51
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Takagi-Niidome S, Osawa S, Tomita T, Iwatsubo T. Inhibition of γ-Secretase Activity by a Monoclonal Antibody against the Extracellular Hydrophilic Loop of Presenilin 1. Biochemistry 2012; 52:61-9. [DOI: 10.1021/bi301252r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shizuka Takagi-Niidome
- Department of Neuropathology
and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Satoko Osawa
- Department of Neuropathology
and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Department of Neuropathology
and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional
Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Takeshi Iwatsubo
- Department of Neuropathology
and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Core Research for Evolutional
Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Department of Neuropathology,
Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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52
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Zettl H, Ness J, Hähnke V, Beher D, Jumpertz T, Saric A, Baumann K, Pietrzik CU, Bulic B, Schneider G, Weggen S. Discovery of γ-secretase modulators with a novel activity profile by text-based virtual screening. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:1488-95. [PMID: 22725102 DOI: 10.1021/cb3001952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We present an integrated approach to identify and optimize a novel class of γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) with a unique pharmacological profile. Our strategy included (i) virtual screening through application of a recently developed protocol (PhAST), (ii) synthetic chemistry to discover structure-activity relationships, and (iii) detailed in vitro pharmacological characterization. GSMs are promising agents for treatment or prevention of Alzheimer's disease. They modulate the γ-secretase product spectrum (i.e., amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides of different length) and induce a shift from toxic Aβ42 to shorter Aβ species such as Aβ38 with no or minimal effect on the overall rate of γ-secretase cleavage. We describe the identification of a series of 4-hydroxypyridin-2-one derivatives, which display a novel type of γ-secretase modulation with equipotent inhibition of Aβ42 and Aβ38 peptide species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heiko Zettl
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Julia Ness
- Department of Neuropathology, Heinrich-Heine-University, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Volker Hähnke
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dirk Beher
- Global Research & Early Development, Merck Serono S. A., CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Thorsten Jumpertz
- Department of Neuropathology, Heinrich-Heine-University, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Arman Saric
- Global Research & Early Development, Merck Serono S. A., CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Karlheinz Baumann
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, pRED, Pharma Research & Early Development, DTA CNS, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Claus U. Pietrzik
- Institute of Pathobiochemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University, D-55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Bruno Bulic
- Research Group Chemical Biology of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center of Advanced European Studies and Research, D-53175 Bonn, Germany
| | - Gisbert Schneider
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sascha Weggen
- Department of Neuropathology, Heinrich-Heine-University, D-40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
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53
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Corbett A, Smith J, Ballard C. New and emerging treatments for Alzheimer's disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2012; 12:535-43. [PMID: 22550982 DOI: 10.1586/ern.12.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other dementias represent a significant and increasing clinical challenge. This review highlights current treatment options for AD and the main focusses of therapies currently being evaluated in clinical trials and for future therapeutic development. Existing treatments slow the progression of symptoms of the disease, but their efficacy does not extend to all people with AD, and benefits are not conveyed beyond an average of 6 months. Despite the substantial economic cost and healthcare burden of AD, which is increasing as populations age, there are currently only three therapies being investigated in Phase III clinical trials. This emphasises the substantial caution and underinvestment in treatment development in this area and why it is critical to address the current lack of effective treatments to target the underlying pathology and disease process in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Corbett
- Alzheimer's Society, Devon House, London E1W 1JX, UK
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54
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Bulic B, Ness J, Hahn S, Rennhack A, Jumpertz T, Weggen S. Chemical Biology, Molecular Mechanism and Clinical Perspective of γ-Secretase Modulators in Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2012; 9:598-622. [PMID: 22798753 PMCID: PMC3391656 DOI: 10.2174/157015911798376352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Revised: 10/25/2010] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Comprehensive evidence supports that oligomerization and accumulation of amyloidogenic Aβ42 peptides in brain is crucial in the pathogenesis of both familial and sporadic forms of Alzheimer's disease. Imaging studies indicate that the buildup of Aβ begins many years before the onset of clinical symptoms, and that subsequent neurodegeneration and cognitive decline may proceed independently of Aβ. This implies the necessity for early intervention in cognitively normal individuals with therapeutic strategies that prioritize safety. The aspartyl protease γ-secretase catalyses the last step in the cellular generation of Aβ42 peptides, and is a principal target for anti-amyloidogenic intervention strategies. Due to the essential role of γ-secretase in the NOTCH signaling pathway, overt mechanism-based toxicity has been observed with the first generation of γ-secretase inhibitors, and safety of this approach has been questioned. However, two new classes of small molecules, γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) and NOTCH-sparing γ-secretase inhibitors, have revitalized γ-secretase as a drug target in AD. GSMs are small molecules that cause a product shift from Aβ42 towards shorter and less toxic Ab peptides. Importantly, GSMs spare other physiologically important substrates of the γ-secretase complex like NOTCH. Recently, GSMs with nanomolar potency and favorable in vivo properties have been described. In this review, we summarize the knowledge about the unusual proteolytic activity of γ-secretase, and the chemical biology, molecular mechanisms and clinical perspective of compounds that target the γ-secretase complex, with a particular focus on GSMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Bulic
- Research Group Chemical Biology of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center of Advanced European Studies and Research, D-53175 Bonn, Germany
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55
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Gulati V, Wallace R. Rafts, Nanoparticles and Neural Disease. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2012; 2:217-250. [PMID: 28348305 PMCID: PMC5304588 DOI: 10.3390/nano2030217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Revised: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 07/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This review examines the role of membrane rafts in neural disease as a rationale for drug targeting utilizing lipid-based nanoparticles. The article begins with an overview of methodological issues involving the existence, sizes, and lifetimes of rafts, and then examines raft function in the etiologies of three major neural diseases-epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease-selected as promising candidates for raft-based therapeutics. Raft-targeting drug delivery systems involving liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles are then examined in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishal Gulati
- Ross University School of Medicine, Miami Beach Community Health Center, 11645 Biscayne Boulevard, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
| | - Ron Wallace
- Department of Anthropology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA.
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56
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Nogalska A, D'Agostino C, Engel WK, Askanas V. Activation of the γ-secretase complex and presence of γ-secretase-activating protein may contribute to Aβ42 production in sporadic inclusion-body myositis muscle fibers. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 48:141-9. [PMID: 22750528 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The muscle-fiber phenotype of sporadic inclusion-body myositis (s-IBM), the most common muscle disease associated with aging, shares several pathological abnormalities with Alzheimer disease (AD) brain, including accumulation of amyloid-β 42 (Aβ42) and its cytotoxic oligomers. The exact mechanisms leading to Aβ42 production within s-IBM muscle fibers are not known. Aβ42 and Aβ40 are generated after the amyloid-precursor protein (AβPP) is cleaved by β-secretase and the γ-secretase complex. Aβ42 is considered more cytotoxic than Aβ40, and it has a higher propensity to oligomerize, form amyloid fibrils, and aggregate. Recently, we have demonstrated in cultured human muscle fibers that experimental inhibition of lysosomal enzyme activities leads to Aβ42 oligomerization. In s-IBM muscle, we here demonstrate prominent abnormalities of the γ-secretase complex, as evidenced by: a) increase of γ-secretase components, namely active presenilin 1, presenilin enhancer 2, nicastrin, and presence of its mature, glycosylated form; b) increase of mRNAs of these γ-secretase components; c) increase of γ-secretase activity; d) presence of an active form of a newly-discovered γ-secretase activating protein (GSAP); and e) increase of GSAP mRNA. Furthermore, we demonstrate that experimental inhibition of lysosomal autophagic enzymes in cultured human muscle fibers a) activates γ-secretase, and b) leads to posttranslational modifications of AβPP and increase of Aβ42. Since autophagy is impaired in biopsied s-IBM muscle, the same mechanism might be responsible for its having increased γ-secretase activity and Aβ42 production. Accordingly, improving lysosomal function might be a therapeutic strategy for s-IBM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Nogalska
- USC Neuromuscular Center, Department of Neurology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Good Samaritan Hospital, Los Angeles, CA 90017‐1912, USA
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57
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Salomone S, Caraci F, Leggio GM, Fedotova J, Drago F. New pharmacological strategies for treatment of Alzheimer's disease: focus on disease modifying drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2012; 73:504-17. [PMID: 22035455 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.04134.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Current approved drug treatments for Alzheimer disease (AD) include cholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine) and the NMDA receptor antagonist memantine. These drugs provide symptomatic relief but poorly affect the progression of the disease. Drug discovery has been directed, in the last 10 years, to develop 'disease modifying drugs' hopefully able to counteract the progression of AD. Because in a chronic, slow progressing pathological process, such as AD, an early start of treatment enhances the chance of success, it is crucial to have biomarkers for early detection of AD-related brain dysfunction, usable before clinical onset. Reliable early biomarkers need therefore to be prospectively tested for predictive accuracy, with specific cut off values validated in clinical practice. Disease modifying drugs developed so far include drugs to reduce β amyloid (Aβ) production, drugs to prevent Aβ aggregation, drugs to promote Aβ clearance, drugs targeting tau phosphorylation and assembly and other approaches. Unfortunately none of these drugs has demonstrated efficacy in phase 3 studies. The failure of clinical trials with disease modifying drugs raises a number of questions, spanning from methodological flaws to fundamental understanding of AD pathophysiology and biology. Recently, new diagnostic criteria applicable to presymptomatic stages of AD have been published. These new criteria may impact on drug development, such that future trials on disease modifying drugs will include populations susceptible to AD, before clinical onset. Specific problems with completed trials and hopes with ongoing trials are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry Department of Formative Processes, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania, Italy
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58
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Takeo K, Watanabe N, Tomita T, Iwatsubo T. Contribution of the γ-secretase subunits to the formation of catalytic pore of presenilin 1 protein. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:25834-43. [PMID: 22689582 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.336347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
γ-Secretase is an intramembrane-cleaving protease related to the etiology of Alzheimer disease. γ-Secretase is a membrane protein complex composed of presenilin (PS) and three indispensable subunits: nicastrin, Aph-1, and Pen-2. PS functions as a protease subunit forming a hydrophilic catalytic pore structure within the lipid bilayer. However, it remains unclear how other subunits are involved in the pore formation. Here, we show that the hydrophilic pore adopted with an open conformation has already been formed by PS within the immature γ-secretase complex. The binding of the subunits induces the close proximity between transmembrane domains facing the catalytic pore. We propose a model in which the γ-secretase subunits restrict the arrangement of the transmembrane domains of PS during the formation of the functional structure of the catalytic pore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Takeo
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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59
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Bischoff F, Berthelot D, De Cleyn M, Macdonald G, Minne G, Oehlrich D, Pieters S, Surkyn M, Trabanco AA, Tresadern G, Van Brandt S, Velter I, Zaja M, Borghys H, Masungi C, Mercken M, Gijsen HJM. Design and Synthesis of a Novel Series of Bicyclic Heterocycles As Potent γ-Secretase Modulators. J Med Chem 2012; 55:9089-106. [DOI: 10.1021/jm201710f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francois Bischoff
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Didier Berthelot
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Michel De Cleyn
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Gregor Macdonald
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Garrett Minne
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Daniel Oehlrich
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Serge Pieters
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Michel Surkyn
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Andrés A. Trabanco
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Gary Tresadern
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Sven Van Brandt
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ingrid Velter
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Mirko Zaja
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Herman Borghys
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Chantal Masungi
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Marc Mercken
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Harrie J. M. Gijsen
- Janssen Research & Development, Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
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60
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Fischer C, Zultanski SL, Zhou H, Methot JL, Shah S, Nuthall H, Hughes BL, Smotrov N, Hill A, Szewczak AA, Moxham CM, Bays N, Middleton RE, Munoz B, Shearman MS. Triazoloamides as potent γ-secretase modulators with reduced hERG liability. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:3140-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.03.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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61
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Tai LM, Jacobsen H, Ozmen L, Flohr A, Jakob-Roetne R, Caruso A, Grimm HP. The dynamics of Aβ distribution after γ-secretase inhibitor treatment, as determined by experimental and modelling approaches in a wild type rat. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn 2012; 39:227-37. [PMID: 22481485 DOI: 10.1007/s10928-012-9246-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of the enzyme(s) that produce the Amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide, namely BACE and γ-secretase, is considered an attractive target for Alzheimer's disease therapy. However, the optimal pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling method to describe the changes in Aβ levels after drug treatment is unclear. In this study, turnover models were employed to describe Aβ levels following treatment with the γ-secretase inhibitor RO5036450, in the wild type rat. Initially, Aβ level changes in the brain, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and plasma were modeled as separate biological compartments, which allowed the estimation of a compound IC₅₀ and Aβ turnover. While the data were well described, the model did not take into consideration that the CSF pool of Aβ most likely originates from the brain via the CSF drainage pathway. Therefore, a separate model was carried out, with the assumption that CSF Aβ levels originated from the brain. The optimal model that described the data involved two brain Aβ 40 sub-compartments, one with a rapid turnover, from which CSF Aβ 40 is derived, and a second quasi-static pool of ~20%. Importantly, the estimated in vivo brain IC₅₀ was in a good range of the in vitro IC₅₀ (ratio, 1.4). In conclusion, the PK/PD models presented here are well suited for describing the temporal changes in Aβ levels that occur after treatment with an Aβ lowering drug, and identifying physiological parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon M Tai
- Preclinical Modeling and Simulation and Preclinical CNS Research Departments, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
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62
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Svedružić ZM, Popović K, Smoljan I, Sendula-Jengić V. Modulation of γ-secretase activity by multiple enzyme-substrate interactions: implications in pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32293. [PMID: 22479317 PMCID: PMC3316526 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background We describe molecular processes that can facilitate pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) by analyzing the catalytic cycle of a membrane-imbedded protease γ-secretase, from the initial interaction with its C99 substrate to the final release of toxic Aβ peptides. Results The C-terminal AICD fragment is cleaved first in a pre-steady-state burst. The lowest Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio is observed in pre-steady-state when Aβ40 is the dominant product. Aβ42 is produced after Aβ40, and therefore Aβ42 is not a precursor for Aβ40. The longer more hydrophobic Aβ products gradually accumulate with multiple catalytic turnovers as a result of interrupted catalytic cycles. Saturation of γ-secretase with its C99 substrate leads to 30% decrease in Aβ40 with concomitant increase in the longer Aβ products and Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio. To different degree the same changes in Aβ products can be observed with two mutations that lead to an early onset of AD, ΔE9 and G384A. Four different lines of evidence show that γ-secretase can bind and cleave multiple substrate molecules in one catalytic turnover. Consequently depending on its concentration, NotchΔE substrate can activate or inhibit γ-secretase activity on C99 substrate. Multiple C99 molecules bound to γ-secretase can affect processive cleavages of the nascent Aβ catalytic intermediates and facilitate their premature release as the toxic membrane-imbedded Aβ-bundles. Conclusions Gradual saturation of γ-secretase with its substrate can be the pathogenic process in different alleged causes of AD. Thus, competitive inhibitors of γ-secretase offer the best chance for a successful therapy, while the noncompetitive inhibitors could even facilitate development of the disease by inducing enzyme saturation at otherwise sub-saturating substrate. Membrane-imbedded Aβ-bundles generated by γ-secretase could be neurotoxic and thus crucial for our understanding of the amyloid hypothesis and AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeljko M Svedružić
- Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rab, Croatia.
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63
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Corbett A, Ballard C. New and emerging treatments for Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2012; 17:147-56. [DOI: 10.1517/14728214.2012.675327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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64
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Reitz C. Alzheimer's disease and the amyloid cascade hypothesis: a critical review. Int J Alzheimers Dis 2012; 2012:369808. [PMID: 22506132 PMCID: PMC3313573 DOI: 10.1155/2012/369808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 1992, the amyloid cascade hypothesis has played the prominent role in explaining the etiology and pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). It proposes that the deposition of β-amyloid (Aβ) is the initial pathological event in AD leading to the formation of senile plaques (SPs) and then to neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neuronal cell death, and ultimately dementia. While there is substantial evidence supporting the hypothesis, there are also limitations: (1) SP and NFT may develop independently, and (2) SPs and NFTs may be the products rather than the causes of neurodegeneration in AD. In addition, randomized clinical trials that tested drugs or antibodies targeting components of the amyloid pathway have been inconclusive. This paper provides a critical overview of the evidence for and against the amyloid cascade hypothesis in AD and provides suggestions for future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Reitz
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
- Department of Neurology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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65
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An angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker prevents renal injury via inhibition of the Notch pathway in Ins2 Akita diabetic mice. EXPERIMENTAL DIABETES RESEARCH 2012; 2012:159874. [PMID: 22319521 PMCID: PMC3272808 DOI: 10.1155/2012/159874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Recently, it has been reported that the Notch pathway is involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. In this study, we investigated the activation of the Notch pathway in Ins2 Akita diabetic mouse (Akita mouse) and the effects of telmisartan, an angiotensin II type1 receptor blocker, on the Notch pathway. The intracellular domain of Notch1 (ICN1) is proteolytically cleaved from the cell plasma membrane in the course of Notch activation. The expression of ICN1 and its ligand, Jagged1, were increased in the glomeruli of Akita mice, especially in the podocytes. Administration of telmisartan significantly ameliorated the expression of ICN1 and Jagged1. Telmisartan inhibited the angiotensin II-induced increased expression of transforming growth factor β and vascular endothelial growth factor A which could directly activate the Notch signaling pathway in cultured podocytes. Our results indicate that the telmisartan prevents diabetic nephropathy through the inhibition of the Notch pathway.
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66
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Neuronal receptors as targets for the action of amyloid-beta protein (Aβ) in the brain. Expert Rev Mol Med 2012; 14:e2. [PMID: 22261393 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399411002134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Accumulation of neurotoxic soluble amyloid-beta protein (Aβ) oligomers in the brains of patients with Alzheimer disease (AD) and their role in AD pathogenesis have emerged as topics of considerable interest in recent years. Soluble Aβ oligomers impair synaptic and neuronal function, leading to neurodegeneration that is clinically manifested by memory and cognitive dysfunction. The precise mechanisms whereby Aβ oligomers cause neurotoxicity remain unknown. Emerging insights into the mechanistic link between neuronal receptors and soluble Aβ oligomers highlight the potential role of these receptors in Aβ-mediated neurotoxicity in AD. The current review focuses on studies describing interactions between soluble Aβ oligomers and neuronal receptors, and their role in AD pathogenesis. Furthermore, these studies provide insight into potential therapies for AD using compounds directed at putative target receptors for the action of Aβ in the central nervous system. We focus on interactions of Aβ with subtypes of acetylcholine and glutamatergic receptors. Additionally, neuronal receptors such as insulin, amylin and receptor for advanced glycation end products could be potential targets for soluble Aβ-oligomer-mediated neurotoxicity. Aβ interactions with other receptors such as the p75 neurotrophin receptors, which are highly expressed on cholinergic basal forebrain neurons lost in AD, are also highlighted.
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67
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Jumpertz T, Rennhack A, Ness J, Baches S, Pietrzik CU, Bulic B, Weggen S. Presenilin is the molecular target of acidic γ-secretase modulators in living cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30484. [PMID: 22238696 PMCID: PMC3253113 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The intramembrane-cleaving protease γ-secretase catalyzes the last step in the generation of toxic amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides and is a principal therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease. Both preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated that inhibition of γ-secretase is associated with prohibitive side effects due to suppression of Notch processing and signaling. Potentially safer are γ-secretase modulators (GSMs), which are small molecules that selectively lower generation of the highly amyloidogenic Aβ42 peptides but spare Notch processing. GSMs with nanomolar potency and favorable pharmacological properties have been described, but the molecular mechanism of GSMs remains uncertain and both the substrate amyloid precursor protein (APP) and subunits of the γ-secretase complex have been proposed as the molecular target of GSMs. We have generated a potent photo-probe based on an acidic GSM that lowers Aβ42 generation with an IC50 of 290 nM in cellular assays. By combining in vivo photo-crosslinking with affinity purification, we demonstrated that this probe binds the N-terminal fragment of presenilin (PSEN), the catalytic subunit of the γ-secretase complex, in living cells. Labeling was not observed for APP or any of the other γ-secretase subunits. Binding was readily competed by structurally divergent acidic and non-acidic GSMs suggesting a shared mode of action. These findings indicate that potent acidic GSMs target presenilin to modulate the enzymatic activity of the γ-secretase complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Jumpertz
- Department of Neuropathology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Andreas Rennhack
- Research Group Chemical Biology of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center of Advanced European Studies and Research, Bonn, Germany
| | - Julia Ness
- Department of Neuropathology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Sandra Baches
- Department of Neuropathology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Claus U. Pietrzik
- Molecular Neurodegeneration Group, Institute of Pathobiochemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Bruno Bulic
- Research Group Chemical Biology of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center of Advanced European Studies and Research, Bonn, Germany
- * E-mail: (BB); (SW)
| | - Sascha Weggen
- Department of Neuropathology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Duesseldorf, Germany
- * E-mail: (BB); (SW)
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68
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D'Onofrio G, Panza F, Frisardi V, Solfrizzi V, Imbimbo BP, Paroni G, Cascavilla L, Seripa D, Pilotto A. Advances in the identification of γ-secretase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2011; 7:19-37. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.645534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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69
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Physiological functions of the amyloid precursor protein secretases ADAM10, BACE1, and Presenilin. Exp Brain Res 2011; 217:331-41. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2952-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Accepted: 11/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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70
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Ohki Y, Higo T, Uemura K, Shimada N, Osawa S, Berezovska O, Yokoshima S, Fukuyama T, Tomita T, Iwatsubo T. Phenylpiperidine-type γ-secretase modulators target the transmembrane domain 1 of presenilin 1. EMBO J 2011; 30:4815-24. [PMID: 22002539 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2011.372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-β peptide ending at the 42nd residue (Aβ42) is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Small compounds that exhibit selective lowering effects on Aβ42 production are termed γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) and are deemed as promising therapeutic agents against AD, although the molecular target as well as the mechanism of action remains controversial. Here, we show that a phenylpiperidine-type compound GSM-1 directly targets the transmembrane domain (TMD) 1 of presenilin 1 (PS1) by photoaffinity labelling experiments combined with limited digestion. Binding of GSM-1 affected the structure of the initial substrate binding and the catalytic sites of the γ-secretase, thereby decreasing production of Aβ42, possibly by enhancing its conversion to Aβ38. These data indicate an allosteric action of GSM-1 by directly binding to the TMD1 of PS1, pinpointing the target structure of the phenylpiperidine-type GSMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Ohki
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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71
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Massoud F, Léger GC. Pharmacological treatment of Alzheimer disease. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2011; 56:579-88. [PMID: 22014690 DOI: 10.1177/070674371105601003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To review the different pharmacological approaches to the cognitive, functional, and behavioural manifestations of Alzheimer disease (AD). METHODS We searched and critically analyzed the most recent relevant literature on pharmacological treatment of AD. RESULTS The current pharmacological approach to AD treatment is based on vascular prevention and symptomatic therapy with cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) and memantine, an N-methyl-d-aspartic acid antagonist. Clinical trials of 6- to 12-month duration have shown statistically significant benefits with ChEIs and memantine on cognitive, global, functional, and behavioural outcome measures. In general, these benefits are modest. However, they are dose-dependent and reproducible across studies. Most importantly, these benefits are symptomatic as they do not alter disease course. According to the third Canadian Consensus Conference on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Dementia, these agents are considered standard treatment options in AD. We will discuss practical issues related to current pharmacological management, such as setting realistic expectations, management of side effects, switching ChEIs, and the decision to discontinue treatment. The results of clinical trials studying potentially disease-modifying approaches in AD will also be reviewed. Unfortunately, although there remains much promise and enthusiasm, none of these agents has shown consistent benefits, and none are available for use in clinical practice. CONCLUSION Pharmacological options are presently available for the symptomatic treatment of AD. These treatments provide mild but sustained benefits. Before disease-modifying approaches become available, optimizing the use of the available treatment options is crucial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fadi Massoud
- Internist-Geriatrician, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Hôpital Notre-Dame, Montreal, Quebec.
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72
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Ebke A, Luebbers T, Fukumori A, Shirotani K, Haass C, Baumann K, Steiner H. Novel γ-secretase enzyme modulators directly target presenilin protein. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:37181-6. [PMID: 21896486 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.c111.276972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
γ-Secretase is essential for the generation of the neurotoxic 42-amino acid amyloid β-peptide (Aβ(42)). The aggregation-prone hydrophobic peptide, which is deposited in Alzheimer disease (AD) patient brain, is generated from a C-terminal fragment of the β-amyloid precursor protein by an intramembrane cleavage of γ-secretase. Because Aβ(42) is widely believed to trigger AD pathogenesis, γ-secretase is a key AD drug target. Unlike inhibitors of the enzyme, γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) selectively lower Aβ(42) without interfering with the physiological function of γ-secretase. The molecular target(s) of GSMs and hence the mechanism of GSM action are not established. Here we demonstrate by using a biotinylated photocross-linkable derivative of highly potent novel second generation GSMs that γ-secretase is a direct target of GSMs. The GSM photoprobe specifically bound to the N-terminal fragment of presenilin, the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase, but not to other γ-secretase subunits. Binding was differentially competed by GSMs of diverse structural classes, indicating the existence of overlapping/multiple GSM binding sites or allosteric alteration of the photoprobe binding site. The β-amyloid precursor protein C-terminal fragment previously implicated as the GSM binding site was not targeted by the compound. The identification of presenilin as the molecular target of GSMs directly establishes allosteric modulation of enzyme activity as a mechanism of GSM action and may contribute to the development of therapeutically active GSMs for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Ebke
- Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany
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73
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Abstract
Sphingosine kinase (SphK) 1 and 2 phosphorylate sphingosine to generate sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a pluripotent lipophilic mediator implicated in a variety of cellular events. Here we show that the activity of β-site APP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE1), the rate-limiting enzyme for amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) production, is modulated by S1P in mouse neurons. Treatment by SphK inhibitor, RNA interference knockdown of SphK, or overexpression of S1P degrading enzymes decreased BACE1 activity, which reduced Aβ production. S1P specifically bound to full-length BACE1 and increased its proteolytic activity, suggesting that cellular S1P directly modulates BACE1 activity. Notably, the relative activity of SphK2 was upregulated in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease. The unique modulatory effect of cellular S1P on BACE1 activity is a novel potential therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease.
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74
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γ-secretase inhibitors for treating Alzheimer’s disease: rationale and clinical data. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.4155/cli.11.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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75
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Asai M, Yagishita S, Iwata N, Saido TC, Ishiura S, Maruyama K. An alternative metabolic pathway of amyloid precursor protein C‐terminal fragments
via
cathepsin B in a human neuroglioma model. FASEB J 2011; 25:3720-30. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.11-182154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Asai
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of MedicineSaitama Medical University Saitama Japan
- Laboratory for Proteolytic NeuroscienceRIKEN Brain Science Institute Saitama Japan
| | - Sosuke Yagishita
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesThe University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan
| | - Nobuhisa Iwata
- Laboratory for Proteolytic NeuroscienceRIKEN Brain Science Institute Saitama Japan
- Graduate School of Biomedical SciencesNagasaki University Nagasaki Japan
| | - Takaomi C. Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic NeuroscienceRIKEN Brain Science Institute Saitama Japan
| | - Shoichi Ishiura
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and SciencesThe University of Tokyo Tokyo Japan
| | - Kei Maruyama
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of MedicineSaitama Medical University Saitama Japan
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76
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Neutralization of the γ-secretase activity by monoclonal antibody against extracellular domain of nicastrin. Oncogene 2011; 31:787-798. [PMID: 21725355 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2011.265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence suggest that aberrant Notch signaling contributes to the development of several types of cancer. Activation of Notch receptor is executed through intramembrane proteolysis by γ-secretase, which is a multimeric membrane-embedded protease comprised of presenilin, nicastrin (NCT), anterior pharynx defective 1 and PEN-2. In this study, we report the neutralization of the γ-secretase activity by a novel monoclonal antibody A5226A against the extracellular domain of NCT, generated by using a recombinant budded baculovirus as an immunogen. This antibody recognized fully glycosylated mature NCT in the active γ-secretase complex on the cell surface, and inhibited the γ-secretase activity by competing with the substrate binding in vitro. Moreover, A5226A abolished the γ-secretase activity-dependent growth of cancer cells in a xenograft model. Our data provide compelling evidence that NCT is a molecular target for the mechanism-based inhibition of γ-secretase, and that targeting NCT might be a novel therapeutic strategy against cancer caused by aberrant γ-secretase activity and Notch signaling.
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77
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Fischer C, Zultanski SL, Zhou H, Methot JL, Brown WC, Mampreian DM, Schell AJ, Shah S, Nuthall H, Hughes BL, Smotrov N, Kenific CM, Cruz JC, Walker D, Bouthillette M, Nikov GN, Savage DF, Jeliazkova-Mecheva VV, Diaz D, Szewczak AA, Bays N, Middleton RE, Munoz B, Shearman MS. Triazoles as γ-secretase modulators. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:4083-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.04.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Revised: 04/18/2011] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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78
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Lichtenthaler SF, Haass C, Steiner H. Regulated intramembrane proteolysis--lessons from amyloid precursor protein processing. J Neurochem 2011; 117:779-96. [PMID: 21413990 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07248.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) controls the communication between cells and the extracellular environment. RIP is essential in the nervous system, but also in other tissues. In the RIP process, a membrane protein typically undergoes two consecutive cleavages. The first one results in the shedding of its ectodomain. The second one occurs within its transmembrane domain, resulting in secretion of a small peptide and the release of the intracellular domain into the cytosol. The proteolytic cleavage fragments act as versatile signaling molecules or are further degraded. An increasing number of membrane proteins undergo RIP. These include growth factors, cytokines, cell adhesion proteins, receptors, viral proteins and signal peptides. A dysregulation of RIP is found in diseases, such as leukemia and Alzheimer's disease. One of the first RIP substrates discovered was the amyloid precursor protein (APP). RIP processing of APP controls the generation of the amyloid β-peptide, which is believed to cause Alzheimer's disease. Focusing on APP as the best-studied RIP substrate, this review describes the function and mechanism of the APP RIP proteases with the goal to elucidate cellular mechanisms and common principles of the RIP process in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan F Lichtenthaler
- DZNE-German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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79
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Kretner B, Fukumori A, Gutsmiedl A, Page RM, Luebbers T, Galley G, Baumann K, Haass C, Steiner H. Attenuated Abeta42 responses to low potency gamma-secretase modulators can be overcome for many pathogenic presenilin mutants by second-generation compounds. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:15240-51. [PMID: 21357415 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.213587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Sequential processing of the β-amyloid precursor protein by β- and γ-secretase generates the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ), which is widely believed to play a causative role in Alzheimer disease. Selective lowering of the pathogenic 42-amino acid variant of Aβ by γ-secretase modulators (GSMs) is a promising therapeutic strategy. Here we report that mutations in presenilin (PS), the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase, display differential responses to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-type GSMs and more potent second-generation compounds. Although many pathogenic PS mutations resisted lowering of Aβ(42) generation by the NSAID sulindac sulfide, the potent NSAID-like second-generation compound GSM-1 was capable of lowering Aβ(42) for many but not all mutants. We further found that mutations at homologous positions in PS1 and PS2 can elicit differential Aβ(42) responses to GSM-1, suggesting that a positive GSM-1 response depends on the spatial environment in γ-secretase. The aggressive pathogenic PS1 L166P mutation was one of the few pathogenic mutations that resisted GSM-1, and Leu-166 was identified as a critical residue with respect to the Aβ(42)-lowering response of GSM-1. Finally, we found that GSM-1-responsive and -resistant PS mutants behave very similarly toward other potent second-generation compounds of different structural classes than GSM-1. Taken together, our data show that a positive Aβ(42) response for PS mutants depends both on the particular mutation and the GSM used and that attenuated Aβ(42) responses to low potency GSMs can be overcome for many PS mutants by second generation GSMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Kretner
- DZNE-German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany
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80
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Participation of transmembrane domain 1 of presenilin 1 in the catalytic pore structure of the γ-secretase. J Neurosci 2010; 30:15943-50. [PMID: 21106832 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3318-10.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
γ-Secretase is an intramembrane-cleaving protease that is responsible for the generation of amyloid-β peptides linked to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Using a substituted cysteine accessibility method, we have previously shown that the hydrophilic "catalytic pore" structure of γ-secretase is formed by the transmembrane domains (TMDs) 6, 7, and 9 of presenilin 1 (PS1), the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase, within the membrane. Here, we analyzed the structure in and around the first hydrophobic region, the putative TMD1, of PS1, of which the precise function as well as three-dimensional location within γ-secretase remained unknown. We found that TMD1 is located in proximity to the catalytic GxGD and PAL motifs within the C-terminal fragment of PS1, facing directly the catalytic pore. Competition experiments using known γ-secretase inhibitors suggested that the N-terminal region of TMD1 functions as a subsite during proteolytic action of the γ-secretase. Intriguingly, binding of inhibitors affected water accessibility of residues at the membrane border of TMD1, suggesting the possibility of a dynamic motion of TMD1 during the catalytic process. Our results provide mechanistic insights into the functional role of TMD1 of PS1 in the intramembrane-cleaving activity of the γ-secretase.
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81
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Oehlrich D, Berthelot DJC, Gijsen HJM. γ-Secretase modulators as potential disease modifying anti-Alzheimer's drugs. J Med Chem 2010; 54:669-98. [PMID: 21141968 DOI: 10.1021/jm101168r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Oehlrich
- Medicinal Chemistry, Janssen Research and Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340 Beerse, Belgium.
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82
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Fischer C, Shah S, Hughes BL, Nikov GN, Crispino JL, Middleton RE, Szewczak AA, Munoz B, Shearman MS. Quinazolinones as γ-secretase modulators. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 21:773-6. [PMID: 21190851 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.11.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2010] [Revised: 11/20/2010] [Accepted: 11/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Synthesis, SAR and evaluation of styrenyl quinazolinones as novel gamma secretase modulators are presented in this communication. Starting from literature and in-house leads we evaluated a range of quinazolinones which showed good modulation of γ-secretase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Fischer
- Merck Research Laboratories Boston, 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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83
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Kounnas MZ, Danks AM, Cheng S, Tyree C, Ackerman E, Zhang X, Ahn K, Nguyen P, Comer D, Mao L, Yu C, Pleynet D, Digregorio PJ, Velicelebi G, Stauderman KA, Comer WT, Mobley WC, Li YM, Sisodia SS, Tanzi RE, Wagner SL. Modulation of gamma-secretase reduces beta-amyloid deposition in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 2010; 67:769-80. [PMID: 20826309 PMCID: PMC2947312 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized pathologically by the abundance of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. We synthesized over 1200 novel gamma-secretase modulator (GSM) compounds that reduced Abeta(42) levels without inhibiting epsilon-site cleavage of APP and Notch, the generation of the APP and Notch intracellular domains, respectively. These compounds also reduced Abeta(40) levels while concomitantly elevating levels of Abeta(38) and Abeta(37). Immobilization of a potent GSM onto an agarose matrix quantitatively recovered Pen-2 and to a lesser degree PS-1 NTFs from cellular extracts. Moreover, oral administration (once daily) of another potent GSM to Tg 2576 transgenic AD mice displayed dose-responsive lowering of plasma and brain Abeta(42); chronic daily administration led to significant reductions in both diffuse and neuritic plaques. These effects were observed in the absence of Notch-related changes (e.g., intestinal proliferation of goblet cells), which are commonly associated with repeated exposure to functional gamma-secretase inhibitors (GSIs).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Soan Cheng
- TorreyPines Therapeutics, Inc., La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Curtis Tyree
- TorreyPines Therapeutics, Inc., La Jolla, CA 92037
| | | | - Xulun Zhang
- The Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637
| | - Kwangwook Ahn
- Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | | | - Dan Comer
- TorreyPines Therapeutics, Inc., La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Long Mao
- TorreyPines Therapeutics, Inc., La Jolla, CA 92037
| | - Chengzhi Yu
- TorreyPines Therapeutics, Inc., La Jolla, CA 92037
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yue-Ming Li
- Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Sangram S. Sisodia
- The Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637
| | - Rudolph E. Tanzi
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Dept. of Neurology, Charlestown, MA 02129
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84
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Tomita T. [Alzheimer's disease treatment by inhibition/modulation of the gamma-secretase activity]. Rinsho Shinkeigaku 2010; 49:845-7. [PMID: 20030227 DOI: 10.5692/clinicalneurol.49.845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence indicate that the production and deposition of amyloid-beta peptides (Abeta) contribute to the etiology of Alzheimer's disease. Inhibition or modulation of gamma-secretase, that is a responsible enzyme for the Abeta production, is one of the plausible therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease. However, the gamma-secretase is an unusual aspartic protease that cleaves the scissile bond within the transmembrane domain of several membrane protein including APP and Notch receptor. Thus, development of drugs that regulate the production of Abeta without affecting the Notch signaling is now demanding. Extensive drug screening and development allow that some secretase inhibitors and modulators have advanced into late-phase clinical trials, whereas the molecular mechanisms of Notch-sparing effect by these compounds effect still remain unknown. Identification of the molecular targets and mechanisms of these compounds using chemical biological approaches is currently underway. This review focuses on the recent development of inhibitors/modulators and provides a direction for the effective treatment of AD through inhibition/modulation of the gamma-secretase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taisuke Tomita
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo
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85
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Kurosumi M, Nishio Y, Osawa S, Kobayashi H, Iwatsubo T, Tomita T, Miyachi H. Novel Notch-sparing γ-secretase inhibitors derived from a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonist library. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:5282-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.06.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2010] [Revised: 06/24/2010] [Accepted: 06/28/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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86
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Zettl H, Weggen S, Schneider P, Schneider G. Exploring the chemical space of γ-secretase modulators. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2010; 31:402-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2010.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2010] [Revised: 05/24/2010] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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87
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Truong AP, Tóth G, Probst GD, Sealy JM, Bowers S, Wone DWG, Dressen D, Hom RK, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Wu J, Peterson BT, Ruslim L, Bova MP, Kholodenko D, Motter RN, Bard F, Santiago P, Ni H, Chian D, Soriano F, Cole T, Brigham EF, Wong K, Zmolek W, Goldbach E, Samant B, Chen L, Zhang H, Nakamura DF, Quinn KP, Yednock TA, Sauer JM. Design of an orally efficacious hydroxyethylamine (HEA) BACE-1 inhibitor in a preclinical animal model. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:6231-6. [PMID: 20833041 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.08.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Revised: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 08/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In this Letter, we describe our efforts to design HEA BACE-1 inhibitors that are highly permeable coupled with negligible levels of permeability-glycoprotein activity. These efforts culminate in producing 16 which lowers Αβ by 28% and 32% in the cortex and CSF, respectively, in the preclinical wild type Hartley guinea pig animal model when dosed orally at 30mpk BID for 2.5days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh P Truong
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Elan Pharmaceuticals, 180 Oyster Point Boulevard, South San Francisco, CA 94080, United States
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88
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Mangialasche F, Solomon A, Winblad B, Mecocci P, Kivipelto M. Alzheimer's disease: clinical trials and drug development. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9:702-16. [PMID: 20610346 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(10)70119-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 815] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia in elderly people. Research into Alzheimer's disease therapy has been at least partly successful in terms of developing symptomatic treatments, but has also had several failures in terms of developing disease-modifying therapies. These successes and failures have led to debate about the potential deficiencies in our understanding of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and potential pitfalls in diagnosis, choice of therapeutic targets, development of drug candidates, and design of clinical trials. Many clinical and experimental studies are ongoing, but we need to acknowledge that a single cure for Alzheimer's disease is unlikely to be found and that the approach to drug development for this disorder needs to be reconsidered. Preclinical research is constantly providing us with new information on pieces of the complex Alzheimer's disease puzzle, and an analysis of this information might reveal patterns of pharmacological interactions instead of single potential drug targets. Several promising randomised controlled trials are ongoing, and the increased collaboration between pharmaceutical companies, basic researchers, and clinical researchers has the potential to bring us closer to developing an optimum pharmaceutical approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
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89
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Truong AP, Probst GD, Aquino J, Fang L, Brogley L, Sealy JM, Hom RK, Tucker JA, John V, Tung JS, Pleiss MA, Konradi AW, Sham HL, Dappen MS, Tóth G, Yao N, Brecht E, Pan H, Artis DR, Ruslim L, Bova MP, Sinha S, Yednock TA, Zmolek W, Quinn KP, Sauer JM. Improving the permeability of the hydroxyethylamine BACE-1 inhibitors: Structure–activity relationship of P2′ substituents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:4789-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.06.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2010] [Revised: 06/14/2010] [Accepted: 06/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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90
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Folk DS, Franz KJ. A prochelator activated by beta-secretase inhibits Abeta aggregation and suppresses copper-induced reactive oxygen species formation. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:4994-5. [PMID: 20297791 DOI: 10.1021/ja100943r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The intersection of the amyloid cascade hypothesis and the implication of metal ions in Alzheimer's disease progression has sparked an interest in using metal-binding compounds as potential therapeutic agents. In the present work, we describe a prochelator SWH that is enzymatically activated by beta-secretase to produce a high affinity copper chelator CP. Because beta-secretase is responsible for the amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein, this prochelator strategy imparts disease specificity toward copper chelation not possible with general metal chelators. Furthermore, once activated, CP efficiently sequesters copper from amyloid-beta, prevents and disassembles copper-induced amyloid-beta aggregation, and diminishes copper-promoted reactive oxygen species formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew S Folk
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, P.O. Box 90346, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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91
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Acute gamma-secretase inhibition of nonhuman primate CNS shifts amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolism from amyloid-beta production to alternative APP fragments without amyloid-beta rebound. J Neurosci 2010; 30:6743-50. [PMID: 20463236 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1381-10.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of amyloid beta (Abeta) in Alzheimer's disease is caused by an imbalance of production and clearance, which leads to increased soluble Abeta species and extracellular plaque formation in the brain. Multiple Abeta-lowering therapies are currently in development: an important goal is to characterize the molecular mechanisms of action and effects on physiological processing of Abeta, as well as other amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolites, in models which approximate human Abeta physiology. To this end, we report the translation of the human in vivo stable-isotope-labeling kinetics (SILK) method to a rhesus monkey cisterna magna ported (CMP) nonhuman primate model, and use the model to test the mechanisms of action of a gamma-secretase inhibitor (GSI). A major concern of inhibiting the enzymes which produce Abeta (beta- and gamma-secretase) is that precursors of Abeta may accumulate and cause a rapid increase in Abeta production when enzyme inhibition discontinues. In this study, the GSI MK-0752 was administered to conscious CMP rhesus monkeys in conjunction with in vivo stable-isotope-labeling, and dose-dependently reduced newly generated CNS Abeta. In contrast to systemic Abeta metabolism, CNS Abeta production was not increased after the GSI was cleared. These results indicate that most of the CNS APP was metabolized to products other than Abeta, including C-terminal truncated forms of Abeta: 1-14, 1-15 and 1-16; this demonstrates an alternative degradation pathway for CNS amyloid precursor protein during gamma-secretase inhibition.
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92
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Taymans JM, Cookson MR. Mechanisms in dominant parkinsonism: The toxic triangle of LRRK2, alpha-synuclein, and tau. Bioessays 2010; 32:227-235. [PMID: 20127702 DOI: 10.1002/bies.200900163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is generally sporadic but a number of genetic diseases have parkinsonism as a clinical feature. Two dominant genes, alpha-synuclein (SNCA) and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), are important for understanding inherited and sporadic PD. SNCA is a major component of pathologic inclusions termed Lewy bodies found in PD. LRRK2 is found in a significant proportion of PD cases. These two proteins may be linked as most LRRK2 PD cases have SNCA-positive Lewy bodies. Mutations in both proteins are associated with toxic effects in model systems although mechanisms are unclear. LRRK2 is an intracellular signaling protein possessing both GTPase and kinase activities that may contribute to pathogenicity. A third protein, tau, is implicated as a risk factor for PD. We discuss the potential relationship between these genes and suggest a model for PD pathogenesis where LRRK2 is upstream of pathogenic effects through SNCA, tau, or both proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Taymans
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Unit, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Unit, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, NIA, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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93
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Watanabe N, Image Image II, Takagi S, Image Image II, Tominaga A, Image Image I, Tomita T, Image Image II, Iwatsubo T, Image Image I. Functional analysis of the transmembrane domains of presenilin 1: participation of transmembrane domains 2 and 6 in the formation of initial substrate-binding site of gamma-secretase. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:19738-46. [PMID: 20418378 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.101287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
gamma-Secretase is a multimeric membrane protein complex composed of presenilin (PS), nicastrin, Aph-1, and Pen-2, which mediates intramembrane proteolysis of a range of type I transmembrane proteins. We previously analyzed the functional roles of the N-terminal transmembrane domains (TMDs) 1-6 of PS1 in the assembly and proteolytic activity of the gamma-secretase using a series of TMD-swap PS1 mutants. Here we applied the TMD-swap method to all the TMDs of PS1 for the structure-function analysis of the proteolytic mechanism of gamma-secretase. We found that TMD2- or -6-swapped mutant PS1 failed to bind the helical peptide-based, substrate-mimic gamma-secretase inhibitor. Cross-linking experiments revealed that both TMD2 and TMD6 of PS1 locate in proximity to the TMD9, the latter being implicated in the initial substrate binding. Taken together, our data suggest that TMD2 and the luminal side of TMD6 are involved in the formation of the initial substrate-binding site of the gamma-secretase complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoto Watanabe
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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94
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Page RM, Gutsmiedl A, Fukumori A, Winkler E, Haass C, Steiner H. Beta-amyloid precursor protein mutants respond to gamma-secretase modulators. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:17798-810. [PMID: 20348104 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.103283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic generation of the 42-amino acid variant of the amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) by beta- and gamma-secretase cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) is believed to be causative for Alzheimer disease (AD). Lowering of Abeta(42) production by gamma-secretase modulators (GSMs) is a hopeful approach toward AD treatment. The mechanism of GSM action is not fully understood. Moreover, whether GSMs target the Abeta domain is controversial. To further our understanding of the mode of action of GSMs and the cleavage mechanism of gamma-secretase, we analyzed mutations located at different positions of the APP transmembrane domain around or within the Abeta domain regarding their response to GSMs. We found that Abeta(42)-increasing familial AD mutations of the gamma-secretase cleavage site domain responded robustly to Abeta(42)-lowering GSMs, especially to the potent compound GSM-1, irrespective of the amount of Abeta(42) produced. We thus expect that familial AD patients carrying mutations at the gamma-secretase cleavage sites of APP should respond to GSM-based therapeutic approaches. Systematic phenylalanine-scanning mutagenesis of this region revealed a high permissiveness to GSM-1 and demonstrated a complex mechanism of GSM action as other Abeta species (Abeta(41), Abeta(39)) could also be lowered besides Abeta(42). Moreover, certain mutations simultaneously increased Abeta(42) and the shorter peptide Abeta(38), arguing that the proposed precursor-product relationship of these Abeta species is not general. Finally, mutations of residues in the proposed GSM-binding site implicated in Abeta(42) generation (Gly-29, Gly-33) and potentially in GSM-binding (Lys-28) were also responsive to GSMs, a finding that may question APP substrate targeting of GSMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard M Page
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases DZNE)and Adolf-Butenandt-Institute, Biochemistry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80336 Munich, Germany
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95
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Gamma-secretase composed of PS1/Pen2/Aph1a can cleave notch and amyloid precursor protein in the absence of nicastrin. J Neurosci 2010; 30:1648-56. [PMID: 20130175 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3826-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma-secretase is a multiprotein, intramembrane-cleaving protease with a growing list of protein substrates, including the Notch receptors and the amyloid precursor protein. The four components of gamma-secretase complex--presenilin (PS), nicastrin (NCT), Pen2, and Aph1--are all thought to be essential for activity. The catalytic domain resides within PS proteins, NCT has been suggested to be critical for substrate recognition, and the contributions of Pen2 and Aph1 remain unclear. The role of NCT has been challenged recently by the observation that a critical residue (E332) in NCT, which had been thought to be essential for gamma-secretase activity, is instead involved in complex maturation. Here, we report that NCT is dispensable for gamma-secretase activity. NCT-independent gamma-secretase activity can be detected in two independent NCT-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblast lines and blocked by the gamma-secretase inhibitors N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenacetyl-L-alanyl)]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester and L-685,458. This catalytic activity requires prior ectodomain shedding of the substrate and can cleave ligand-activated endogenous Notch receptors, indicating presence of this activity at the plasma membrane. Small interfering RNA knockdown experiments demonstrated that NCT-independent gamma-secretase activity requires the presence of PS1, Pen2, and Aph1a but can tolerate knockdown of PS2 or Aph1b. We conclude that a PS1/Pen2/Aph1a trimeric complex is an active enzyme, displaying biochemical properties similar to those of gamma-secretase and roughly 50% of its activity when normalized to PS1 N-terminal fragment levels. This PS1/Pen2/Aph1a complex, however, is highly unstable. Thus, NCT acts to stabilize gamma-secretase but is not required for substrate recognition.
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96
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Yokoshima S, Abe Y, Watanabe N, Kita Y, Kan T, Iwatsubo T, Tomita T, Fukuyama T. Development of photoaffinity probes for γ-secretase equipped with a nitrobenzenesulfonamide-type cleavable linker. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:6869-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.10.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2009] [Revised: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 10/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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97
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Kreft AF, Martone R, Porte A. Recent advances in the identification of gamma-secretase inhibitors to clinically test the Abeta oligomer hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease. J Med Chem 2009; 52:6169-88. [PMID: 19694467 DOI: 10.1021/jm900188z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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98
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Nie J, Luo Y, Huang XN, Gong QH, Wu Q, Shi JS. Icariin inhibits beta-amyloid peptide segment 25-35 induced expression of beta-secretase in rat hippocampus. Eur J Pharmacol 2009; 626:213-8. [PMID: 19782061 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2009] [Revised: 09/02/2009] [Accepted: 09/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to investigate the protective effects of icariin on the learning and memory abilities in Alzheimer's disease model rats and explore its protection mechanisms. Beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta) is a key etiology in Alzheimer's disease and targeting on Abeta production and assembly is a new therapeutic strategy. Six-month (400-600 g) Wistar rats were unilaterally injected with amyloid beta-protein fragment 25-35 (Abeta(25-35)) 10 microg (5 g/l, 2 microl) into the right hippocampus. The day following Abeta injection, icariin 30, 60 or 120 mg/kg was administered by gavage for 14 days. The ability of spatial learning and memory of the animals was tested by the Morris water maze. In place navigation test, icariin significantly decreased the mean escape latency and searching distance. In the space probing test, icariin increased remarkably the searching time and searching distance in the quadrant where the platform was originally located. All tests indicated icariin improved the ability of spatial learning and memory in Alzheimer's disease model rats. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry and real time RT-PCR analysis showed that icariin significantly reduced the contents of Abeta(1-40) and the mRNA levels of beta-secretase in the hippocampus and increased the mRNA level of superoxide dismutase-2, but it had no apparent effects on the immunostain and mRNA level of amyloid protein precursor. These results demonstrate that icariin can improve the learning and memory abilities in Abeta(25-35)-induced Alzheimer's disease rats. The mechanisms appear to be due to the decreased production of insoluble fragments of Abeta through suppression of beta-secretase expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Nie
- Department of Pharmacology, Zunyi Medical College, Zunyi 563000, PR China.
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99
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Donev R, Kolev M, Millet B, Thome J. Neuronal death in Alzheimer's disease and therapeutic opportunities. J Cell Mol Med 2009; 13:4329-48. [PMID: 19725918 PMCID: PMC4515050 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2009.00889.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease that affects approximately 24 million people worldwide. A number of different risk factors have been implicated in AD; however, neuritic (amyloid) plaques are considered as one of the defining risk factors and pathological hallmarks of the disease. In the past decade, enormous efforts have been devoted to understand the genetics and molecular pathogenesis leading to neuronal death in AD, which has been transferred into extensive experimental approaches aimed at reversing disease progression. Modern medicine is facing an increasing number of treatments available for vascular and neurodegenerative brain diseases, but no causal or neuroprotective treatment has yet been established. Almost all neurological conditions are characterized by progressive neuronal dysfunction, which, regardless of the pathogenetic mechanism, finally leads to neuronal death. The particular emphasis of this review is on risk factors and mechanisms resulting in neuronal loss in AD and current and prospective opportunities for therapeutic interventions. This review discusses these issues with a view to inspiring the development of new agents that could be useful for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossen Donev
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, Cardiff, UK
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100
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Hayashi I, Takatori S, Urano Y, Iwanari H, Isoo N, Osawa S, Fukuda MA, Kodama T, Hamakubo T, Li T, Wong PC, Tomita T, Iwatsubo T. Single chain variable fragment against nicastrin inhibits the gamma-secretase activity. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:27838-27847. [PMID: 19684016 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.055061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma-secretase is a membrane protein complex that catalyzes intramembrane proteolysis of a variety of substrates including the amyloid beta precursor protein of Alzheimer disease. Nicastrin (NCT), a single-pass membrane glycoprotein that harbors a large extracellular domain, is an essential component of the gamma-secretase complex. Here we report that overexpression of a single chain variable fragment (scFv) against NCT as an intrabody suppressed the gamma-secretase activity. Biochemical analyses revealed that the scFv disrupted the proper folding and the appropriate glycosyl maturation of the endogenous NCT, which are required for the stability of the gamma-secretase complex and the intrinsic proteolytic activity, respectively, implicating the dual role of NCT in the gamma-secretase complex. Our results also highlight the importance of the calnexin cycle in the functional maturation of the gamma-secretase complex. The engineered intrabodies may serve as rationally designed, molecular targeting tools for the discovery of novel actions of the membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikuo Hayashi
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Sho Takatori
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Yasuomi Urano
- Laboratory for Systems Biology and Medicine, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
| | - Hiroko Iwanari
- Laboratory for Systems Biology and Medicine, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan; Perseus Proteomics, Inc., 4-7-6 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-0041, Japan
| | - Noriko Isoo
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Satoko Osawa
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Maiko A Fukuda
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Tatsuhiko Kodama
- Laboratory for Systems Biology and Medicine, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
| | - Takao Hamakubo
- Laboratory for Systems Biology and Medicine, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
| | - Tong Li
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Philip C Wong
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Taisuke Tomita
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Corporation, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Takeshi Iwatsubo
- Department of Neuropathology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Corporation, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; Department of Neuropathology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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