000 mg/kg body weight for 14 days. The Spontaneous coordinate activity (SCA), Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) and Tarlov locomotor scores were used to assess functional recovery of SCI rats. Compared to group 1, group 2 showed statistically insignificant improvement in the SCA, BBB and Tarlov scores at the end of the study. Compared to group 1, group 3 showed statistically significant improvement in the SCA (P < 0.001), BBB (P < 0.001) and Tarlov (P < 0.01) scores at the end of the study. In conclusion, the administration of alpha-tocopherol enhances the reparative effects against SCI and it is more effective than ascorbic acid.
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83
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Ferraro GB, Morrison CJ, Overall CM, Strittmatter SM, Fournier AE. Membrane-type matrix metalloproteinase-3 regulates neuronal responsiveness to myelin through Nogo-66 receptor 1 cleavage. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:31418-24. [PMID: 21768085 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.249169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Nogo-66 receptor 1 (NgR1) is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored receptor for myelin-associated inhibitors that restricts plasticity and axonal regrowth in the CNS. NgR1 is cleaved from the cell surface of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in a metalloproteinase-dependent manner; however, the mechanism and physiological consequence of NgR1 shedding have not been explored. We now demonstrate that NgR1 is shed from multiple populations of primary neurons. Through a loss-of-function approach, we found that membrane-type matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MT3-MMP) regulates endogenous NgR1 shedding in primary neurons. Neuronal knockdown of MT3-MMP resulted in the accumulation of NgR1 at the cell surface and reduced the accumulation of the NgR1 cleavage fragment in medium conditioned by cortical neurons. Recombinant MT1-, MT2-, MT3-, and MT5-MMPs promoted NgR1 shedding from the surface of primary neurons, and this treatment rendered neurons resistant to myelin-associated inhibitors. Introduction of a cleavage-resistant form of NgR1 reconstitutes the neuronal response to these inhibitors, demonstrating that specific metalloproteinases attenuate neuronal responses to myelin in an NgR1-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gino B Ferraro
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
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84
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Matrix metalloproteinase-9 controls proliferation of NG2+ progenitor cells immediately after spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2011; 231:236-46. [PMID: 21756907 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 06/17/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
We have demonstrated that overcoming matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-mediated suppression of glial proliferation stimulates axonal regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. The regenerative capacity of the adult CNS in response to injury and demyelination depends on the ability of multipotent glial NG2+ progenitor cells to proliferate and mature, mainly into oligodendrocytes. Herein, we have established the important role of MMPs, specifically MMP-9, in regulation of NG2+ cell proliferation in injured spinal cord. Targeting transiently induced MMP-9 using acute MMP-9/2 inhibitor (SB-3CT) therapy for two days after T9-10 spinal cord dorsal hemisection produced a significant increase in mitosis (assessed by bromodeoxyuridine incorporation) of NG2+ cells but not GFAP+astrocytes and Iba-1+ microglia and/or macrophages. Acute MMP-9/2 blockade reduced the shedding of the NG2 proteoglycan and of the NR1 subunit of the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, whose decline is believed to accompany NG2+ cell maturation into OLs. Increase in post-mitotic oligodendrocytes during remyelination and improved myelin neuropathology in the hemisected spinal cord were accompanied by locomotion and somatosensory recovery after acute MMP-9/2 inhibition. Collectively, these data establish a novel role for MMPs in regulation of NG2+ cell proliferation in the damaged CNS, and a long-term benefit of acute MMP-9 block after SCI.
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85
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Biochemical insights into the role of matrix metalloproteinases in regeneration: challenges and recent developments. Future Med Chem 2011; 1:1095-1111. [PMID: 20161478 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.09.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a group of proteases that belong to the metazincin family. These proteins consist of similar structures featuring a signaling peptide, a propeptide domain, a catalytic domain where the notable zinc ion binding site is found and a hinge region that binds to the C-terminal hemoplexin domain. MMPs can be produced by numerous cell types through secretion or localization to the cell membrane. While certain chemical compounds have been known to generally inhibit MMPs, naturally occurring proteins known as tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) effectively interact with MMPs to modify their biological roles. MMPs are very important enzymes that actively participate in remodeling the extracellular matrix by degrading certain constituents, along with promoting cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, apoptosis and angiogenesis. In normal adult tissue, they are almost undetectable; however, when perturbed through injury, disease or pregnancy, they have elevated expression. The goal of this review is to identify new experimental findings that have provided further insight into the role of MMPs in skeletal muscle, nerve and dermal tissue, as well as in the liver, heart and kidneys. Increased expression of MMPs can improve the regeneration potential of wounds; however, an imbalance between MMP and TIMP expression can prove to be destructive for afflicted tissues.
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86
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Arocho LC, Figueroa JD, Torrado AI, Santiago JM, Vera AE, Miranda JD. Expression profile and role of EphrinA1 ligand after spinal cord injury. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2011; 31:1057-69. [PMID: 21603973 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-011-9705-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Accepted: 04/30/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers the re-expression of inhibitory molecules present in early stages of development, contributing to prevention of axonal regeneration. Upregulation of EphA receptor tyrosine kinases after injury suggest their involvement in the nervous system's response to damage. However, the expression profile of their ephrinA ligands after SCI is unclear. In this study, we determined the expression of ephrinA ligands after contusive SCI. Adult Sprague-Dawley female rats were injured using the MASCIS impactor device at the T10 vertebrae, and levels of ephrinA mRNA and protein determined at different time points. Identification of the cell phenotype expressing the ephrin ligand and colocalization with Eph receptors was performed with immunohistochemistry and confocal microscopy. Behavioral studies were made, after blocking ephrinA1 expression with antisense (AS) oligonucleotides, to assess hindlimb locomotor activity. Real-time PCR demonstrated basal mRNA levels of ephrin (A1, A2, A3, and A5) in the adult spinal cord. Interestingly, ephrinA1 was the only ligand whose mRNA levels were significantly altered after SCI. Although ephrinA1 mRNA levels increased after 2 weeks and remain elevated, we did not observe this pattern at the protein level as revealed by western blot analysis. Immunohistochemical studies showed ephrinA1 expression in reactive astrocytes, axons, and neurons and also their colocalization with EphA4 and A7 receptors. Behavioral studies revealed worsening of locomotor activity when ephrinA1 expression was reduced. This study suggests that ephrinA1 ligands play a role in the pathophysiology of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luz C Arocho
- Physiology Department, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, P.O. Box 365067, San Juan, PR 00936-5067, USA
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87
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Gordon GM, Austin JS, Sklar AL, Feuer WJ, LaGier AJ, Fini ME. Comprehensive gene expression profiling and functional analysis of matrix metalloproteinases and TIMPs, and identification of ADAM-10 gene expression, in a corneal model of epithelial resurfacing. J Cell Physiol 2011; 226:1461-70. [PMID: 20625997 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study provides a comprehensive expression analysis for the entire matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) gene family during the process of epithelial resurfacing following corneal abrasion injury in the mouse. The mRNA levels for all known MMP genes expressed in mouse, the related enzyme ADAM-10, and the known tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) were determined semi-quantitatively by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in the uninjured epithelium, and in the epithelial tissue resurfacing the abraded area or residing in its periphery at two time points: during the epithelial migration phase and immediately following wound closure. The mRNA levels for MMP-1a, -1b, -9, -10, -12, and -13 as well as TIMP-1 were significantly up-regulated in the migrating corneal epithelium. After wound resurfacing, the mRNA levels for all of these MMPs were down-regulated, although MMP-1a, -1b, and -13 remained significantly elevated in comparison to the uninjured epithelium. The only gene found to be down-regulated was TIMP-3, which occurred throughout the wound-healing process. During resurfacing, MMP-9 was localized to the front of the migrating epithelium, MMP-10 and -13 were localized throughout the migrating epithelium, and MMP-13 could also be found in the periphery. Following epithelial closure, immunoreactive MMPs-9 and -10 became undetectable, but MMP-13 continued to be found throughout the epithelium. Functional analysis of MMP-10 revealed no effects on epithelial migration or cell proliferation. In conclusion, distinct MMP temporal-spatial profiles define the uninjured corneal epithelium and the corneal epithelium at different stages of regeneration. An extensive review of the literature is also provided in the discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel M Gordon
- Institute for Genetic Medicine, Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-9034, USA
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88
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Zhang H, Chang M, Hansen CN, Basso DM, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Role of matrix metalloproteinases and therapeutic benefits of their inhibition in spinal cord injury. Neurotherapeutics 2011; 8:206-20. [PMID: 21455784 PMCID: PMC3077748 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-011-0038-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This review will focus on matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors in the context of spinal cord injury (SCI). MMPs have a specific cellular and temporal pattern of expression in the injured spinal cord. Here we consider their diverse functions in the acutely injured cord and during wound healing. Excessive activity of MMPs, and in particular gelatinase B (MMP-9), in the acutely injured cord contributes to disruption of the blood-spinal cord barrier, and the influx of leukocytes into the injured cord, as well as apoptosis. MMP-9 and MMP-2 regulate inflammation and neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury and may contribute to SCI-induced pain. Early pharmacologic inhibition of MMPs or the gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) results in an improvement in long-term neurological recovery and is associated with reduced glial scarring and neuropathic pain. During wound healing, gelatinase A (MMP-2) plays a critical role in limiting the formation of an inhibitory glial scar, and mice that are genetically deficient in this protease showed impaired recovery. Together, these findings illustrate complex, temporally distinct roles of MMPs in SCIs. As early gelatinase activity is detrimental, there is an emerging interest in developing gelatinase-targeted therapeutics that would be specifically tailored to the acute injured spinal cord. Thus, we focus this review on the development of selective gelatinase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoqian Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0110, USA.
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89
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Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) affects the activation, migration, and function of microglia, neutrophils and monocyte/macrophages. Because these myeloid cells can positively and negatively affect survival of neurons and glia, they are among the most commonly studied immune cells. However, the mechanisms that regulate myeloid cell activation and recruitment after SCI have not been adequately defined. In general, the dynamics and composition of myeloid cell recruitment to the injured spinal cord are consistent between mammalian species; only the onset, duration, and magnitude of the response vary. Emerging data, mostly from rat and mouse SCI models, indicate that resident and recruited myeloid cells are derived from multiple sources, including the yolk sac during development and the bone marrow and spleen in adulthood. After SCI, a complex array of chemokines and cytokines regulate myelopoiesis and intraspinal trafficking of myeloid cells. As these cells accumulate in the injured spinal cord, the collective actions of diverse cues in the lesion environment help to create an inflammatory response marked by tremendous phenotypic and functional heterogeneity. Indeed, it is difficult to attribute specific reparative or injurious functions to one or more myeloid cells because of convergence of cell function and difficulties in using specific molecular markers to distinguish between subsets of myeloid cell populations. Here we review each of these concepts and include a discussion of future challenges that will need to be overcome to develop newer and improved immune modulatory therapies for the injured brain or spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia L. Hawthorne
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 460 W. 12th Ave., 770 Biomedical Research Tower, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
| | - Phillip G. Popovich
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 460 W. 12th Ave., 770 Biomedical Research Tower, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
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90
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Toft-Hansen H, Füchtbauer L, Owens T. Inhibition of reactive astrocytosis in established experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis favors infiltration by myeloid cells over T cells and enhances severity of disease. Glia 2011; 59:166-76. [PMID: 21046558 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Reactive astrocytosis, involving activation, hypertrophy, and proliferation of astrocytes, is a characteristic response to inflammation or injury of the central nervous system. We have investigated whether inhibition of reactive astrocytosis influences established experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis. We made use of transgenic mice, which express herpes simplex virus-derived thymidine kinase under control of a glial fibrillary acidic protein promotor (GFAP HSV-TK mice). Treatment of these mice with ganciclovir leads to inhibition of reactive astrocytosis. When GFAP HSV-TK mice were treated for seven days following onset of EAE with ganciclovir, disease severity increased. Although aquaporin-4 staining on astrocyte endfeet at the glia limitans remained equally detectable, GFAP immunoreactivity and mRNA expression in CNS were reduced by this treatment. Ganciclovir-treated GFAP HSV-TK mice with EAE had a 78% increase in the total number of infiltrating myeloid cells (mainly macrophages), whereas we did not find an increase in infiltrating T cells, using quantitative flow cytometry. Per cell expression of mRNA for the macrophage-associated molecules TNFα, MMP-12 and TIMP-1 was elevated in spinal cord of GFAP HSV-TK mice treated with ganciclovir. Relative expression of CD3ε was downregulated, and expression levels of IFNγ, IL-4, IL-10, IL-17, and Foxp3 were not significantly changed. mRNA expression of CCL2 was upregulated, and CXL10 was downregulated. Thus, inhibition of reactive astrocytosis after initiation of EAE leads to increased macrophage, but not T cell, infiltration, and enhanced severity of EAE. This emphasizes the role of astrocytes in controlling leukocyte infiltration in neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Toft-Hansen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense C, Denmark
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91
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Lee JY, Kim HS, Oh TH, Yune TY. Ethanol Extract of Bupleurum falcatum Improves Functional Recovery by Inhibiting Matrix Metalloproteinases-2 and -9 Activation and Inflammation after Spinal Cord Injury. Exp Neurobiol 2010; 19:146-54. [PMID: 22110354 PMCID: PMC3214781 DOI: 10.5607/en.2010.19.3.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent endopeptidases that degrade the extracellular matrix and other extracellular proteins. Upregulation of MMPs activity is known to be required for the inflammatory cell infiltration after spinal cord injury (SCI) and most likely contributes to early blood spinal barrier disruption and inflammation, thereby leading to the impairment of functional recovery. Here, we examined the effect of ethanol extract of Bupleurum falcatum (BF) on functional recovery by inhibiting MMP-2 and -9 activation and inflammation after SCI. Rats received a moderate, weight-drop contusion injury to spinal cord were administered orally with BF at a dose of 100 mg/kg for 14 d and functional recovery was measured by Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan locomotor open field behavioral rating test, inclined plane test and foot print analysis. To examine the neuroprotective effect of BF, TUNEL staining and counting were also performed. In addition, the expression and/or activation of MMP-2, MMP-9 and inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2, and iNOS were examined by RT-PCR and gelatin zymography using spinal cord tissue from 1 d after injury. Our data showed that BF significantly inhibited the expression and activation of both MMP-2 and MMP-9 after SCI. The mRNA expressions of TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2, and iNOS were also significantly attenuated by BF. Furthermore, BF reduced apoptotic cell death at 1 d after injury, thereby significantly reduced lesion volume and improved functional recovery. Taken together, these results suggest that BF can be used as a potential therapeutic agent for treating acute spinal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Youn Lee
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
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92
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Zhang H, Adwanikar H, Werb Z, Noble-Haeusslein LJ. Matrix metalloproteinases and neurotrauma: evolving roles in injury and reparative processes. Neuroscientist 2010; 16:156-70. [PMID: 20400713 DOI: 10.1177/1073858409355830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are involved in a wide range of proteolytic events in fetal development and normal tissue remodeling as well as wound healing and inflammation. In the CNS, they have been implicated in a variety of neurodegenerative diseases ranging from multiple sclerosis to Alzheimer disease and are integral to stroke-related cell damage. Although studies implicate increased activity of MMPs in pathogenesis in the CNS, there is also a growing literature to support their participation in events that support recovery processes. Here the authors provide a brief overview of MMPs and their regulation, address their complex roles following traumatic injuries to the adult and developing CNS, and consider their time- and context-dependent signatures that influence both injury and reparative processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoqian Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0110, USA.
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93
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Dev R, Srivastava PK, Iyer JP, Dastidar SG, Ray A. Therapeutic potential of matrix metalloprotease inhibitors in neuropathic pain. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2010; 19:455-68. [PMID: 20218929 DOI: 10.1517/13543781003643486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Millions of people suffer from neuropathic pain (NP), but the treatment is empirical and results in transient relief in only a few patients. This is primarily because of the poor understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying NP. Following nerve injury, there is a differential and temporal pattern of MMPs expression that coincides with changes in levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, suggesting that MMPs not only act as mediators for neuroinflammation but might also be directly involved in pain associated with nerve damage. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW The present review describes the different mechanisms of NP. The main focus of the review is to highlight the importance of MMPs in NP and their inhibition as a novel approach for treating NP. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN A comprehensive overview of the role of MMPs in the pathogenesis of NP and the potential of MMP inhibition as a therapeutic intervention for NP. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Targeted therapy using specific MMP inhibitors, siRNAs, peptide inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies can provide a better way of treatment by blocking a single MMP and can reduce the side effects of broad-spectrum MMP inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishabh Dev
- Department of Pharmacology, New Drug Discovery Research, Ranbaxy Research Laboratories, Plot No. 20, Sector 18, Udyog Vihar, Gurgaon, 122015, Haryana, India
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94
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The effects of different rehabilitation strategies on the functional recovery of spinal cord injured rats: an experimental study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2010; 35:E1273-7. [PMID: 20938389 DOI: 10.1097/brs.0b013e3181e3fc5f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN An experimental study. OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of different rehabilitation strategies on functional recovery of partial spinal cord of injured rats. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA Activity-based rehabilitation is promising strategy for improving functional recovery following spinal cord injury (SCI). METHODS Twenty-four female Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 180 to 220 g were anesthetized with chloral hydrate (450 mg kg⁻¹) by intraperitoneal injection, and laminectomy was performed at T7-T8 level, leaving the dura intact. A compression plate (2.2 × 5.0 mm) loaded with weight of 35 g was placed on the exposed cord for 5 minutes to create partial SCI. Animals were divided into 3 groups of 8 rats each. Group 1 served as control (SCI + without treadmill and swimming training). Whereas rats in Groups 2 and 3 were subjected to SCI as mentioned previously and received swimming training 5 minutes for Group 2 and treadmill training 5 minutes for Group 3 each day, which occurred beginning 14 days postsurgery and continued for 14 days. The spontaneous coordinate activity (SCA), Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB), and Tarlov locomotor scores were used to assess functional recovery of spinal cord injured rats. RESULTS Day 1 (baseline, 14 days after the surgery), there was no significant difference among the means for SCA, BBB, and Tarlov scores of all groups. After day 1, Groups 1, 2, and 3 showed continuous improvement in their BBB, Tarlov, and SCA scores. This improvement was maintained throughout the duration of the study with different levels for each group. By the end of the study, trained Groups 2 and 3 showed statistically significant improvement in their SCA, BBB, and Tarlov scores compared with Group 1 (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION These results suggest that 2 weeks of treadmill locomotor training and swimming training may have positive effects on functional recovery after partial SCI.
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95
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Nagano S, Kim SH, Tokunaga S, Arai K, Fujiki M, Misumi K. Matrix metalloprotease-9 activity in the cerebrospinal fluid and spinal injury severity in dogs with intervertebral disc herniation. Res Vet Sci 2010; 91:482-5. [PMID: 20965533 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2010] [Revised: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 09/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 expression in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of dogs with intervertebral disc herniation (IVDH) is associated with the severity of neurological signs and prognosis. CSF from the cisterna magna (C-CSF) and the lumbar spine (L-CSF) of 34 dogs with IVDH was analyzed using zymography. Activity of MMP-9 in L-CSF was detected in 6 of 34 dogs with IVDH, often for more than 7 days after injury. MMP-9 activity was not detected from any of the C-CSF samples. Of the six cases that were MMP-9 positive, all four cases with grade V that had loss of deep pain were non-ambulatory 6 months after treatment. The remaining two cases with grade III and IV could recover mobility. In dogs with grade V thoracolumbar IVDH, MMP-9 expression in the CSF may indicate severe spinal cord injury with poor prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Nagano
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
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96
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Shiomi T, Lemaître V, D’Armiento J, Okada Y. Matrix metalloproteinases, a disintegrin and metalloproteinases, and a disintegrin and metalloproteinases with thrombospondin motifs in non-neoplastic diseases. Pathol Int 2010; 60:477-96. [PMID: 20594269 PMCID: PMC3745773 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1827.2010.02547.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cellular functions within tissues are strictly regulated by the tissue microenvironment which comprises extracellular matrix and extracellular matrix-deposited factors such as growth factors, cytokines and chemokines. These molecules are metabolized by matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), a disintegrin and metalloproteinases (ADAM) and ADAM with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS), which are members of the metzincin superfamily. They function in various pathological conditions of both neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases by digesting different substrates under the control of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP) and reversion-inducing, cysteine-rich protein with Kazal motifs (RECK). In neoplastic diseases MMP play a central role in cancer cell invasion and metastases, and ADAM are also important to cancer cell proliferation and progression through the metabolism of growth factors and their receptors. Numerous papers have described the involvement of these metalloproteinases in non-neoplastic diseases in nearly every organ. In contrast to the numerous review articles on their roles in cancer cell proliferation and progression, there are very few articles discussing non-neoplastic diseases. This review therefore will focus on the properties of MMP, ADAM and ADAMTS and their implications for non-neoplastic diseases of the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, central nervous system, digestive system, renal system, wound healing and infection, and joints and muscular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Shiomi
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA
| | - Vincent Lemaître
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jeanine D’Armiento
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA
| | - Yasunori Okada
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
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97
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Belluoccio D, Etich J, Rosenbaum S, Frie C, Grskovic I, Stermann J, Ehlen H, Vogel S, Zaucke F, von der Mark K, Bateman JF, Brachvogel B. Sorting of growth plate chondrocytes allows the isolation and characterization of cells of a defined differentiation status. J Bone Miner Res 2010; 25:1267-81. [PMID: 20200945 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Axial growth of long bones occurs through a coordinated process of growth plate chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. This maturation of chondrocytes is reflected in a zonal change in gene expression and cell morphology from resting to proliferative, prehypertrophic, and hypertrophic chondrocytes of the growth plate followed by ossification. A major experimental limitation in understanding growth plate biology and pathophysiology is the lack of a robust technique to isolate cells from the different zones, particularly from small animals. Here, we report on a new strategy for separating distinct chondrocyte populations from mouse growth plates. By transcriptome profiling of microdissected zones of growth plates, we identified novel, zone-specific cell surface markers and used these for flow cytometry and immunomagnetic cell separation to quantify, enrich, and characterize chondrocytes populations with respect to their differentiation status. This approach provides a novel platform to study cartilage development and characterize mouse growth plate chondrocytes to reveal unique cellular phenotypes of the distinct subpopulations within the growth plate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Belluoccio
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, University of Melbourne, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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98
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Franco C, Ahmad PJ, Hou G, Wong E, Bendeck MP. Increased cell and matrix accumulation during atherogenesis in mice with vessel wall-specific deletion of discoidin domain receptor 1. Circ Res 2010; 106:1775-83. [PMID: 20448217 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.109.213637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Discoidin domain receptor (DDR)1 is a collagen receptor expressed on both smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and macrophages, where it plays important roles regulating cell and matrix accumulation during atherogenesis. Systemic deletion of DDR1 resulted in attenuated plaque growth but accelerated matrix accumulation in LDLR-deficient mice. Deletion of DDR1 solely on bone marrow-derived cells resulted in decreased macrophage accumulation and plaque growth but no change in matrix accumulation. OBJECTIVE These findings led us to hypothesize that accelerated matrix accumulation was attributable to the increased synthetic ability of Ddr1(-/-) resident vascular wall SMCs. METHODS AND RESULTS We used bone marrow transplantation to generate chimeric mice and investigate the role of SMC DDR1 during atherogenesis. Mice with deficiency of DDR1 in vessel wall-derived cells (Ddr1(+/+-->-/-)) or control mice (Ddr1(+/+-->+/+)) were fed an atherogenic diet for 12 weeks. We observed a 3.8-fold increase in the size of aortic sinus plaques in Ddr1(+/+-->-/-) compared to Ddr1(+/+-->+/+) mice. This was attributed to pronounced accumulation of collagen, elastin, proteoglycans, and fibronectin and resulted in a thickened fibrous cap. The enhanced matrix accumulation decreased the proportion of plaque area occupied by cells but was associated with a shift in the cellular composition of the lesions toward increased numbers of vessel wall-derived SMCs compared to bone marrow-derived macrophages. In vitro studies confirmed that Ddr1(-/-) SMCs expressed more matrix, proliferated more, and migrated farther than Ddr1(+/+) SMCs. CONCLUSIONS DDR1 expression on resident vessel wall SMCs limits proliferation, migration and matrix accumulation during atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Franco
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, Room 6213, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
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99
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Choi DC, Lee JY, Moon YJ, Kim SW, Oh TH, Yune TY. Acupuncture-mediated inhibition of inflammation facilitates significant functional recovery after spinal cord injury. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 39:272-82. [PMID: 20382225 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Revised: 03/31/2010] [Accepted: 04/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Here, we first demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of acupuncture after SCI. Acupuncture applied at two specific acupoints, Shuigou (GV26) and Yanglingquan (GB34) significantly alleviated apoptotic cell death of neurons and oligodendrocytes, thereby leading to improved functional recovery after SCI. Acupuncture also inhibited caspase-3 activation and reduced the size of lesion cavity and extent of loss of axons. We also found that the activation of both p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and resident microglia after injury are significantly attenuated by acupuncture. In addition, acupuncture significantly reduced the expression or activation of pro-nerve growth factor, proinflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6, nitric oxide synthase, cycloxygenase-2, and matrix metalloprotease-9 after SCI. Thus, our results suggest that the neuroprotection by acupuncture may be partly mediated via inhibition of inflammation and microglial activation after SCI and acupuncture can be used as a potential therapeutic tool for treating acute spinal injury in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doo C Choi
- Age-Related and Brain Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea
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100
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Gomez-Nicola D, Valle-Argos B, Nieto-Sampedro M. Blockade of IL-15 activity inhibits microglial activation through the NFkappaB, p38, and ERK1/2 pathways, reducing cytokine and chemokine release. Glia 2010; 58:264-76. [PMID: 19610094 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Reactive glia formation is one of the hallmarks of damage to the CNS, but little information exists on the signals that direct its activation. Microglial cells are the main regulators of both innate and adaptative immune responses in the CNS. The proinflammatory cytokine IL-15 is involved in regulating the response of T and B cells, playing a key role in regulating nervous system inflammatory events. We have used a microglial culture model of inflammation induced by LPS and IFNgamma to evaluate the role of IL-15 in the proinflammatory response. Our results indicate that IL-15 is necessary for the reactive response, its deficiency (IL-15-/-) leading to the development of a defective proinflammatory response. Blockade of IL-15, both with blocking antibodies or with the ganglioside Neurostatin, inhibited the activation of the NFkappaB pathway, decreasing iNOS expression and NO production. Inhibiting IL-15 signaling also blocked the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways ERK1/2 and p38. The major consequence of these inhibitory effects, analyzed using cytokine antibody arrays, was a severe decrease in the production of chemokines, cytokines and growth factors, like CCL17, CCL19, IL-12, or TIMP-1, that are essential for the development of the phenotypic changes of glial activation. In conclusion, activation of the IL-15 system seems a necessary step for the development of glial reactivity and the regulation of the physiology of glial cells. Modulating IL-15 activity opens the possibility of developing new strategies to control gliotic events upon inflammatory stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Gomez-Nicola
- Experimental Neurology Unit, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, Toledo, Spain
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