Distinct roles of Galpha(q) and Galpha11 for Purkinje cell signaling and motor behavior

GABA(B) receptor-mediated modulation of glutamate signaling in cerebellar Purkinje cells

Since Purkinje cells are the sole output neurons of the cerebellar cortex, the postsynaptic integration of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs in this cell type is a pivotal step for cerebellar motor information processing. In Purkinje cells, Gi/o protein-coupled B-type gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABABR) is expressed at the annuli of the dendritic spines that are innervated by the glutamatergic terminals of parallel fibers. The subcellular localization of GABABR suggests the possibility of postsynaptic interplay between GABABR and glutamate signaling. It has recently been demonstrated that GABABR indeed modulates alpha amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxalone propionate-type ionotropic glutamate receptor (AMPAR)-mediated and type-1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR1)-mediated signaling. Interestingly, GABABR exerts modulatory actions not only via the classical Gi/o protein-dependent signaling cascade but also via a Gi/o protein-independent interaction between GABABR and mGluR1. In this review, we compare the physiological nature, underlying mechanisms, and possible functional significance of these modulatory actions of GABABR.

Galphao2 regulates vesicular glutamate transporter activity by changing its chloride dependence

Classical neurotransmitters, including monoamines, acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA, and glycine, are loaded into synaptic vesicles by means of specific transporters. Vesicular monoamine transporters are under negative regulation by alpha subunits of trimeric G-proteins, including Galpha(o2) and Galpha(q). Furthermore, glutamate uptake, mediated by vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs), is decreased by the nonhydrolysable GTP-analog guanylylimidodiphosphate. Using mutant mice lacking various Galpha subunits, including Galpha(o1), Galpha(o2), Galpha(q), and Galpha11, and a Galpha(o2)-specific monoclonal antibody, we now show that VGLUTs are exclusively regulated by Galpha(o2). G-protein activation does not affect the electrochemical proton gradient serving as driving force for neurotransmitter uptake; rather, Galpha(o2) exerts its action by specifically affecting the chloride dependence of VGLUTs. All VGLUTs show maximal activity at approximately 5 mm chloride. Activated Galpha(o2) shifts this maximum to lower chloride concentrations. In contrast, glutamate uptake by vesicles isolated from Galpha(o2-/-) mice have completely lost chloride activation. Thus, Galpha(o2) acts on a putative regulatory chloride binding domain that appears to modulate transport activity of vesicular glutamate transporters.

Kinetic, pharmacological and activity-dependent separation of two Ca2+ signalling pathways mediated by type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors in rat Purkinje neurones

Type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1) in Purkinje neurones (PNs) are important for motor learning and coordination. Here, two divergent mGluR1 Ca2+-signalling pathways and the associated membrane conductances were distinguished kinetically and pharmacologically after activation by 1-ms photorelease of L-glutamate or by bursts of parallel fibre (PF) stimulation. A new, mGluR1-mediated transient K+ conductance was seen prior to the slow EPSC (sEPSC). It was seen only in PNs previously allowed to fire spontaneously or held at depolarized potentials for several seconds and was slowly inhibited by agatoxin IVA, which blocks P/Q-type Ca2+ channels. It peaked in 148 ms, had well-defined kinetics and, unlike the sEPSC, was abolished by the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor U73122. It was blocked by the BK Ca2+-activated K+ channel blocker iberiotoxin and unaffected by apamin, indicating selective activation of BK channels by PLC-dependent store-released Ca2+. The K+ conductance and underlying transient Ca2+ release showed a highly reproducible delay of 99.5 ms following PF burst stimulation, with a precision of 1-2 ms in repeated responses of the same PN, and a subsequent fast rise and fall of Ca2+ concentration. Analysis of Ca2+ signals showed that activation of the K+ conductance by Ca2+ release occurred in small dendrites and subresolution structures, most probably spines. The results show that PF burst stimulation activates two pathways of mGluR1 signalling in PNs. First, transient, PLC-dependent Ca2+ release from stores with precisely reproducible timing and second, slower Ca2+ influx in the cation-permeable sEPSC channel. The priming by prior Ca2+ influx in P/Q-type Ca2+ channels may determine the path of mGluR1 signalling. The precise timing of PLC-mediated store release may be important for interactions of PF mGluR1 signalling with other inputs to the PN.

Induction and expression mechanisms of postsynaptic NMDA receptor-independent homosynaptic long-term depression

The induction of long-term depression (LTD) can be divided into two main forms, one dependent upon activation of postsynaptic NMDAR, and another independent of postsynaptic NMDAR. Non-postsynaptic NMDAR-LTD (non-NMDAR-LTD) occurs in many regions of the brain, and encompasses a wide variety of induction and expression mechanisms. In this article, the induction and expression mechanisms of such LTD in over 10 brain regions are described, with a number of common mechanisms compared across a large range of types of LTD. The article describes the involvement of different presynaptic or postsynaptic receptors in the induction of non-NMDAR-LTD, especially metabotropic glutamate receptors, cannabinoid receptors and dopamine receptors. An increase in presynaptic or postsynaptic intracellular Ca concentration is a key event in induction, commonly followed by activation of certain kinases, especially PKC, p38 MAPK and ERK. Expression mechanisms are either presynaptic via a reduction in release probability, or postsynaptic involving a decrease in AMPAR via phosphorylation of a glutamate receptor subunit, especially GluR2, followed by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Retrograde signalling from postsynaptic to presynaptic occurs when induction is postsynaptic and expression is presynaptic.

Altered expression of G(q/11alpha) protein shapes mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptor-mediated single cell inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and Ca(2+) signaling

The metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors mGlu1 and mGlu5 mediate distinct inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) and Ca(2+) signaling patterns, governed in part by differential mechanisms of feedback regulation after activation. Single cell imaging has shown that mGlu1 receptors initiate sustained elevations in IP(3) and Ca(2+), which are sensitive to agonist concentration. In contrast, mGlu5 receptors are subject to cyclical PKC-dependent uncoupling and consequently mediate coincident IP(3) and Ca(2+) oscillations that are largely independent of agonist concentration. In this study, we investigated the contribution of G(q/11)alpha protein expression levels in shaping mGlu1/5 receptor-mediated IP(3) and Ca(2+) signals, using RNA interference (RNAi). RNAi-mediated knockdown of G(q/11)alpha almost abolished the single-cell increase in IP(3) caused by mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptor activation. For the mGlu1 receptor, this unmasked baseline Ca(2+) oscillations that persisted even at maximal agonist concentrations. mGlu5 receptor-activated Ca(2+) oscillations were still observed but were only initiated at high agonist concentrations. Recombinant overexpression of G(q)alpha enhanced IP(3) signals after mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptor activation. It is noteworthy that although mGlu5 receptor-mediated IP(3) and Ca(2+) oscillations in control cells were largely insensitive to agonist concentration, increasing G(q)alpha expression converted these oscillatory signatures to sustained plateau responses in a high proportion of cells. In addition to modulating temporal Ca(2+) signals, up- or down-regulation of G(q/11)alpha expression alters the threshold for the concentration of glutamate at which a measurable Ca(2+) signal could be detected. These experiments indicate that altering G(q/11)alpha expression levels differentially affects spatiotemporal aspects of IP(3) and Ca(2+) signaling mediated by the mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptors.

Mammalian G proteins and their cell type specific functions

Heterotrimeric G proteins are key players in transmembrane signaling by coupling a huge variety of receptors to channel proteins, enzymes, and other effector molecules. Multiple subforms of G proteins together with receptors, effectors, and various regulatory proteins represent the components of a highly versatile signal transduction system. G protein-mediated signaling is employed by virtually all cells in the mammalian organism and is centrally involved in diverse physiological functions such as perception of sensory information, modulation of synaptic transmission, hormone release and actions, regulation of cell contraction and migration, or cell growth and differentiation. In this review, some of the functions of heterotrimeric G proteins in defined cells and tissues are described.

Quantitative single-cell RT-PCR and Ca2+ imaging in brain slices

We have established a quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) approach for the analysis of RNA transcript levels in individual cells of living brain slices. Quantification is achieved by using rapid-cycle, real-time PCR protocols and high-resolution external cDNA standard curves for the gene of interest. The method consists of several procedures, including cell soma harvest, reverse transcription, and an optimized cDNA purification step, which allowed us to quantify transcripts in small types of neurons, like cerebellar granule cells. Thus, we detected in single granule cells an average of 20 transcript copies of the housekeeping gene glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase. We combined two-photon calcium imaging and quantitative RT-PCR in single Purkinje and granule cells, respectively, and identified distinct glutamate receptor-dependent Ca2+ responses in these two cell types. The approach was further tested by profiling the expression of the ionotropic glutamate receptor subunits NR2B and NR2C in the cerebellum. Our study revealed a developmental switch from an average of 15 NR2B copies/cell at postnatal day 8 (P8) to about five NR2C copies/cell after P26. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the new method is rapid, highly sensitive, provides reliable results in neurons of various sizes, and can be used in combination with Ca2+ imaging.

Determinants of postsynaptic Ca2+ signaling in Purkinje neurons

Neuronal integration in Purkinje neurons involves many forms of Ca2+ signaling. Two afferent synaptic inputs, the parallel and the climbing fibers, provide a major drive for these signals. These two excitatory synaptic inputs are both glutamatergic. Postsynaptically they activate alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors (AMPARs) and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Unlike most other types of central neurons, Purkinje neurons do not express NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors (NMDARs). AMPARs in Purkinje neurons are characterized by a low permeability for Ca2+ ions. AMPAR-mediated synaptic depolarization may activate voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, mostly of the P/Q-type. The resulting intracellular Ca2+ signals are shaped by the Ca2+ buffers calbindin and parvalbumin. Ca2+ clearance from the cytosol is brought about by Ca2+-ATPases in the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as the Na+-Ca2+-exchanger. Binding of glutamate to mGluRs induces postsynaptic Ca2+-transients through two G protein-dependent pathways: involving (1) the release of Ca2+ ions from intracellular Ca2+ stores and (2) the opening of the cation channel TRPC1. Homer proteins appear to play an important role in postsynaptic Ca2+ signaling by providing a direct link between the plasma membrane-resident elements (mGluRs and TRPC1) and their intracellular partners, including the IP3Rs.

Loss of Gq/11 family G proteins in the nervous system causes pituitary somatotroph hypoplasia and dwarfism in mice

Heterotrimeric G proteins of the Gq/11 family transduce signals from a variety of neurotransmitter and hormone receptors and have therefore been implicated in various functions of the nervous system. Using the Cre/loxP system, we generated mice which lack the genes coding for the alpha subunits of the two main members of the Gq/11 family, gnaq and gna11, selectively in neuronal and glial precursor cells. Mice with defective gnaq and gna11 genes were morphologically normal, but they died shortly after birth. Mice carrying a single gna11 allele survived the early postnatal period but died within 3 to 6 weeks as anorectic dwarfs. In these mice, postnatal proliferation of pituitary somatotroph cells was strongly impaired, and plasma growth hormone (GH) levels were reduced to 15%. Hypothalamic levels of GH-releasing hormone (GHRH), an important stimulator of somatotroph proliferation, were strongly decreased, and exogenous administration of GHRH restored normal proliferation. The hypothalamic effects of ghrelin, a regulator of GHRH production and food intake, were reduced in these mice, suggesting that an impairment of ghrelin receptor signaling might contribute to GHRH deficiency and abnormal eating behavior. Taken together, our findings show that Gq/11 signaling is required for normal hypothalamic function and that impairment of this signaling pathway causes somatotroph hypoplasia, dwarfism, and anorexia.

The InsP3 receptor: its role in neuronal physiology and neurodegeneration

The InsP3 receptor is a ligand-gated channel that releases Ca2+ from intracellular stores in a variety of cell types, including neurons. Genetic studies from vertebrate and invertebrate model systems suggest that coordinated rhythmic motor functions are most susceptible to changes in Ca2+ release from the InsP3 receptor. In many cases, the InsP3 receptor interacts with other signaling mechanisms that control levels of cytosolic Ca2+, suggesting that the maintenance of Ca2+ homeostasis in normal cells could be controlled by the activity of the InsP3R. In support of this idea, recent studies show that altered InsP3 receptor activity can be partially responsible for Ca2+ dyshomeostasis seen in many neurodegenerative conditions. These observations open new avenues for carrying out genetic and drug screens that target InsP3R function in neurodegenerative conditions.

Ca2+ activity at GABAB receptors constitutively promotes metabotropic glutamate signaling in the absence of GABA

Type B gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABABR) is a G protein-coupled receptor that regulates neurotransmitter release and neuronal excitability throughout the brain. In various neurons, GABABRs are concentrated at excitatory synapses. Although these receptors are assumed to respond to GABA spillover from neighboring inhibitory synapses, their function is not fully understood. Here we show a previously undescribed function of GABABR exerted independent of GABA. In cerebellar Purkinje cells, interaction of GABABR with extracellular Ca2+ (Ca(2+)o) leads to a constitutive increase in the glutamate sensitivity of metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1). mGluR1 sensitization is clearly mediated by GABABR because it is absent in GABABR1 subunit-knockout cells. However, the mGluR1 sensitization does not require G(i/o) proteins that mediate the GABABR's classical functions. Moreover, coimmunoprecipitation reveals complex formation between GABABR and mGluR1 in the cerebellum. These findings demonstrate that GABABR can act as Ca(2+)o-dependent cofactors to enhance neuronal metabotropic glutamate signaling.