Temperature effects in treatment wetlands

Nitrogen removal by thiosulfate-driven denitrification and plant uptake in enhanced floating treatment wetland

This study investigated the potential of thiosulfate-driven autotrophic enhanced floating treatment wetland (AEFTW) in removing nitrogen from the secondary effluent at the relatively short hydraulic retention times and low S/N ratios. Simultaneous autotrophic and heterotrophic denitrification was observed in AEFTW. The peak TN removal rate (15.3gm^-2d^-1) exceeded most of the reported floating treatment wetlands. Based on the kinetic model results, low mean temperature coefficient and high k₂₀ verified that the excellent performance in AEFTW diminished the microbial dependence on temperature. Nitrogen removal performance of enhanced floating treatment wetland (EFTW) and floating treatment wetland (FTW) were similar and highly sensitive to temperature. The interaction of sulfur transformation on the nitrogen, carbon uptake of plants was studied. Thiosulfate addition significantly raised sulfur content in the shoots and further enhanced the uptake of nitrogen and carbon, and increased the plant biomass at the same time. Higher composition of autotrophic and heterotrophic denitrifiers in AEFTW interpreted the occurrence of mixotrophic denitrification during summer. Thiosulfate induced mutual promotion of nitrogen removal by plant uptake and microbial denitrification in AEFTW.

Cross continental increase in methane ebullition under climate change

Methane (CH4) strongly contributes to observed global warming. As natural CH4 emissions mainly originate from wet ecosystems, it is important to unravel how climate change may affect these emissions. This is especially true for ebullition (bubble flux from sediments), a pathway that has long been underestimated but generally dominates emissions. Here we show a remarkably strong relationship between CH4 ebullition and temperature across a wide range of freshwater ecosystems on different continents using multi-seasonal CH4 ebullition data from the literature. As these temperature-ebullition relationships may have been affected by seasonal variation in organic matter availability, we also conducted a controlled year-round mesocosm experiment. Here 4 °C warming led to 51% higher total annual CH4 ebullition, while diffusion was not affected. Our combined findings suggest that global warming will strongly enhance freshwater CH4 emissions through a disproportional increase in ebullition (6-20% per 1 °C increase), contributing to global warming.

Seasonal Differences in Relationships between Nitrate Concentration and Denitrification Rates in Ditch Sediments Vegetated with Rice Cutgrass

Increased application of nitrogen (N) fertilizers in agricultural systems contributes to significant environmental impacts, including eutrophication of fresh and coastal waters. Rice cutgrass [ (L.) Sw.] can significantly enhance denitrification potential in agricultural ditch sediments and potentially reduce N export from agricultural watersheds, but relationships with known drivers are not well understood. To address this, we examined effects of nitrate (NO) availability on dinitrogen gas (N) and NO fluxes seasonally. Net denitrification rates were measured as positive N fluxes from vegetated intact sediment cores using membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS). We developed Michaelis-Menten models for N fluxes across NO gradients in the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Summer N models exhibited the highest (maximum amount of net N flux) and (concentration of NO in the overlying water at which the net N flux is half of ), with a maximum production of N of ∼20 mg N m h. Maximum percentage NO retention occurred at 1 mg NO L in the overlying water in all seasons, except summer where maximum retention persisted from 1 to 5 mg NO L. Denitrification rates were strongly correlated with NO uptake by vegetated sediments in spring ( = 0.94, < 0.0001) and summer ( = 0.97, < 0.0001), but low NO uptake in fall and winter resulted in virtually no net denitrification during these seasons. Our results indicate that vegetated ditch sediments may act as effective NO sinks during the growing season. Ditch sediments vegetated with cutgrass not only immobilized a significant fraction of NO entering them but also permanently removed as much as 30 to 40% of the immobilized NO through microbial denitrification.

Designing living walls for greywater treatment

Greywater is being increasingly used as an alternative water source to reduce potable water demand and to alleviate pressure on sewerage systems. This paper presents the development of a low energy and low maintenance greywater treatment technology: a living wall system, employing ornamental plants (including vines) grown in a sand filter on a side of a building to treat shower, bath, and washing basin wastewaters. The system can, at the same time, provide critical amenity and micro-climate benefits to our cities. A large scale column study was conducted in Melbourne, Australia, to investigate the following design and operational factors of the proposed system: plant species, saturated zone design, rest period, hydraulic loading rate and pollutant inflow concentration. The results indicate that the use of ornamental species (e.g. Canna lilies, Lonicera japonica, ornamental grape vine) can contribute to pollutant removal. Vegetation selection was found to be particularly important for nutrient removal. While a wider range of tested plant species was effective for nitrogen removal (>80%), phosphorus removal was more variable (-13% to 99%) over the study period, with only a few tested plants being effective - Carex appressa and Canna lilies were the best performers. It was also found that phosphorus removal can be compromised over the longer term as a result of leaching. Excellent suspended solids and organics removal efficiencies can be generally achieved in these systems (>80% for TSS and >90% for BOD) with plants having a relatively small impact. Columns had an acceptable infiltration capacity after one year of operation. When planted with effective species (e.g. Carex appressa and Canna lilies), it is expected that performance will not be significantly affected by longer rest periods and higher pollutant concentrations in the early years of system operation. The results of this study, thus, demonstrate that innovative and aesthetically pleasing living walls can be designed for treatment of greywater at the household scale.

Compact secondary treatment train combining a lab-scale moving bed biofilm reactor and enhanced flotation processes

High-rate wastewater processes are receiving a renewed interest to obtain energy positive/efficient water resource recovery facilities. An innovative treatment train combining a high-rate moving bed biofilm reactor (HR-MBBR) with an enhanced flotation process was studied. The two objectives of this work were 1) to maximize the conversion of soluble organics to particulate matter in an HR-MBBR and 2) to maximize the particulate matter recovery from the HR-MBBR effluent by green chemicals to enhance biogas production by anaerobic digestion. To achieve these objectives, lab-scale MBBRs fed with synthetic soluble wastewater were operated at organic loading rates (OLRs) between 4 and 34 kg COD m^-3 reactor d^-1 corresponding to hydraulic retention times (HRTs) between 6 and 54 min. Colloidal and soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency in the HR-MBBR increased with HRT to reach a plateau of 85% at an HRT longer than 27 min. Carrier clogging observed at an OLR higher than 16 kg COD m^-3 d^-1 (HRT < 13 min) resulted in about 23% loss in colloidal and soluble COD removal efficiency. Thus, the recommended parameters were between 22 and 37 min and between 6 and 10 kg COD m^-3 d^-1 for the HRT and the OLR, respectively, to maximize the conversion of soluble organics to particulate matter. Total suspended solids (TSS) recovery of 58-85% and 90-97% were achieved by enhanced flotation using green and unbiodegradable chemicals, respectively, corresponding to a TSS effluent concentration below 14 and 7 mg TSS/L. Among the synthetic polymers tested, a high molecular weight and low charge density cationic polyacrylamide was found to give the best results with less than 2 mg TSS/L in the clarified effluent (97% TSS recovery). Green chemicals, although performing slightly less for solids separation than unbiodegradable chemicals, achieved a mean TSS concentration of 10 ± 3 mg/L in the clarified effluent.

Nitrification cessation and recovery in an aerated saturated vertical subsurface flow treatment wetland: Field studies and microscale biofilm modeling

In aerated treatment wetlands, oxygen availability is not a limiting factor in sustaining a high level of nitrification in wastewater treatment. In the case of an air blower failure, nitrification would cease, potentially causing adverse effects to the nitrifying bacteria. A field trial was completed investigating nitrification loss when aeration is switched off, and the system recovery rate after the aeration is switched back on. Loss of dissolved oxygen was observed to be more rapid than loss of nitrification. Nitrate was observed in the effluent long after the aeration was switched off (48h+). A complementary modeling study predicted nitrate diffusion out of biofilm over a 48h period. After two weeks of no aeration in the established system, nitrification recovered within two days, whereas nitrification establishment in a new system was previously observed to require 20-45days. These results suggest that once established resident nitrifying microbial communities are quite robust.

Removal of the pesticides imazalil and tebuconazole in saturated constructed wetland mesocosms

The aim of this study was to investigate the removal of the pesticides imazalil and tebuconazole at realistic concentration levels (10 and 100 μg L(-1)) in saturated constructed wetland (CW) mesocosms planted with five wetland plant species (Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis, Iris pseudacorus, Juncus effusus and Berula erecta) at different hydraulic loading rates during summer and winter. The removal of imazalil and tebuconazole was not influenced by the influent concentration, but the removal efficiency for both compounds was lower in winter than in summer. Planted mesocosms had significantly higher removal efficiencies than the unplanted controls only in summer. The first-order kinetics model fitted the tebuconazole removal in all mesocosms, and the reaction rate constants varied by plant species and season (0.1-0.7 d(-1) in winter and 0.6-2.9 d(-1) in summer). For imazalil, the first-order kinetics model fitted the removal only in mesocosms planted with Phragmites australis (k = 1.2 ± 0.4 d(-1)) and in the unplanted control (k = 1.2 ± 0.5 d(-1) in both summer and winter). The removal of imazalil and tebuconazole by sorption to the bed substrate and plant uptake were low, suggesting a high rate of metabolization in the saturated CW mesocosms. The removal of imazalil and tebuconazole correlated with the rate of evapotranspiration and the removal of nutrients (N and P) during summer and with the DO/oxygen saturation during winter. This reveals two possible metabolization pathways: degradation inside the plant tissue after uptake and plant-stimulated microbial degradation in the bed substrate. Furthermore, the results indicate that nitrifying bacteria may play an active role in the biodegradation of these pesticides.

Effects of HRT and water temperature on nitrogen removal in autotrophic gravel filter

Organic Carbon added to low ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C/N ratio) wastewater to enhance heterotrophic denitrification performance might lead to higher operating costs and secondary pollution. In this study, sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) was applied as an electron donor for a gravel filter (one kind of constructed wetland) to investigate effects of hydraulic retention time (HRT) and water temperature on the nitrate removal efficiency. The results show that with an HRT of 12 h, the average total nitrogen (TN) removal efficiencies were 91% at 15-20 °C and 18% at 3-6 °C, respectively. When HRT increased to 24 h, the average TN removal increased accordingly to 41% at 3-6 °C, suggesting denitrification performance was improved by extended HRT at low water temperatures. Due to denitrification, 96% of added nitrate nitrogen (NO3(-)-N) was converted to nitrogen gas, with a mean flux of nitrous oxide (N2O) was 0.0268-0.1500 ug m(-2) h(-1), while 98.86% of thiosulfate was gradually converted to sulfate throughout the system. Thus, our results show that the sulfur driven autotrophic denitrification constructed wetland demonstrated an excellent removal efficiency of nitrate for wastewater treatment. The HRT and water temperature proved to be two influencing factors in this constructed wetland treatment system.

Performance of pond-wetland complexes as a preliminary processor of drinking water sources

Shijiuyang Constructed Wetland (110 hm(2)) is a drinking water source treatment wetland with primary structural units of ponds and plant-bed/ditch systems. The wetland can process about 250,000 tonnes of source water in the Xincheng River every day and supplies raw water for Shijiuyang Drinking Water Plant. Daily data for 28 months indicated that the major water quality indexes of source water had been improved by one grade. The percentage increase for dissolved oxygen and the removal rates of ammonia nitrogen, iron and manganese were 73.63%, 38.86%, 35.64%, and 22.14% respectively. The treatment performance weight of ponds and plant-bed/ditch systems was roughly equal but they treated different pollutants preferentially. Most water quality indexes had better treatment efficacy with increasing temperature and inlet concentrations. These results revealed that the pond-wetland complexes exhibited strong buffering capacity for source water quality improvement. The treatment cost of Shijiuyang Drinking Water Plant was reduced by about 30.3%. Regional rainfall significantly determined the external river water levels and adversely deteriorated the inlet water quality, thus suggesting that the "hidden" diffuse pollution in the multitudinous stream branches as well as their catchments should be the controlling emphases for river source water protection in the future. The combination of pond and plant-bed/ditch systems provides a successful paradigm for drinking water source pretreatment. Three other drinking water source treatment wetlands with ponds and plant-bed/ditch systems are in operation or construction in the stream networks of the Yangtze River Delta and more people will be benefited.

Performance of hybrid subsurface constructed wetland system for piggery wastewater treatment

The objective of this study was to evaluate performance of a hybrid constructed wetland (CW) built for high organic content piggery wastewater treatment in a cold region. The system consists of four vertical and one horizontal flow subsurface CWs. The wetland was built in 2009 and water quality was monitored from the outset. Average purification efficiency of this system was 95±5, 91±7, 89±8, 70±10, 84±15, 90±6, 99±2, and 93±16% for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), ammonium-N (NH4-N), total phosphorus (TP), total coliform (T. Coliform), and suspended solids (SS), respectively during August 2010-December 2013. Pollutant removal rate was 15±18 g m(-2) d(-1), 49±52 g m(-2) d(-1), 6±4 g m(-2) d(-1), 7±5 g m(-2) d(-1), and 1±1 g m(-2) d(-1) for BOD5, COD, TN, NH4-N, and TP, respectively. The removal efficiency of BOD5, COD, NH4-N, and SS improved yearly since the start of operation. With respect to removal of TN and TP, efficiency improved in the first three years but slightly declined in the fourth year. The system performed well during both warm and cold periods, but was more efficient in the warm period. The nitrate increase may be attributed to a low C/N ratio, due to limited availability of carbon required for denitrification.

Seasonal Variation in Floodplain Biogeochemical Processing in a Restored Headwater Stream

Stream and river restoration activities have recently begun to emphasize the enhancement of biogeochemical processing within river networks through the restoration of river-floodplain connectivity. It is generally accepted that this practice removes pollutants such as nitrogen and phosphorus because the increased contact time of nutrient-rich floodwaters with reactive floodplain sediments. Our study examines this assumption in the floodplain of a recently restored, low-order stream through five seasonal experiments. During each experiment, a floodplain slough was artificially inundated for 3 h. Both the net flux of dissolved nutrients and nitrogen uptake rate were measured during each experiment. The slough was typically a source of dissolved phosphorus and dissolved organic matter, a sink of NO3(-), and variable source/sink of ammonium. NO3(-) uptake rates were relatively high when compared to riverine uptake, especially during the spring and summer experiments. However, when scaled up to the entire 1 km restoration reach with a simple inundation model, less than 0.5-1.5% of the annual NO3(-) load would be removed because of the short duration of river-floodplain connectivity. These results suggest that restoring river-floodplain connectivity is not necessarily an appropriate best management practice for nutrient removal in low-order streams with legacy soil nutrients from past agricultural landuse.

Performance of Seasonally and Continuously Loaded Constructed Wetlands Treating Dairy Farm Wastewater

A 2-yr study compared the performance of seasonally and continuously loaded constructed wetlands treating dairy farm wastewater. One wetland was loaded during the growing season (GS) periods only, while the other was continuously loaded. Weekly samples were analyzed for 5-d biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), total Kjeldahl N (TKN), total ammoniacal N (TAN), total P (TP), and . Annual average daily mass removal rates (kg ha) were similar for both wetlands in both years; however, seasonal differences were observed. With the exception of BOD in Year 2, average daily GS areal mass removal rates were higher for the seasonal wetland. However, GS mass exports from the seasonal wetland were higher by 28 to 94%, with the exception of BOD in Year 1. Annual mass reductions (MRs; %) for nutrients were higher for the continuous wetland in both years. Annual MRs were similar for in both years and for TSS in Year 2. Annual mass exports from the seasonal wetland were higher for nutrients and by 14 to 77% in both years. Pollutant MRs generally decreased during the nongrowing season (NGS) for the continuous wetland; however, in Year 2 when lower loading rates were used, the wetland still removed 84 to 99% of the pollutant masses. The continuous wetland also performed better during periods of high flow that occurred during the GS. Although there were minimal differences in annual treatment performance, continuously loaded systems require less additional infrastructure and should require less maintenance and may, therefore, be more attractive for agricultural applications.

Effect of variations in the nitrogen loading rate and seasonality on the operation of a free water surface constructed wetland for treatment of swine wastewater

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of variations in the nitrogen loading rate (NLR) and seasonality on the operational efficiency of a free-water surface constructed wetland (FWS) and on the processes involved in total nitrogen (TN) removal in treating swine wastewater. The system, which operated for 550 days, consisted of a FWS mesocosm inoculated with Typha angustifolia L., using swine wastewater from a storage lagoon as an influent. After operating with nitrogen loading rates (NLRs) of 2.0 to 30.2 kg TN ha(-1)·d(-1), the FWS reduced total nitrogen (TN) concentration by between 21.6 and 51.0%, achieving maximum removal (48.2 ± 3.0%) when the system operated at a NLR below 15.0 kg TN ha(-1)·d(-1). Moreover, operations over 25.0 kg TN ha(-1)·d(-1) resulted in a 50.6% decrease in the maximum FWS efficiency, which may have been related to increased anoxic conditions (< 0.5 mg O2 L(-1); -169.8 ± 70.3 mV) resulting from the high concentration of organic matter in the system (12.3 ± 10.5 g TCOD L(-1)), which hindered nitrification. Ammonia volatilization is considered the main method to remove TN, with an average value of 14.4 ± 6.5% (3.1-26.2%). Maximum volatilization occurred during the summer (21.5 ± 2.4°C) at an NLR higher than 25 kg TN ha(-1)·d(-1) (26.6%), favored by higher temperatures (17.3-19.7°C), and high NH4(+)-N (>600.0 9 mg NH4(+)-N L(-1)) and pH levels (7.1-7.9). Uptake by plants accounted for 14.9% of the TN removed, with the vegetative peak in summer (height: 105.3 cm; diameter: 2.1 cm) at an NLR of 25.3 ± 0.3 kg TN ha(-1)·d(-1). However, growth decreased to 94.4% at an NLR of over 25.3 ± 0.3 kg TN ha(-1)·d(-1) (>379.9 mg NH4(+)-N L(-1)) in autumn (17.4 ± 2.4°C). This was associated with the period of plant senescence and the effects of ammonium phytotoxicity (379.9-624.2 mg NH4(+)-N L(-1)) and continued to the end of the study with the complete loss of macrophyte species. Finally, 1.5% of the TN removed was incorporated into the sediments where NH4(+)-N is the main form of nitrogen, with an accumulative value of 2.6 g m(-2).

The dynamics of low-chlorinated benzenes in a pilot-scale constructed wetland and a hydroponic plant root mat treating sulfate-rich groundwater

A rarely used hydroponic plant root mat filter (PRMF, of 6 m(2)) and a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland (HSSF CW, of 6 m(2)), operating in continuous flow and discontinuous outflow flushing modes, were investigated for treating sulfate-rich and organic carbon-lean groundwater contaminated with monochlorobenzene (MCB); 1,2-dichlorobenzene (1,2-DCB); 1,4-dichlorobenzene (1,4-DCB); and 2-chlorotoluene. Whereas the mean inflow loads ranged from 1 to 247 mg m(-2) days(-1), the range of mean inflow concentrations of the chlorobenzenes recorded over a period of 7 months was within 0.04 and 8 mg L(-1). A hydraulic surface loading rate of 30 L m(-2) days(-1) was obtained in both systems. The mean load removal efficiencies were found to vary between 87 and 93 % in the PRMF after a flow path of 4 m, while the removal efficiencies were found to range between 46 and 70 % and 71 to 73 % in the HSSF CW operating in a continuous flow mode and a discontinuous outflow flushing mode, respectively. Seasonal variations in the removal efficiencies were observed for all low-chlorinated hydrocarbons both in the PRMF and the HSSF CW, whereby the highest removal efficiencies were reached during the summer months. Sulfide formation occurred in the organic carbon-lean groundwater particularly in summer, which is probably due to the plant-derived organic carbon that fostered the microbial dissimilatory sulfate reduction. Higher redox potential in water was observed in the PRMF. In conclusion, the PRMF could be an option for the treatment of water contaminated with compounds which in particular need oxic conditions for their microbial degradation, such as in the case of low-chlorinated benzenes.

Nitrogen dynamics model for a pilot field-scale novel dewatered alum sludge cake-based constructed wetland system

A model simulating the effluent nitrogen (N) concentration of treated animal farm wastewater in a pilot on-site constructed wetland (CW) system, using dewatered alum sludge cake (DASC) as wetland substrate, is presented. The N-model was developed based on the Structural Thinking Experiential Learning Laboratory with Animation software and is considering organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen (NH3) and nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) as the major forms of nitrogen involved in the transformation chains. Ammonification (AMM), ammonia volatilization, nitrification (NIT), denitrification, plant uptake, plant decaying and uptake of inorganic nitrogen by algae and bacteria were considered in this model. pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, precipitation, solar radiation and nitrogen concentrations were considered as forcing functions in the model. The model was calibrated by observed data with a reasonable agreement prior to its applications. The simulated effluent detritus nitrogen, NH4-N, NO3-N and TN had a considerably good agreement with the observed results. The mass balance analysis shows that NIT accounts for 65.60%, adsorption (ad) (11.90%), AMM (8.90%) followed by NH4-N (Plants) (5.90%) and NO3-N (Plants) (4.40%). The TN removal was found 52% of the total influent TN in the CW. This study suggested an improved overall performance of a DASC-based CW and efficient N removal from wastewater.

Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system for real-time monitoring of integrated-constructed wetlands

Monitoring large-scale treatment wetlands is costly and time-consuming, but required by regulators. Some analytical results are available only after 5 days or even longer. Thus, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) models were developed to predict the effluent concentrations of 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) and NH4-N from a full-scale integrated constructed wetland (ICW) treating domestic wastewater. The ANFIS models were developed and validated with a 4-year data set from the ICW system. Cost-effective, quicker and easier to measure variables were selected as the possible predictors based on their goodness of correlation with the outputs. A self-organizing neural network was applied to extract the most relevant input variables from all the possible input variables. Fuzzy subtractive clustering was used to identify the architecture of the ANFIS models and to optimize fuzzy rules, overall, improving the network performance. According to the findings, ANFIS could predict the effluent quality variation quite strongly. Effluent BOD5 and NH4-N concentrations were predicted relatively accurately by other effluent water quality parameters, which can be measured within a few hours. The simulated effluent BOD5 and NH4-N concentrations well fitted the measured concentrations, which was also supported by relatively low mean squared error. Thus, ANFIS can be useful for real-time monitoring and control of ICW systems.

The role of a hybrid phytosystem in landscape water purification and herbicides removal

The performance of a hybrid phytosystem in landscape water purification and herbicides removal was investigated. The phytosystem operating in an arboretum is located in the Minhang Campus of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China. The phytosystem is composed of two purification stages: sedimentation Stage 1 without external air supply; and Stage 2 with an external air supply. Stage 2 is also vegetated with three major kinds of plants, namely Pontederia cordata L., Typha latifolia L. and Cyperus alternifolius L. The system's hydraulic loading rate (HLR) was maintained at 1.632 m/day between December 2013 and November 2014. Sedimentation, filtration and adsorption by filter media, combined microbial processes in the rhizosphere (nitrification-denitrification) and plant uptake of the pollutants were all responsible for water purification in the phytosystem. The biological and physical parameters analyzed were total dissolved nitrogen (TDN), nitrate (NO3-N), nitrite (NO2-N), ammonia (NH3-N), total dissolved phosphorus (TDP), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), turbidity, chlorophyll-a and algal cells number. Highest removal efficiencies for TDN, TDP, turbidity, DOC, chlorophyll-a and algal cells were 56.9%, 73.3%, 92.4%, 29.9%, 94.3% and 91.0%, respectively. When the phytosystem was considered for herbicides removal, removal efficiencies of more than 25% were noted for all the herbicides.

Effectiveness of Rice Agricultural Waste, Microbes and Wetland Plants in the Removal of Reactive Black-5 Azo Dye in Microcosm Constructed Wetlands

Azo dyes are commonly generated as effluent pollutants by dye using industries, causing contamination of surface and ground water. Various strategies are employed to treat such wastewater; however, a multi-faceted treatment strategy could be more effective for complete removal of azo dyes from industrial effluent than any single treatment. In the present study, rice husk material was used as a substratum in two constructed wetlands (CWs) and augmented with microorganisms in the presence of wetland plants to effectively treat dye-polluted water. To evaluate the efficiency of each process the study was divided into three levels, i.e., adsorption of dye onto the substratum, phytoremediation within the CW and then bioremediation along with the previous two processes in the augmented CW. The adsorption process was helpful in removing 50% dye in presence of rice husk while 80% in presence of rice husk biocahr. Augmentation of microorganisms in CW systems has improved dye removal efficiency to 90%. Similarly presence of microorganisms enhanced removal of total nitrogen (68% 0 and Total phosphorus (75%). A significant improvement in plant growth was also observed by measuring plant height, number of leaves and leave area. These findings suggest the use of agricultural waste as part of a CW substratum can provide enhanced removal of textile dyes.

Assessment of long-term phosphorus retention in an integrated constructed wetland treating domestic wastewater

Due to the nature of the phosphorus (P) removal mechanisms associated with constructed wetlands, the sustainability of P treatment is usually of high interest. As a result, a 4-year dataset from a typical multi-celled integrated constructed wetland (ICW) located at Glaslough in Co. Monaghan, Ireland was evaluated to determine the effects of long-term P loadings and hydrological inputs on P treatment. The ICW was intensively monitored year-round from February 2008 through March 2012 for total P and molybdate reactive phosphate (MRP). Domestic wastewater was loaded at 16.4 ± 0.96 g m(2) year(-1) for total P and 11.2 ± 0.74 g m(2) year(-1) for MRP. Average mass reductions over the monitoring period were 91.4 and 90.1%, respectively. The area-based kinetic coefficients (K(20)) of 11.8 for total P and 15.6 m year(-1) for MRP indicated a high area-specific retention rate. The ICW appeared to have a sustained capacity for P adsorption and retention, but the treatment was influenced mainly by external hydrological inputs and fluctuations in wastewater loadings. Linear regression analyses showed a reduction in mass retention of both total P and MRP with increased effluent flow volumes. Monthly mass reductions exceeded 90% when the effluent flow volumes were less than 200 m(3) day(-1). When monthly effluent flow volumes exceeded 200 m(3) day(-1), nonetheless, mass reductions became highly variable. Designs and management of ICW systems should adopt measures to limit external hydrological loadings in order to maintain sufficient P treatment.

The potential of selected macroalgal species for treatment of AMD at different pH ranges in temperate regions

The metal bioaccumulation potential of selected macroalgae species at different pH ranges was study for usage as part of a possible secondary passive acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment technology in algae ponds. Two separate studies were conducted to determine the suitability of macroalgae for passive treatment when metabolic processes in macrophytes and microorganisms in constructed wetlands decrease during winter months. In the field study, the bioconcentration of metals (mg/kg dry weight) measured in the benthic macroalgae mats was in the following order: site 1. Oedogonium crassum Al > Fe > Mn > Zn; site 2. Klebsormidium klebsii, Al > Fe > Mn > Zn; site 3. Microspora tumidula, Fe > Al > Mn > Zn and site 4. M. tumidula, Fe > Mn > Al > Zn. In the laboratory study, cultured macroalgae K. klebsii, O. crassum and M. tumidula isolated from the field sampling sites were exposed to three different pH values (3, 5 and 7), while bioaccumulation of the metals, Al, Fe, Mn and Zn and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity were measured in the different selected algae species at a constant water temperature of 14 °C. Bioaccumulation of Al was the highest for O. crassum followed by K. klebsii and M. tumidula (p < 0.0001). From the study it was evident that the highest metal bioaccumulation occurred in the macroalgae O. crassum at all three tested pH values under constant low water temperature.

Using CV-GLUE procedure in analysis of wetland model predictive uncertainty

This study develops a procedure that is related to Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation (GLUE), called the CV-GLUE procedure, for assessing the predictive uncertainty that is associated with different model structures with varying degrees of complexity. The proposed procedure comprises model calibration, validation, and predictive uncertainty estimation in terms of a characteristic coefficient of variation (characteristic CV). The procedure first performed two-stage Monte-Carlo simulations to ensure predictive accuracy by obtaining behavior parameter sets, and then the estimation of CV-values of the model outcomes, which represent the predictive uncertainties for a model structure of interest with its associated behavior parameter sets. Three commonly used wetland models (the first-order K-C model, the plug flow with dispersion model, and the Wetland Water Quality Model; WWQM) were compared based on data that were collected from a free water surface constructed wetland with paddy cultivation in Taipei, Taiwan. The results show that the first-order K-C model, which is simpler than the other two models, has greater predictive uncertainty. This finding shows that predictive uncertainty does not necessarily increase with the complexity of the model structure because in this case, the more simplistic representation (first-order K-C model) of reality results in a higher uncertainty in the prediction made by the model. The CV-GLUE procedure is suggested to be a useful tool not only for designing constructed wetlands but also for other aspects of environmental management.

Hybrid constructed wetlands for highly polluted river water treatment and comparison of surface- and subsurface-flow cells

A series of large pilot constructed wetland (CW) systems were constructed near the confluence of an urban stream to a larger river in Xi'an, a northwestern megacity in China, for treating polluted stream water before it entered the receiving water body. Each CW system is a combination of surface-and subsurface-flow cells with local gravel, sand or slag as substrates and Phragmites australis and Typha orientalis as plants. During a one-year operation with an average surface loading of 0.053 m(3)/(m(2)·day), the overall COD, BOD, NH3-N, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) removals were 72.7% ± 4.5%, 93.4% ± 2.1%, 54.0% ± 6.3%, 53.9% ± 6.0% and 69.4% ± 4.6%, respectively, which brought about an effective improvement of the river water quality. Surface-flow cells showed better NH3-N removal than their TN removal while subsurface-flow cells showed better TN removal than their NH3-N removal. Using local slag as the substrate, the organic and phosphorus removal could be much improved. Seasonal variation was also found in the removal of all the pollutants and autumn seemed to be the best season for pollutant removal due to the moderate water temperature and well grown plants in the CWs.

Modeling Escherichia coli removal in constructed wetlands under pulse loading

Manure-borne pathogens are a threat to water quality and have resulted in disease outbreaks globally. Land application of livestock manure to croplands may result in pathogen transport through surface runoff and tile drains, eventually entering water bodies such as rivers and wetlands. The goal of this study was to develop a robust model for estimating the pathogen removal in surface flow wetlands under pulse loading conditions. A new modeling approach was used to describe Escherichia coli removal in pulse-loaded constructed wetlands using adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS). Several ANFIS models were developed and validated using experimental data under pulse loading over two seasons (winter and summer). In addition to ANFIS, a mechanistic fecal coliform removal model was validated using the same sets of experimental data. The results showed that the ANFIS model significantly improved the ability to describe the dynamics of E. coli removal under pulse loading. The mechanistic model performed poorly as demonstrated by lower coefficient of determination and higher root mean squared error compared to the ANFIS models. The E. coli concentrations corresponding to the inflection points on the tracer study were keys to improving the predictability of the E. coli removal model.

Nitrogen behavior in a free water surface constructed wetland used as posttreatment for anaerobically treated swine wastewater effluent

The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavior of total nitrogen (TN) in its different forms in a Free Water Surface constructed wetland (FWS) used as posttreatment for anaerobically treated swine wastewater. The experiment was conducted in a glasshouse from July 2010 to November 2011. The system consists in a FWS mesocosm inoculated with Typha angustifolia L. using as pretreatment an UASB reactor (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket). The operation are based on the progressive increase of the nitrogen loading rate (NLR) (2.0-30.2 kg TN/ha·d) distributed in 12 loads, with an operational time of 20 d. The results indicate that the behavior of the TN in the FWS, mainly depends on the NLR applied, the amount of dissolved oxygen available and the seasonality. The FWS operated with an NLR between 2.0-30.2 kg TN/ha·d, presents average removal efficiency for TN of 54.8%, with a maximum removal (71.7%) between spring-summer seasons (17.3-21.7°C). The availability of dissolved oxygen hinders the nitrification/denitrification processes in the FWS representing a 0.3-5.6% of TN removed.The main route of TN removal is associated with ammonia volatilization processes (2.6-40.7%), mainly to NLR over 25.8 kg TN/ha· d and with temperatures higher than 18°C. In a smaller proportion, the incorporation of nitrogen via plant uptake was 10.8% whereas the TN accumulated in the sediments was a 5.0% of the TN applied during the entire operation (550 d). An appropriate control of the NLR applied, can reduce the ammonia volatilization processes and the phytotoxicity effects expressed as growth inhibition in 80.0% from 496.0 mg NH(+) 4-N/L (25.8 kg TN/ha·d).

Environmental controls of temporal and spatial variability in CO2 and CH4 fluxes in a neotropical peatland

Tropical peatlands play an important role in the global storage and cycling of carbon (C) but information on carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) fluxes from these systems is sparse, particularly in the Neotropics. We quantified short and long-term temporal and small scale spatial variation in CO2 and CH4 fluxes from three contrasting vegetation communities in a domed ombrotrophic peatland in Panama. There was significant variation in CO2 fluxes among vegetation communities in the order Campnosperma panamensis > Raphia taedigera > Cyperus. There was no consistent variation among sites and no discernible seasonal pattern of CH4 flux despite the considerable range of values recorded (e.g. -1.0 to 12.6 mg m(-2) h(-1) in 2007). CO2 fluxes varied seasonally in 2007, being greatest in drier periods (300-400 mg m(-2) h(-1)) and lowest during the wet period (60-132 mg m(-2) h(-1)) while very high emissions were found during the 2009 wet period, suggesting that peak CO2 fluxes may occur following both low and high rainfall. In contrast, only weak relationships between CH4 flux and rainfall (positive at the C. panamensis site) and solar radiation (negative at the C. panamensis and Cyperus sites) was found. CO2 fluxes showed a diurnal pattern across sites and at the Cyperus sp. site CO2 and CH4 fluxes were positively correlated. The amount of dissolved carbon and nutrients were strong predictors of small scale within-site variability in gas release but the effect was site-specific. We conclude that (i) temporal variability in CO2 was greater than variation among vegetation communities; (ii) rainfall may be a good predictor of CO2 emissions from tropical peatlands but temporal variation in CH4 does not follow seasonal rainfall patterns; and (iii) diurnal variation in CO2 fluxes across different vegetation communities can be described by a Fourier model.

Wetland management reduces sediment and nutrient loading to the upper Mississippi river

Restored riparian wetlands in the Upper Mississippi River basin have potential to remove sediment and nutrients from tributaries before they flow into the Mississippi River. For 3 yr we calculated retention efficiencies of a marsh complex, which consisted of a restored marsh and an adjacent natural marsh that were connected to Halfway Creek, a small tributary of the Mississippi. We measured sediment, N, and P removal through a mass balance budget approach, N removal through denitrification, and N and P removal through mechanical soil excavation. The marsh complex had average retention rates of approximately 30 Mg sediment ha yr, 26 kg total N ha yr, and 20 kg total P ha yr. Water flowed into the restored marsh only during high-discharge events. Although the majority of retention occurred in the natural marsh, portions of the natural marsh were hydrologically disconnected at low discharge due to historical over-bank sedimentation. The natural marsh removed >60% of sediment, >10% of P, and >5% of N loads (except the first year, when it was a N source). The marsh complex was a source of NH and soluble reactive P. The average denitrification rate for the marsh complex was 2.88 mg N m h. Soil excavation removed 3600 Mg of sediment, 5.6 Mg of N, and 2.7 Mg of P from the restored marsh. The marsh complex was effective in removing sediment and nutrients from storm flows; however, retention could be increased if more water was diverted into both restored and natural marshes before entering the river.

Behavior of Typha angustifolia L. in a free water surface constructed wetlands for the treatment of swine wastewater

The objective of this study was to evaluate the behavior of Typha angustifolia L. in nitrogen retention in a Free Water Surface Constructed Wetland (FWS) for the swine wastewater treatment over a three-year operating period. Results show that the behavior of Typha angustifolia L. in a FWS for treatment of swine wastewater is affected by nitrogen concentration, seasonal variation and plant establishment in the system. Indeed, the application of Nitrogen Loading Rates (NLR) between 7.1-14.3 kg TN/ha·d removes 40% of Total Nitrogen (TN), where the maximum removal (20-40%) takes place in the spring-summer seasons. However, concentrations higher than 120.3 mg NH4 (+)-N/L significantly decrease (P = 0.004) diametrical growth by 55%. However, it was possible to estimate that NLR >14.3 kg TN/ha·d increased biomass production and plant uptake in Typha angustifolia L. during the period analyzed. Additionally, aboveground biomass values were between 1.509.6-2.874.0 g/m(2) and nitrogen uptake 27.4-40.8 g/m(2), where this last value represents 29% of the TN applied during the study. Finally, the TN accumulation in sediments represents less than 2% of the TN incorporated during this period. These results show that an increase of 50% of the TN in sediments increases plant abundance in 73%, which is related to the mineralization processes favored in the system during the last year of operation.

Application of microwave radiation to biofilm heating during wastewater treatment in trickling filters

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the potential for improving wastewater treatment by the application of microwave radiation (MW) compared to convective heating (CH) of trickling filters. Microwaves were delivered to the biofilm in a continuous and intermittent way to obtain temperatures of 20, 25, 35 and 40 °C. Although there was no effect of MW on organic removal, the observed yield coefficient was lower during the continuous MW supply compared to the periodic dosage and CH. The presence of organic compounds in the influent and continuous biofilm exposure to MW resulted in ca. 10% higher efficiency and ca. 20% higher rate of nitrification compared to intermittent MW dosage and CH. Independent of the method of reactor heating, the absence of organic carbon in the influent induced a significant increase in ammonium oxidation efficiency at 20-35 °C. Despite the aerobic conditions in trickling filters, nitrogen loss was observed.

Evaluation of pollutant loads from stormwater BMPs to receiving water using load frequency curves with uncertainty analysis

This study examined pollutant loads released to receiving water from a typical urban watershed in the Los Angeles (LA) Basin of California by applying a best management practice (BMP) performance model that includes uncertainty. This BMP performance model uses the k-C model and incorporates uncertainty analysis and the first-order second-moment (FOSM) method to assess the effectiveness of BMPs for removing stormwater pollutants. Uncertainties were considered for the influent event mean concentration (EMC) and the aerial removal rate constant of the k-C model. The storage treatment overflow and runoff model (STORM) was used to simulate the flow volume from watershed, the bypass flow volume and the flow volume that passes through the BMP. Detention basins and total suspended solids (TSS) were chosen as representatives of stormwater BMP and pollutant, respectively. This paper applies load frequency curves (LFCs), which replace the exceedance percentage with an exceedance frequency as an alternative to load duration curves (LDCs), to evaluate the effectiveness of BMPs. An evaluation method based on uncertainty analysis is suggested because it applies a water quality standard exceedance based on frequency and magnitude. As a result, the incorporation of uncertainty in the estimates of pollutant loads can assist stormwater managers in determining the degree of total daily maximum load (TMDL) compliance that could be expected from a given BMP in a watershed.

Batch versus continuous feeding strategies for pharmaceutical removal by subsurface flow constructed wetland

This study evaluated the effect of continuous and batch feeding on the removal of 8 pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, naproxen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, caffeine, salicylic acid, ketoprofen and clofibric acid) from synthetic wastewater in mesocosm-scale constructed wetlands (CWs). Both loading modes were operated at hydraulic application rates of 5.6 cm day(-1) and 2.8 cm day(-1). Except for carbamazepine, clofibric acid and naproxen, removal in CWs was significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced under the batch versus continuous mode. For all compounds tested except naproxen, values for first-order decay constants (k) for drain and fill operation were higher than that for the continuous mode of operation. Correlation between the distribution coefficient (log D(ow)) and removal efficiencies of pharmaceutical compounds in the CWs, showed that pharmaceutical removal efficiency was significantly (p < 0.1) and inversely correlated with log D(ow) value, but not with log K(ow) value.

Bioremediation of benzene-, MTBE- and ammonia-contaminated groundwater with pilot-scale constructed wetlands

In this pilot-scale constructed wetland (CW) study for treating groundwater contaminated with benzene, MTBE, and ammonia-N, the performance of two types of CWs (a wetland with gravel matrix and a plant root mat) was investigated. Hypothesized stimulative effects of filter material additives (charcoal, iron(III)) on pollutant removal were also tested. Increased contaminant loss was found during summer; the best treatment performance was achieved by the plant root mat. Concentration decrease in the planted gravel filter/plant root mat, respectively, amounted to 81/99% for benzene, 17/82% for MTBE, and 54/41% for ammonia-N at calculated inflow loads of 525/603 mg/m(2)/d, 97/112 mg/m(2)/d, and 1167/1342 mg/m(2)/d for benzene, MTBE, and ammonia-N. Filter additives did not improve contaminant depletion, although sorption processes were observed and elevated iron(II) formation indicated iron reduction. Bacterial and stable isotope analysis provided evidence for microbial benzene degradation in the CW, emphasizing the promising potential of this treatment technique.

Water, vegetation and sediment gradients in submerged aquatic vegetation mesocosms used for low-level phosphorus removal

Gradients in phosphorus (P) removal and storage were investigated over 6 years using mesocosms (each consisting of three tanks in series) containing submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) grown on muck and limerock (LR) substrates. Mean inflow total P concentrations (TP) of 32 μg L(-1) were reduced to 15 and 17 μg L(-1) in the muck and LR mesocosms, respectively. Mesocosm P loading rates (mean=1.75 gm(-2) year(-1)) varied widely during the study and were not correlated with outflow TP, which instead varied seasonally with lowest monthly mean values in December and January. The mesocosms initially were stocked with Najas guadalupensis, Ceratophyllum demersum, and Chara zeylanica, but became dominated by C. zeylanica. At the end of the study, highest vegetative biomass (1.1 and 1.4 kg m(-2) for muck and LR substrates) and tissue P content (1775 and 1160 mg kg(-1)) occurred in the first tank in series, and lowest biomass (1.0 and 0.2 kg m(-2)) and tissue P (147 and 120 mg kg(-1)) in the third tank. Sediment accretion rates (2.5, 1.9 and 0.9 cm yr(-1) on muck substrates), accrued sediment TP (378, 309 and 272 mg kg(-1)), and porewater soluble reactive P (SRP) concentrations (40, 6 and 4 μg L(-1)) in the first, second and third tanks, respectively, exhibited a similar decreasing spatial trend. Plant tissue calcium (Ca) near mesocosm inflow (19-30% dry weight) and outflow (23-26%) were not significantly different, and sediment Ca was also similar (range of 24 to 28%) among sequential tanks. Well-defined vegetation and sediment enrichment gradients developed in SAV wetlands operated under low TP conditions. While the mesocosm data did not reflect deterioration in treatment performance over 6 years, accumulation of P-enriched sediments near the inflow could eventually compromise hydraulic storage and P removal effectiveness of these shallow systems.

Nitrate reduction in a simulated free-water surface wetland system

The feasibility of using a constructed wetland for treatment of nitrate-contaminated groundwater resulting from the land application of biosolids was investigated for a site in the southeastern United States. Biosolids degradation led to the release of ammonia, which upon oxidation resulted in nitrate concentrations in the upper aquifer in the range of 65-400 mg N/L. A laboratory-scale system was constructed in support of a pilot-scale project to investigate the effect of temperature, hydraulic retention time (HRT) and nitrate and carbon loading on denitrification using soil and groundwater from the biosolids application site. The maximum specific reduction rates (MSRR), measured in batch assays conducted with an open to the atmosphere reactor at four initial nitrate concentrations from 70 to 400 mg N/L, showed that the nitrate reduction rate was not affected by the initial nitrate concentration. The MSRR values at 22 °C for nitrate and nitrite were 1.2 ± 0.2 and 0.7 ± 0.1 mg N/mg VSS(COD)-day, respectively. MSRR values were also measured at 5, 10, 15 and 22 °C and the temperature coefficient for nitrate reduction was estimated at 1.13. Based on the performance of laboratory-scale continuous-flow reactors and model simulations, wetland performance can be maintained at high nitrogen removal efficiency (>90%) with an HRT of 3 days or higher and at temperature values as low as 5 °C, as long as there is sufficient biodegradable carbon available to achieve complete denitrification. The results of this study show that based on the climate in the southeastern United States, a constructed wetland can be used for the treatment of nitrate-contaminated groundwater to low, acceptable nitrate levels.

Performance evaluation using a three compartment mass balance for the removal of volatile organic compounds in pilot scale constructed wetlands

To perform a general assessment of treatment efficiency, a mass balance study was undertaken for two types of constructed wetlands (CWs), planted gravel filters and plant root mat systems, for treating VOC (benzene; MTBE) polluted groundwater under field conditions. Contaminant fate was investigated in the respective water, plant, and atmosphere compartments by determining water and atmospheric contaminant loads and calculating contaminant plant uptake, thereby allowing for an extended efficiency assessment of CWs. Highest total VOC removal was achieved during summer, being pronounced for benzene compared to MTBE. According to the experimental results and the calculations generated by the balancing model, degradation in the rhizosphere and plant uptake accounted for the main benzene removal processes, of 76% and 13% for the gravel bed CW and 83% and 11% for the root mat system. Volatilization flux of benzene and MTBE was low (<5%) for the gravel bed CW, while in the root mat system direct contact of aqueous and gaseous phases favored total MTBE volatilization (24%). With this applied approach, we present detailed contaminant mass balances that allow for conclusive quantitative estimation of contaminant elimination and distribution processes (e.g., total, surface, and phytovolatilization, plant uptake, rhizodegradation) in CWs under field conditions.

Warming can boost denitrification disproportionately due to altered oxygen dynamics

BACKGROUND

Global warming and the alteration of the global nitrogen cycle are major anthropogenic threats to the environment. Denitrification, the biological conversion of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen, removes a substantial fraction of the nitrogen from aquatic ecosystems, and can therefore help to reduce eutrophication effects. However, potential responses of denitrification to warming are poorly understood. Although several studies have reported increased denitrification rates with rising temperature, the impact of temperature on denitrification seems to vary widely between systems.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We explored the effects of warming on denitrification rates using microcosm experiments, field measurements and a simple model approach. Our results suggest that a three degree temperature rise will double denitrification rates. By performing experiments at fixed oxygen concentrations as well as with oxygen concentrations varying freely with temperature, we demonstrate that this strong temperature dependence of denitrification can be explained by a systematic decrease of oxygen concentrations with rising temperature. Warming decreases oxygen concentrations due to reduced solubility, and more importantly, because respiration rates rise more steeply with temperature than photosynthesis.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our results show that denitrification rates in aquatic ecosystems are strongly temperature dependent, and that this is amplified by the temperature dependencies of photosynthesis and respiration. Our results illustrate the broader phenomenon that coupling of temperature dependent reactions may in some situations strongly alter overall effects of temperature on ecological processes.

Monitoring nitrogen loading and retention in an urban stormwater detention pond

Stormwater detention ponds have become ubiquitous in urbanized areas and have been suggested as potential hotspots of N transformation within urban watersheds. As a result, there is a great deal of interest in their use as structural best management practices to reduce the excessive N export from these watersheds. We conducted continuous monitoring of the influent and effluent N loads of a stormwater detention pond located on the Princeton University campus in Princeton, New Jersey. Our monitoring was conducted during four 21-d periods representing the four seasons of the northeastern United States. Water quality samples were collected and analyzed for nitrate (NO3-) during all four monitoring periods. During two of these periods, loads of ammonium (NH4+), dissolved organic N, and particulate N (PN) were measured. Our results show that NO3- dominated the influent N load, particularly in dry weather inflows to the detention pond. However, PN, which is often neglected in stormwater quality monitoring, made up as much as 30% of the total load and an even greater fraction during storm events. The results of our monitoring suggest that seasonal variation may play an important role in N retention within the detention pond. Although retention of NO3-, the most dominant fraction of N in the influent stormwater, was observed during the summer sampling period, no significant NO3- retention was observed during the spring or the two cold-weather sampling periods.

Denitrification in alluvial wetlands in an urban landscape

Riparian wetlands have been shown to be effective "sinks" for nitrate N (NO3-), minimizing the downstream export of N to streams and coastal water bodies. However, the vast majority of riparian denitrification research has been in agricultural and forested watersheds, with relatively little work on riparian wetland function in urban watersheds. We investigated the variation and magnitude of denitrification in three constructed and two relict oxbow urban wetlands, and in two forested reference wetlands in the Baltimore metropolitan area. Denitrification rates in wetland sediments were measured with a 15N-enriched NO3- "push-pull" groundwater tracer method during the summer and winter of 2008. Mean denitrification rates did not differ among the wetland types and ranged from 147 +/- 29 microg N kg soil(-1) d(-1) in constructed stormwater wetlands to 100 +/- 11 microg N kg soil(-1) d(-1) in relict oxbows to 106 +/- 32 microg N kg soil(-1) d(-1) in forested reference wetlands. High denitrification rates were observed in both summer and winter, suggesting that these wetlands are sinks for NO3- year round. Comparison of denitrification rates with NO3- standing stocks in the wetland water column and stream NO3- loads indicated that mass removal of NO3- in urban wetland sediments by denitrification could be substantial. Our results suggest that urban wetlands have the potential to reduce NO3- in urban landscapes and should be considered as a means to manage N in urban watersheds.

Nitrogen removal in an integrated constructed wetland treating domestic wastewater

The nitrogen (N) removal performance of a 3.25 ha Integrated Constructed Wetland (ICW) treating domestic wastewater from Glaslough village in County Monaghan, Ireland, was evaluated in this study. The ICW consists of two sludge ponds and five shallow vegetated wetland cells. Influent and effluent concentrations of two N species, namely, ammonia-nitrogen (NH(3)-N) and nitrate-nitrogen (NO(3)-N), which were measured weekly over 2 years, together with hydrology of the ICW provided the basis for this evaluation. The influent wastewater typically contained 40 mg L(-1) NH(3)-N and 5 mg L(-1) NO(3)-N. Concentrations of N in the ICW effluent were typically less than 1.0 mg L(-1) for both species. Overall, a total load of 2802 kg NH(3)-N and 441 kg NO(3)-N was received by the ICW and a removal rate of 98.0 % and 96.9 %, respectively, was recorded. Average areal N loading rate (245 mg m(-2) d(-1) NH(3)-N and 38 mg m(-2) d(-1) NO(3)-N) had a significant linear relationship with areal N removal rate (240 mg m(-2) d(-1) and 35 mg m(-2) d(-1), respectively) for both species. The areal first-order N removal rate constants in the ICW averaged 14 m yr(-1) for NH(3)-N and 11 m yr(-1) for NO(3)-N. Temperature coefficients (θ) for N reduction in the ICW were lower and less than unity for NO(3)-N, suggesting that the variability in N removal by the ICW was marginally influenced by temperature.