A new method for the reconstitution of membrane proteins into giant unilamellar vesicles

Transferosomes as nanocarriers for drugs across the skin: Quality by design from lab to industrial scale

Transferosomes, also known as transfersomes, are ultradeformable vesicles for transdermal applications consisting of a lipid bilayer with phospholipids and an edge activator and an ethanol/aqueous core. Depending on the lipophilicity of the active substance, it can be encapsulated within the core or amongst the lipid bilayer. Compared to liposomes, transferosomes are able to reach intact deeper regions of the skin after topical administration delivering higher concentrations of active substances making them a successful drug delivery carrier for transdermal applications. Most transferosomes contain phosphatidylcholine (C18) as it is the most abundant lipid component of the cell membrane, and hence, it is highly tolerated for the skin, decreasing the risk of undesirable effects, such as hypersensitive reactions. The most common edge activators are surfactants such as sodium deoxycholate, Tween® 80 and Span® 80. Their chain length is optimal for intercalation within the C18 phospholipid bilayer. A wide variety of drugs has been successfully encapsulated within transferosomes such as phytocompounds like sinomenine or apigenin for rheumatoid arthritis and leukaemia respectively, small hydrophobic drugs but also macromolecules like insulin. The main factors to develop optimal transferosomal formulations (with high drug loading and nanometric size) are the optimal ratio between the main components as well as the critical process parameters for their manufacture. Application of quality by design (QbD), specifically design of experiments (DoE), is crucial to understand the interplay among all these factors not only during the preparation at lab scale but also in the scale-up process. Clinical trials of a licensed topical ketoprofen transferosomal gel have shown promising results in the alleviation of symptons in orthreothritis with non-severe skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders. However, the product was withdrawn from the market which probably was related to the higher cost of the medicine linked to the expensive manufacturing process required in the production of transferosomes compared to other conventional gel formulations. This example brings out the need for a careful formulation design to exploit the best properties of this drug delivery system as well as the development of manufacturing processes easily scalable at industrial level.

Multilamellar Vaccine Particle Elicits Potent Immune Activation with Protein Antigens and Protects Mice against Ebola Virus Infection

Recent outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases, such as Ebola virus disease (EVD), highlight the urgent need to develop effective countermeasures, including prophylactic vaccines. Subunit proteins derived from pathogens provide a safe source of antigens for vaccination, but they are often limited by their low immunogenicity. We have developed a multilamellar vaccine particle (MVP) system composed of lipid-hyaluronic acid multi-cross-linked hybrid nanoparticles for vaccination with protein antigens and demonstrate their efficacy against Ebola virus (EBOV) exposure. MVPs efficiently accumulated in dendritic cells and promote antigen processing. Mice immunized with MVPs elicited robust and long-lasting antigen-specific CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cell immune responses as well as humoral immunity. A single-dose vaccination with MVPs delivering EBOV glycoprotein achieved an 80% protection rate against lethal EBOV infection. These results suggest that MVPs offer a promising platform for improving recombinant protein-based vaccine approaches.

Self-Assembled Polymeric Membranes and Nanoassemblies on Surfaces: Preparation, Characterization, and Current Applications

Biomembranes play a crucial role in a multitude of biological processes, where high selectivity and efficiency are key points in the reaction course. The outstanding performance of biological membranes is based on the coupling between the membrane and biomolecules, such as membrane proteins. Polymer-based membranes and assemblies represent a great alternative to lipid ones, as their presence not only dramatically increases the mechanical stability of such systems, but also opens the scope to a broad range of chemical functionalities, which can be fine-tuned to selectively combine with a specific biomolecule. Tethering the membranes or nanoassemblies on a solid support opens the way to a class of functional surfaces finding application as sensors, biocomputing systems, molecular recognition, and filtration membranes. Herein, the design, physical assembly, and biomolecule attachment/insertion on/within solid-supported polymeric membranes and nanoassemblies are presented in detail with relevant examples. Furthermore, the models and applications for these materials are highlighted with the recent advances in each field.

Fabrics of Diverse Chemistries Promote the Formation of Giant Vesicles from Phospholipids and Amphiphilic Block Copolymers

Giant vesicles composed of phospholipids and amphiphilic block copolymers are useful for biomimetic drug delivery, for biophysical experiments, and for creating synthetic cells. Here, we report that large numbers of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) can be formed on a broad range of fabrics composed of entangled cylindrical fibers. We show that fabrics woven from fibers of silk, wool, rayon, nylon, polyester, and fiberglass promote the formation of GUVs and giant polymer vesicles (polymersomes) in aqueous solutions. The result extends significantly previous reports on the formation of GUVs on cellulose paper and cotton fabric. Giant vesicles formed on all the fabrics from lipids with various headgroup charges, chains lengths, and chain saturations. Giant vesicles could be formed from multicomponent lipid mixtures, from extracts of plasma membranes, and from amphiphilic diblock and triblock copolymers, in both low ionic strength and high ionic strength solutions. Intriguingly, statistical characterization using a model lipid, 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, revealed that the majority of the fabrics yielded similar average counts of vesicles. Additionally, the vesicle populations obtained from the different fabrics had similar distributions of sizes. Fabrics are ubiquitous in society in consumer, technical, and biomedical applications. The discovery herein that biomimetic GUVs grow on fabrics opens promising new avenues in vesicle-based smart materials design.

Mechanistic Landscape of Membrane-Permeabilizing Peptides

Membrane permeabilizing peptides (MPPs) are as ubiquitous as the lipid bilayer membranes they act upon. Produced by all forms of life, most membrane permeabilizing peptides are used offensively or defensively against the membranes of other organisms. Just as nature has found many uses for them, translational scientists have worked for decades to design or optimize membrane permeabilizing peptides for applications in the laboratory and in the clinic ranging from antibacterial and antiviral therapy and prophylaxis to anticancer therapeutics and drug delivery. Here, we review the field of membrane permeabilizing peptides. We discuss the diversity of their sources and structures, the systems and methods used to measure their activities, and the behaviors that are observed. We discuss the fact that "mechanism" is not a discrete or a static entity for an MPP but rather the result of a heterogeneous and dynamic ensemble of structural states that vary in response to many different experimental conditions. This has led to an almost complete lack of discrete three-dimensional active structures among the thousands of known MPPs and a lack of useful or predictive sequence-structure-function relationship rules. Ultimately, we discuss how it may be more useful to think of membrane permeabilizing peptides mechanisms as broad regions of a mechanistic landscape rather than discrete molecular processes.

Giant Vesicles and Their Use in Assays for Assessing Membrane Phase State, Curvature, Mechanics, and Electrical Properties

Giant unilamellar vesicles represent a promising and extremely useful model biomembrane system for systematic measurements of mechanical, thermodynamic, electrical, and rheological properties of lipid bilayers as a function of membrane composition, surrounding media, and temperature. The most important advantage of giant vesicles over other model membrane systems is that the membrane responses to external factors such as ions, (macro)molecules, hydrodynamic flows, or electromagnetic fields can be directly observed under the microscope. Here, we briefly review approaches for giant vesicle preparation and describe several assays used for deducing the membrane phase state and measuring a number of material properties, with further emphasis on membrane reshaping and curvature.

Biologically-active unilamellar vesicles from red blood cells

We demonstrate a method to prepare giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) with biologically-active protein activity, by mixing erythrocyte (red blood cell) membrane extract with phospholipids and growing their mixture in a porous hydrogel matrix. This presents a pathway to retain protein biological activity without prior isolation and purification of the protein, though only the activity of the membrane protein GLUT1 is investigated to date. Using the cascade enzymatic reaction glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase to assay glucose concentration specifically within the GUV interior, we show that glucose is internalized by GLUT1 whereas adding cytochalasin B, a GLUT1 inhibitor, blocks glucose transport. The method presented here operates at biological ionic strength and is both simple and potentially generalizable.

Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy to Examine Protein-Lipid Interactions in Membranes

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a versatile technique to study membrane dynamics and protein-lipid interactions. It can provide information about diffusion coefficients, concentrations, and molecular interactions of proteins and lipids in the membrane. These parameters allow for the determination of protein partitioning into different lipid environments, the identification of lipid domains, and the detection of lipid-protein complexes on the membrane. During the last decades, FCS studies were successfully performed on model membrane systems as also on living cells, to characterize protein-lipid interactions. Recent developments of the method described here improved quantitative measurements on membranes and decreased the number of potential artifacts. The aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with the necessary information and some practical guidelines to perform FCS studies on artificial and cellular membranes.

Light-Driven Biocatalysis in Liposomes and Polymersomes: Where Are We Now?

The utilization of light energy to power organic-chemical transformations is a fundamental strategy of the terrestrial energy cycle. Inspired by the elegance of natural photosynthesis, much interdisciplinary research effort has been devoted to the construction of simplified cell mimics based on artificial vesicles to provide a novel tool for biocatalytic cascade reactions with energy-demanding steps. By inserting natural or even artificial photosynthetic systems into liposomes or polymersomes, the light-driven proton translocation and the resulting formation of electrochemical gradients have become possible. This is the basis for the conversion of photonic into chemical energy in form of energy-rich molecules such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can be further utilized by energy-dependent biocatalytic reactions, e.g. carbon fixation. This review compares liposomes and polymersomes as artificial compartments and summarizes the types of light-driven proton pumps that have been employed in artificial photosynthesis so far. We give an overview over the methods affecting the orientation of the photosystems within the membranes to ensure a unidirectional transport of molecules and highlight recent examples of light-driven biocatalysis in artificial vesicles. Finally, we summarize the current achievements and discuss the next steps needed for the transition of this technology from the proof-of-concept status to preparative applications.

Claudin-4 reconstituted in unilamellar vesicles is sufficient to form tight interfaces that partition membrane proteins

Tight junctions have been hypothesized to act as molecular fences in the plasma membrane of epithelial cells, helping to form differentiated apical and basolateral domains. While this fence function is believed to arise from the interaction of four-pass transmembrane claudins, the complexity of tight junctions has made direct evidence of their role as a putative diffusion barrier difficult to obtain. Here, we address this challenge by reconstituting claudin-4 into giant unilamellar vesicles using microfluidic jetting. We find that reconstituted claudin-4 alone can form adhesive membrane interfaces without the accessory proteins that are present in vivo By controlling the molecular composition of the inner and outer leaflets of jetted vesicle membranes, we show that claudin-4-mediated interfaces can drive partitioning of extracellular membrane proteins with ectodomains as small as 5 nm but not of inner or outer leaflet lipids. Our findings indicate that homotypic interactions of claudins and their small size can contribute to the polarization of epithelial cells.

Charged giant unilamellar vesicles prepared by electroformation exhibit nanotubes and transbilayer lipid asymmetry

Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) are increasingly used as a versatile research tool to investigate membrane structure, morphology and phase state. In these studies, GUV preparation is typically enhanced by an externally applied electric field, a process called electroformation. We find that upon osmotic deflation, GUVs electroformed from charged and neutral lipids exhibit inward pointing lipid nanotubes, suggesting negative spontaneous curvature of the membrane. By quenching a fluorescent analog of the charged lipid, zeta potential measurements and experiments with the lipid marker annexin A5, we show that electroformed GUVs exhibit an asymmetric lipid distribution across the bilayer leaflets. The asymmetry is lost either after storing electroformed GUVs at room temperature for one day or by applying higher voltages and temperatures during electroformation. GUVs having the same lipid composition but grown via gel-assisted swelling do not show asymmetric lipid distribution. We discuss possible mechanisms for the generation and relaxation of lipid asymmetry, as well as implications for studies using electroformed vesicles. The observed effects allow to control the molecular assembly of lipid bilayer leaflets. Vesicle tubulation as reported here is an example of protein-free reshaping of membranes and is caused by compositional lipid asymmetry between leaflets.

A convenient protocol for generating giant unilamellar vesicles containing SNARE proteins using electroformation

Reconstitution of membrane proteins in artificial membranes is an essential prerequisite for functional studies that depend on the context of an intact membrane. While straight-forward protocols for reconstituting proteins in small unilamellar vesicles were developed many years ago, it is much more difficult to prepare large membranes containing membrane proteins at biologically relevant concentrations. Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) represent a model system that is characterised by low curvature, controllable tension, and large surface that can be easily visualised with microscopy, but protein insertion is notoriously difficult. Here we describe a convenient method for efficient generation of GUVs containing functionally active SNARE proteins that govern exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Preparation of proteo-GUVs requires a simple, in-house-built device, standard and inexpensive electronic equipment, and employs a straight-forward protocol that largely avoids damage of the proteins. The procedure allows upscaling and multiplexing, thus providing a platform for establishing and optimizing preparation of GUVs containing membrane proteins for a diverse array of applications.

Reconstitution and functional studies of hamster P-glycoprotein in giant liposomes

This paper describes the preparation of giant unilamellar vesicles with reconstituted hamster P-glycoprotein (Pgp, ABCB1) for studying the transport activity of this efflux pump in individual liposomes using optical microscopy. Pgp, a member of ABC (ATP-binding cassette) transporter family, is known to contribute to the cellular multidrug resistance (MDR) against variety of drugs. The efficacy of many therapeutics is, thus, hampered by this efflux pump, leading to a high demand for simple and effective strategies to monitor the interactions of candidate drugs with this protein. Here, we applied small Pgp proteoliposomes to prepare giant Pgp-bearing liposomes via modified electroformation techniques. The presence of Pgp in the membrane of giant proteoliposomes was confirmed using immunohistochemistry. Assessment of Pgp ATPase activity suggested that this transporter retained its activity upon reconstitution into giant liposomes, with an ATPase specific activity of 439 ± 103 nmol/mg protein/min. For further confirmation, we assessed the transport activity of Pgp in these proteoliposomes by monitoring the translocation of rhodamine 123 (Rho123) across the membrane using confocal microscopy at various ATP concentrations (0-2 mM) and in the presence of Pgp inhibitors. Rate of change in Rho123 concentration inside the liposomal lumen was used to estimate the Rho123 transport rates (1/s) for various ATP concentrations, which were then applied to retrieve the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) of ATP in Rho123 transport (0.42 ± 0.75 mM). Similarly, inhibitory effects of verapamil, colchicine, and cyclosporin A on Pgp were studied in this system and the IC50 values for these Pgp inhibitors were found 26.6 ± 6.1 μM, 94.6 ± 47.6 μM, and 0.21 ± 0.07 μM, respectively. We further analyzed the transport data using a kinetic model that enabled dissecting the passive diffusion of Rho123 from its Pgp-mediated transport across the membrane. Based on this model, the permeability coefficient of Rho123 across the liposomal membrane was approximately 1.25×10-7 cm/s. Comparing the membrane permeability in liposomes with and without Pgp revealed that the presence of this protein did not have a significant impact on membrane integrity and permeability. Furthermore, we used this model to obtain transport rate constants for the Pgp-mediated transport of Rho123 (m3/mol/s) at various ATP and inhibitor concentrations, which were then applied to estimate values of 0.53 ± 0.66 mM for Km of ATP and 25.2 ± 5.0 μM for verapamil IC50, 61.8 ± 34.8 μM for colchicine IC50, and 0.23 ± 0.09 μM for cyclosporin A IC50. The kinetic parameters obtained from the two analyses were comparable, suggesting a minimal contribution from the passive Rho123 diffusion across the membrane. This approach may, therefore, be applied for screening the transport activity of Pgp against potential drug candidates.

Photosynthetic artificial organelles sustain and control ATP-dependent reactions in a protocellular system

Inside cells, complex metabolic reactions are distributed across the modular compartments of organelles. Reactions in organelles have been recapitulated in vitro by reconstituting functional protein machineries into membrane systems. However, maintaining and controlling these reactions is challenging. Here we designed, built, and tested a switchable, light-harvesting organelle that provides both a sustainable energy source and a means of directing intravesicular reactions. An ATP (ATP) synthase and two photoconverters (plant-derived photosystem II and bacteria-derived proteorhodopsin) enable ATP synthesis. Independent optical activation of the two photoconverters allows dynamic control of ATP synthesis: red light facilitates and green light impedes ATP synthesis. We encapsulated the photosynthetic organelles in a giant vesicle to form a protocellular system and demonstrated optical control of two ATP-dependent reactions, carbon fixation and actin polymerization, with the latter altering outer vesicle morphology. Switchable photosynthetic organelles may enable the development of biomimetic vesicle systems with regulatory networks that exhibit homeostasis and complex cellular behaviors.

Detergent-free Ultrafast Reconstitution of Membrane Proteins into Lipid Bilayers Using Fusogenic Complementary-charged Proteoliposomes

Detergents are indispensable for delivery of membrane proteins into 30-100 nm small unilamellar vesicles, while more complex, larger model lipid bilayers are less compatible with detergents. Here we describe a strategy for bypassing this fundamental limitation using fusogenic oppositely charged liposomes bearing a membrane protein of interest. Fusion between such vesicles occurs within 5 min in a low ionic strength buffer. Positively charged fusogenic liposomes can be used as simple shuttle vectors for detergent-free delivery of membrane proteins into biomimetic target lipid bilayers, which are negatively charged. We also show how to reconstitute membrane proteins into fusogenic proteoliposomes with a fast 30-min protocol. Combining these two approaches, we demonstrate a fast assembly of an electron transport chain consisting of two membrane proteins from E. coli, a primary proton pump bo3-oxidase and F1Fo ATP synthase, in membranes of vesicles of various sizes, ranging from 0.1 to >10 microns, as well as ATP production by this chain.

Liposomes and polymersomes: a comparative review towards cell mimicking

Minimal cells: we compare and contrast liposomes and polymersomes for a bettera priorichoice and design of vesicles and try to understand the advantages and shortcomings associated with using one or the other in many different aspects (properties, synthesis, self-assembly, applications).

Methods for Identification of Protein-RNA Interaction

The importance of RNA-protein interactions in regulation of mRNA and non-coding RNA function is increasingly appreciated. With the development of next generation high-throughput sequencing technologies, a variety of methods have been proposed to comprehensively identify RNA-protein interactions. In this chapter, we discussed the traditional and state-of-the-art technologies that were used to study RNA-protein interaction, including experimental and computational methods. To help highlight the biological significance of RNA-protein interaction in complex diseases, online resources on RNA-protein interactions were briefly discussed. Finally, we discussed the interaction among noncoding RNAs (such as long noncoding RNAs and microRNAs) and proteins, as well as the dysregulation of RNA-protein interaction in complex diseases. These summarization will ultimately provide a more complete picture for understanding of the function of RNA-protein interactions, including how these interaction assembled and how they modulate cellular function in complex diseases.

HDL particles incorporate into lipid bilayers - a combined AFM and single molecule fluorescence microscopy study

The process, how lipids are removed from the circulation and transferred from high density lipoprotein (HDL) - a main carrier of cholesterol in the blood stream - to cells, is highly complex. HDL particles are captured from the blood stream by the scavenger receptor, class B, type I (SR-BI), the so-called HDL receptor. The details in subsequent lipid-transfer process, however, have not yet been completely understood. The transfer has been proposed to occur directly at the cell surface across an unstirred water layer, via a hydrophobic channel in the receptor, or after HDL endocytosis. The role of the target lipid membrane for the transfer process, however, has largely been overlooked. Here, we studied at the single molecule level how HDL particles interact with synthetic lipid membranes. Using (high-speed) atomic force microscopy and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) we found out that, upon contact with the membrane, HDL becomes integrated into the lipid bilayer. Combined force and single molecule fluorescence microscopy allowed us to directly monitor the transfer process of fluorescently labelled amphiphilic lipid probe from HDL particles to the lipid bilayer upon contact.

Lipid vesicles in pulsed electric fields: Fundamental principles of the membrane response and its biomedical applications

The present review focuses on the effects of pulsed electric fields on lipid vesicles ranging from giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) to small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), from both fundamental and applicative perspectives. Lipid vesicles are the most popular model membrane systems for studying biophysical and biological processes in living cells. Furthermore, as vesicles are made from biocompatible and biodegradable materials, they provide a strategy to create safe and functionalized drug delivery systems in health-care applications. Exposure of lipid vesicles to pulsed electric fields is a common physical method to transiently increase the permeability of the lipid membrane. This method, termed electroporation, has shown many advantages for delivering exogenous molecules including drugs and genetic material into vesicles and living cells. In addition, electroporation can be applied to induce fusion between vesicles and/or cells. First, we discuss in detail how research on cell-size GUVs as model cell systems has provided novel insight into the basic mechanisms of cell electroporation and associated phenomena. Afterwards, we continue with a thorough overview how electroporation and electrofusion have been used as versatile methods to manipulate vesicles of all sizes in different biomedical applications. We conclude by summarizing the open questions in the field of electroporation and possible future directions for vesicles in the biomedical field.

Nonequilibrium fluctuations of lipid membranes by the rotating motor protein F1F0-ATP synthase

The shape of biological membranes is constantly remodeled and maintained out of equilibrium by active proteins. The functional capacity of membrane deformation is mainly determined by the mechanical interplay between protein activity and bending elasticity. In our experiments, we find that ATP synthase, a rotating membrane protein that synthesizes the biochemical energy in cells through proton-pumping activity across the membrane, promotes localized nonequilibrium membrane fluctuations when reconstituted in giant lipid vesicles. The large membrane deformations emerge from the pumping action of rotating proteins clustered at specific emplacements in the membrane. Our results pave the way to new experimental realizations to explore the collective effects of rotating ATP synthases and their possible biological implications for biomembrane organization and protein functionality.

ATP synthase is a rotating membrane protein that synthesizes ATP through proton-pumping activity across the membrane. To unveil the mechanical impact of this molecular active pump on the bending properties of its lipid environment, we have functionally reconstituted the ATP synthase in giant unilamellar vesicles and tracked the membrane fluctuations by means of flickering spectroscopy. We find that ATP synthase rotates at a frequency of about 20 Hz, promoting large nonequilibrium deformations at discrete hot spots in lipid vesicles and thus inducing an overall membrane softening. The enhanced nonequilibrium fluctuations are compatible with an accumulation of active proteins at highly curved membrane sites through a curvature−protein coupling mechanism that supports the emergence of collective effects of rotating ATP synthases in lipid membranes.

Membrane fusion between baculovirus budded virus-enveloped particles and giant liposomes generated using a droplet-transfer method for the incorporation of recombinant membrane proteins

Giant proteoliposomes are generally useful as artificial cell membranes in biochemical and biophysical studies, and various procedures for their preparation have been reported. We present here a novel preparation technique that involves the combination of i) cell-sized lipid vesicles (giant unilamellar vesicles, GUVs) that are generated using the droplet-transfer method, where lipid monolayer-coated water-in-oil microemulsion droplets interact with oil/water interfaces to form enclosed bilayer vesicles, and ii) budded viruses (BVs) of baculovirus (Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus) that express recombinant transmembrane proteins on their envelopes. GP64, a fusogenic glycoprotein on viral envelopes, is activated by weak acids and is thought to cause membrane fusion with liposomes. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), we observed that the single giant liposomes fused with octadecyl rhodamine B chloride (R18)-labeled wild-type BV envelopes with moderate leakage of entrapped soluble compounds (calcein), and the fusion profile depended on the pH of the exterior solution: membrane fusion occurred at pH ∼4-5. We further demonstrated that recombinant transmembrane proteins, a red fluorescent protein (RFP)-tagged GPCR (corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1, CRHR1) and envelope protein GP64 could be partly incorporated into membranes of the individual giant liposomes with a reduction of the pH value, though there were also some immobile fluorescent spots observed on their circumferences. This combination may be useful for preparing giant proteoliposomes containing the desired membranes and inner phases.

Giant liposome formation toward the synthesis of well-defined artificial cells

This review focuses on microfluidic technologies for giant liposome formations which emulate environments of biological cells.

Direct detection of SERCA calcium transport and small-molecule inhibition in giant unilamellar vesicles

We have developed a charge-mediated fusion method to reconstitute the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA) in giant unilamellar vesicles (GUV). Intracellular Ca²⁺ transport by SERCA controls key processes in human cells such as proliferation, signaling, and contraction. Small-molecule effectors of SERCA are urgently needed as therapeutics for Ca²⁺ dysregulation in human diseases including cancer, diabetes, and heart failure. Here we report the development of a method for efficiently reconstituting SERCA in GUV, and we describe a streamlined protocol based on optimized parameters (e.g., lipid components, SERCA preparation, and activity assay requirements). ATP-dependent Ca²⁺ transport by SERCA in single GUV was detected directly using confocal fluorescence microscopy with the Ca²⁺ indicator Fluo-5F. The GUV reconstitution system was validated for functional screening of Ca²⁺ transport using thapsigargin (TG), a small-molecule inhibitor of SERCA currently in clinical trials as a prostate cancer prodrug. The GUV system overcomes the problem of inhibitory Ca²⁺ accumulation for SERCA in native and reconstituted small unilamellar vesicles (SUV). We propose that charge-mediated fusion provides a widely-applicable method for GUV reconstitution of clinically-important membrane transport proteins. We conclude that GUV reconstitution is a technological advancement for evaluating small-molecule effectors of SERCA.

Nerve cell-mimicking liposomes as biosensor for botulinum neurotoxin complete physiological activity

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT) are the most toxic substances known, and their neurotoxic properties and paralysing effects are exploited for medical treatment of a wide spectrum of disorders. To accurately quantify the potency of a pharmaceutical BoNT preparation, its physiological key activities (binding to membrane receptor, translocation, and proteolytic degradation of SNARE proteins) need to be determined. To date, this was only possible using animal models, or, to a limited extent, cell-based assays. We here report a novel in vitro system for BoNT/B analysis, based on nerve-cell mimicking liposomes presenting motoneuronal membrane receptors required for BoNT binding. Following triggered membrane translocation of the toxin's Light Chain, the endopeptidase activity can be quantitatively monitored employing a FRET-based reporter assay within the functionalized liposomes. We were able to detect BoNT/B physiological activity at picomolar concentrations in short time, opening the possibility for future replacement of animal experimentation in pharmaceutical BoNT testing.

A modular platform for one-step assembly of multi-component membrane systems by fusion of charged proteoliposomes

An important goal in synthetic biology is the assembly of biomimetic cell-like structures, which combine multiple biological components in synthetic lipid vesicles. A key limiting assembly step is the incorporation of membrane proteins into the lipid bilayer of the vesicles. Here we present a simple method for delivery of membrane proteins into a lipid bilayer within 5 min. Fusogenic proteoliposomes, containing charged lipids and membrane proteins, fuse with oppositely charged bilayers, with no requirement for detergent or fusion-promoting proteins, and deliver large, fragile membrane protein complexes into the target bilayers. We demonstrate the feasibility of our method by assembling a minimal electron transport chain capable of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis, combining Escherichia coli F1Fo ATP-synthase and the primary proton pump bo3-oxidase, into synthetic lipid vesicles with sizes ranging from 100 nm to ∼10 μm. This provides a platform for the combination of multiple sets of membrane protein complexes into cell-like artificial structures.

Oligodendroglial membrane dynamics in relation to myelin biogenesis

In the central nervous system, oligodendrocytes synthesize a specialized membrane, the myelin membrane, which enwraps the axons in a multilamellar fashion to provide fast action potential conduction and to ensure axonal integrity. When compared to other membranes, the composition of myelin membranes is unique with its relatively high lipid to protein ratio. Their biogenesis is quite complex and requires a tight regulation of sequential events, which are deregulated in demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. To devise strategies for remedying such defects, it is crucial to understand molecular mechanisms that underlie myelin assembly and dynamics, including the ability of specific lipids to organize proteins and/or mediate protein-protein interactions in healthy versus diseased myelin membranes. The tight regulation of myelin membrane formation has been widely investigated with classical biochemical and cell biological techniques, both in vitro and in vivo. However, our knowledge about myelin membrane dynamics, such as membrane fluidity in conjunction with the movement/diffusion of proteins and lipids in the membrane and the specificity and role of distinct lipid-protein and protein-protein interactions, is limited. Here, we provide an overview of recent findings about the myelin structure in terms of myelin lipids, proteins and membrane microdomains. To give insight into myelin membrane dynamics, we will particularly highlight the application of model membranes and advanced biophysical techniques, i.e., approaches which clearly provide an added value to insight obtained by classical biochemical techniques.

Compartmentalization and Transport in Synthetic Vesicles

Nanoscale vesicles have become a popular tool in life sciences. Besides liposomes that are generated from phospholipids of natural origin, polymersomes fabricated of synthetic block copolymers enjoy increasing popularity, as they represent more versatile membrane building blocks that can be selected based on their specific physicochemical properties, such as permeability, stability, or chemical reactivity. In this review, we focus on the application of simple and nested artificial vesicles in synthetic biology. First, we provide an introduction into the utilization of multicompartmented vesosomes as compartmentalized nanoscale bioreactors. In the bottom-up development of protocells from vesicular nanoreactors, the specific exchange of pathway intermediates across compartment boundaries represents a bottleneck for future studies. To date, most compartmented bioreactors rely on unspecific exchange of substrates and products. This is either based on changes in permeability of the coblock polymer shell by physicochemical triggers or by the incorporation of unspecific porin proteins into the vesicle membrane. Since the incorporation of membrane transport proteins into simple and nested artificial vesicles offers the potential for specific exchange of substances between subcompartments, it opens new vistas in the design of protocells. Therefore, we devote the main part of the review to summarize the technical advances in the use of phospholipids and block copolymers for the reconstitution of membrane proteins.

Bioinspired membrane-based systems for a physical approach of cell organization and dynamics: usefulness and limitations

Being at the periphery of each cell compartment and enclosing the entire cell while interacting with a large part of cell components, cell membranes participate in most of the cell's vital functions. Biologists have worked for a long time on deciphering how membranes are organized, how they contribute to trafficking, motility, cytokinesis, cell-cell communication, information transport, etc., using top-down approaches and always more advanced techniques. In contrast, physicists have developed bottom-up approaches and minimal model membrane systems of growing complexity in order to build up general models that explain how cell membranes work and how they interact with proteins, e.g. the cytoskeleton. We review the different model membrane systems that are currently available, and how they can help deciphering cell functioning, but also list their limitations. Model membrane systems are also used in synthetic biology and can have potential applications beyond basic research. We discuss the possible synergy between the development of complex in vitro membrane systems in a biological context and for technological applications. Questions that could also be discussed are: what can we still do with synthetic systems, where do we stop building up and which are the alternative solutions?

Minimal synthetic cells to study integrin-mediated adhesion

To shed light on cell-adhesion-related molecular pathways, synthetic cells offer the unique advantage of a well-controlled model system with reduced molecular complexity. Herein, we show that liposomes with the reconstituted platelet integrin αIIb β3 as the adhesion-mediating transmembrane protein are a functional minimal cell model for studying cellular adhesion mechanisms in a defined environment. The interaction of these synthetic cells with various extracellular matrix proteins was analyzed using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring. The data indicated that integrin was functionally incorporated into the lipid vesicles, thus enabling integrin-specific adhesion of the engineered liposomes to fibrinogen- and fibronectin-functionalized surfaces. Then, we were able to initiate the detachment of integrin liposomes from these surfaces in the presence of the peptide GRGDSP, a process that is even faster with our newly synthesized peptide mimetic SN529, which specifically inhibits the integrin αIIb β3 .

Microfluidic Strategies for Understanding the Mechanics of Cells and Cell-Mimetic Systems

Microfluidic systems are attracting increasing interest for the high-throughput measurement of cellular biophysical properties and for the creation of engineered cellular microenvironments. Here we review recent applications of microfluidic technologies to the mechanics of living cells and synthetic cell-mimetic systems. We begin by discussing the use of microfluidic devices to dissect the mechanics of cellular mimics, such as capsules and vesicles. We then explore applications to circulating cells, including erythrocytes and other normal blood cells, and rare populations with potential disease diagnostic value, such as circulating tumor cells. We conclude by discussing how microfluidic devices have been used to investigate the mechanics, chemotaxis, and invasive migration of adherent cells. In these ways, microfluidic technologies represent an increasingly important toolbox for investigating cellular mechanics and motility at high throughput and in a format that lends itself to clinical translation.

Formation of Giant Unilamellar Proteo-Liposomes by Osmotic Shock

Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), composed of a phospholipid bilayer, are often used as a model system for cell membranes. However, the study of proteo-membrane interactions in this system is limited as the incorporation of integral and lipid-anchored proteins into GUVs remains challenging. Here, we present a simple generic method to incorporate proteins into GUVs. The basic principle is to break proteo-liposomes with an osmotic shock. They subsequently reseal into larger vesicles which, if necessary, can endure the same to obtain even larger proteo-GUVs. This process does not require specific lipids or reagents, works under physiological conditions with high concentrations of protein, the proteins remains functional after incorporation. The resulting proteo-GUVs can be micromanipulated. Moreover, our protocol is valid for a wide range of protein substrates. We have successfully reconstituted three structurally different proteins, two trans-membrane proteins (TolC and the neuronal t-SNARE), and one lipid-anchored peripheral protein (GABARAP-Like 1 (GL1)). In each case, we verified that the protein remains active after incorporation and in its correctly folded state. We also measured their mobility by performing diffusion measurements via fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments on micromanipulated single GUVs. The diffusion coefficients are in agreement with previous data.

Mic10 oligomerizes to bend mitochondrial inner membranes at cristae junctions

The mitochondrial inner membrane is highly folded and displays a complex molecular architecture. Cristae junctions are highly curved tubular openings that separate cristae membrane invaginations from the surrounding boundary membrane. Despite their central role in many vital cellular processes like apoptosis, the details of cristae junction formation remain elusive. Here we identify Mic10, a core subunit of the recently discovered MICOS complex, as an inner mitochondrial membrane protein with the ability to change membrane morphology in vitro and in vivo. We show that Mic10 spans the inner membrane in a hairpin topology and that its ability to sculpt membranes depends on oligomerization through a glycine-rich motif. Oligomerization mutants fail to induce curvature in model membranes, and when expressed in yeast, mitochondria display an altered inner membrane architecture characterized by drastically decreased numbers of cristae junctions. Thus, we demonstrate that membrane sculpting by Mic10 is essential for cristae junction formation.

Engineering protocells: prospects for self-assembly and nanoscale production-lines

The increasing ease of producing nucleic acids and proteins to specification offers potential for design and fabrication of artificial synthetic "organisms" with a myriad of possible capabilities. The prospects for these synthetic organisms are significant, with potential applications in diverse fields including synthesis of pharmaceuticals, sources of renewable fuel and environmental cleanup. Until now, artificial cell technology has been largely restricted to the modification and metabolic engineering of living unicellular organisms. This review discusses emerging possibilities for developing synthetic protocell "machines" assembled entirely from individual biological components. We describe a host of recent technological advances that could potentially be harnessed in design and construction of synthetic protocells, some of which have already been utilized toward these ends. More elaborate designs include options for building self-assembling machines by incorporating cellular transport and assembly machinery. We also discuss production in miniature, using microfluidic production lines. While there are still many unknowns in the design, engineering and optimization of protocells, current technologies are now tantalizingly close to the capabilities required to build the first prototype protocells with potential real-world applications.

Charge-selective membrane protein patterning with proteoliposomes

A novel method to fabricate transmembrane protein (TP) embedded lipid bilayers has been developed, resulting in an immobilized, but biologically functioning TP embedded lipid layer precisely in the targeted patterns.

Nature's lessons in design: nanomachines to scaffold, remodel and shape membrane compartments

Our understanding of the membrane sculpting capabilities of proteins from experimental model systems could be used to construct functional compartmentalised architectures for the engineering of synthetic cells.

Hydrogel-assisted functional reconstitution of human P-glycoprotein (ABCB1) in giant liposomes

This paper describes the formation of giant proteoliposomes containing P-glycoprotein (P-gp) from a solution of small proteoliposomes that had been deposited and partially dried on a film of agarose. This preparation method generated a significant fraction of giant proteoliposomes that were free of internalized vesicles, making it possible to determine the accessible liposome volume. Measuring the intensity of the fluorescent substrate rhodamine 123 (Rho123) inside and outside these giant proteoliposomes determined the concentration of transported substrates of P-gp. Fitting a kinetic model to the fluorescence data revealed the rate of passive diffusion as well as active transport by reconstituted P-gp in the membrane. This approach determined estimates for the membrane permeability coefficient (Ps) of passive diffusion and rate constants of active transport (kT) by P-gp as a result of different experimental conditions. The Ps value for Rho123 was larger in membranes containing P-gp under all assay conditions than in membranes without P-gp indicating increased leakiness in the presence of reconstituted transmembrane proteins. For P-gp liposomes, the kT value was significantly higher in the presence of ATP than in its absence or in the presence of ATP and the competitive inhibitor verapamil. This difference in kT values verified that P-gp was functionally active after reconstitution and quantified the rate of active transport. Lastly, patch clamp experiments on giant proteoliposomes showed ion channel activity consistent with a chloride ion channel protein that co-purified with P-gp. Together, these results demonstrate several advantages of using giant rather than small proteoliposomes to characterize transport properties of transport proteins and ion channels.

Ribonomic approaches to study the RNA-binding proteome

Gene expression is controlled through a complex interplay among mRNAs, non-coding RNAs and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), which all assemble along with other RNA-associated factors in dynamic and functional ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs). To date, our understanding of RBPs is largely limited to proteins with known or predicted RNA-binding domains. However, various methods have been recently developed to capture an RNA of interest and comprehensively identify its associated RBPs. In this review, we discuss the RNA-affinity purification methods followed by mass spectrometry analysis (AP-MS); RBP screening within protein libraries and computational methods that can be used to study the RNA-binding proteome (RBPome).

Model systems for studying cell adhesion and biomimetic actin networks

Many cellular processes, such as migration, proliferation, wound healing and tumor progression are based on cell adhesion. Amongst different cell adhesion molecules, the integrin receptors play a very significant role. Over the past decades the function and signalling of various such integrins have been studied by incorporating the proteins into lipid membranes. These proteolipid structures lay the foundation for the development of artificial cells, which are able to adhere to substrates. To build biomimetic models for studying cell shape and spreading, actin networks can be incorporated into lipid vesicles, too. We here review the mechanisms of integrin-mediated cell adhesion and recent advances in the field of minimal cells towards synthetic adhesion. We focus on reconstituting integrins into lipid structures for mimicking cell adhesion and on the incorporation of actin networks and talin into model cells.

The activation mode of the mechanosensitive ion channel, MscL, by lysophosphatidylcholine differs from tension-induced gating

One of the best-studied mechanosensitive channels is the mechanosensitive channel of large conductance (MscL). MscL senses tension in the membrane evoked by an osmotic down shock and directly couples it to large conformational changes leading to the opening of the channel. Spectroscopic techniques offer unique possibilities to monitor these conformational changes if it were possible to generate tension in the lipid bilayer, the native environment of MscL, during the measurements. To this end, asymmetric insertion of l-α-lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) into the lipid bilayer has been effective; however, how LPC activates MscL is not fully understood. Here, the effects of LPC on tension-sensitive mutants of a bacterial MscL and on MscL homologs with different tension sensitivities are reported, leading to the conclusion that the mode of action of LPC is different from that of applied tension. Our results imply that LPC shifts the free energy of gating by interfering with MscL-membrane coupling. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the fine-tuned addition of LPC can be used for controlled activation of MscL in spectroscopic studies.

Bending lipid membranes: experiments after W. Helfrich's model

Current description of biomembrane mechanics originates for a large part from W. Helfrich's model. Based on his continuum theory, many experiments have been performed in the past four decades on simplified membranes in order to characterize the mechanical properties of lipid membranes and the contribution of polymers or proteins. The long-term goal was to develop a better understanding of the mechanical properties of cell membranes. In this paper, we will review representative experimental approaches that were developed during this period and the main results that were obtained.