Nanooncology: the future of cancer diagnosis and therapy

Recent Advances in Sandwich SERS Immunosensors for Cancer Detection

Cancer has been one of the most prevalent diseases around the world for many years. Its biomarkers are biological molecules found in the blood or other body fluids of people with cancer diseases. These biomarkers play a crucial role not only in the diagnosis of cancer diseases, but also in risk assessment, selection of treatment methods, and tracking its progress. Therefore, highly sensitive and selective detection and determination of cancer biomarkers are essential from the perspective of oncological diagnostics and planning the treatment process. Immunosensors are special types of biosensors that are based on the recognition of an analyte (antigen) by an antibody. Sandwich immunosensors apply two antibodies: a capture antibody and a detection antibody, with the antigen ‘sandwiched’ between them. Immunosensors’ advantages include not only high sensitivity and selectivity, but also flexible application and reusability. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, known also as the sensitive and selective method, uses the enhancement of light scattering by analyte molecules adsorbed on a nanostructured surface. The combination of immunosensors with the SERS technique further improves their analytical parameters. In this article, we followed the recent achievements in the field of sandwich SERS immunosensors for cancer biomarker detection and/or determination.

Nanotheranostics for Image-Guided Cancer Treatment

Image-guided nanotheranostics have the potential to represent a new paradigm in the treatment of cancer. Recent developments in modern imaging and nanoparticle design offer an answer to many of the issues associated with conventional chemotherapy, including their indiscriminate side effects and susceptibility to drug resistance. Imaging is one of the tools best poised to enable tailoring of cancer therapies. The field of image-guided nanotheranostics has the potential to harness the precision of modern imaging techniques and use this to direct, dictate, and follow site-specific drug delivery, all of which can be used to further tailor cancer therapies on both the individual and population level. The use of image-guided drug delivery has exploded in preclinical and clinical trials although the clinical translation is incipient. This review will focus on traditional mechanisms of targeted drug delivery in cancer, including the use of molecular targeting, as well as the foundations of designing nanotheranostics, with a focus on current clinical applications of nanotheranostics in cancer. A variety of specially engineered and targeted drug carriers, along with strategies of labeling nanoparticles to endow detectability in different imaging modalities will be reviewed. It will also introduce newer concepts of image-guided drug delivery, which may circumvent many of the issues seen with other techniques. Finally, we will review the current barriers to clinical translation of image-guided nanotheranostics and how these may be overcome.

Copper sulfide nanostructures: synthesis and biological applications

Over the past few years, considerable attention has been paid to biomedical applications of copper sulfide nanostructures owing to their enhanced physiochemical and pharmacokinetics characteristics in comparison to gold, silver, and carbon nanomaterials. The small-sized Cu x S y nanoparticles have the advantage to absorb efficiently in the near-infrared region (NIR) above 700 nm and the absorption can be tuned by altering their stoichiometries. Moreover, their easy removal through the kidneys overpowers the issue of toxicity caused by many inorganic substances. The low cost and selectivity further add to the advantages of Cu x S y nanostructures as electrode materials in comparison to relatively expensive materials such as silver and gold nanoparticles. This review is mainly focused on the synthesis and biomedical applications of Cu x S y nanostructures. The first part summarizes the various synthetic routes used to produce Cu x S y nanostructures with varying morphologies, while the second part targets the recent progress made in the application of small-sized Cu x S y nanostructures as biosensors, and their analysis and uses in the cure of cancer. Photoacoustic imaging and other cancer treatment applications are discussed. Research on Cu x S y nanostructures will continue to increase over the next few decades, and great opportunities lie ahead for potential biomedical applications of Cu x S y nanostructures.

Nanomedicine Strategies for Management of Drug Resistance in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer (LC) is one of the leading causes of cancer occurrence and mortality worldwide. Treatment of patients with advanced and metastatic LC presents a significant challenge, as malignant cells use different mechanisms to resist chemotherapy. Drug resistance (DR) is a complex process that occurs due to a variety of genetic and acquired factors. Identifying the mechanisms underlying DR in LC patients and possible therapeutic alternatives for more efficient therapy is a central goal of LC research. Advances in nanotechnology resulted in the development of targeted and multifunctional nanoscale drug constructs. The possible modulation of the components of nanomedicine, their surface functionalization, and the encapsulation of various active therapeutics provide promising tools to bypass crucial biological barriers. These attributes enhance the delivery of multiple therapeutic agents directly to the tumor microenvironment (TME), resulting in reversal of LC resistance to anticancer treatment. This review provides a broad framework for understanding the different molecular mechanisms of DR in lung cancer, presents novel nanomedicine therapeutics aimed at improving the efficacy of treatment of various forms of resistant LC; outlines current challenges in using nanotechnology for reversing DR; and discusses the future directions for the clinical application of nanomedicine in the management of LC resistance.

Characteristic Synthesis of a Covalent Organic Framework and Its Application in Multifunctional Tumor Therapy

For decades, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have attracted wide biomedical interest due to their unique properties including ease of synthesis, porosity, and adjustable biocompatibility. Versatile COFs can easily encapsulate various therapeutic drugs due to their extremely high payload and porosity. COFs with abundant functional groups can be surface-modified to achieve active targeting and enhance biocompatibility. In this paper, the latest developments of COFs in the biomedical field are summarized. First, the classification and synthesis of COFs are discussed. Cancer diagnosis and treatment based on COFs are studied, and the advantages and limitations of each method are discussed. Second, the specific preparation methods to obtain specific therapeutic properties are summarized. Finally, based on the combination and modification of COFs with various components, this review system summarizes different combination therapies. In addition, the main challenges faced in COF research and prospects for applying COFs to cancer diagnosis and treatment are evaluated. This review provides enlightening insights into the interdisciplinary research on COFs and applications in biomedicine, which highlight the great expectations for their further clinical transformation.

Novel hydrophobically modified agarose cryogels fabricated using dimethyl sulfoxide

Drug delivery systems (DDS) are devices able to adsorb therapeutic drugs in vitro before being either injected or surgically implanted into the body before releasing the drugs in vivo. Hydrogels are interesting for DDS researchers as they mimic soft tissue and can absorb large quantities of liquid. This research reported the successful fabrication of hydrophobically modified agarose (HMA) as well as the creation of a novel approach to the formation of hydrophobically modified agarose cryogels. By activating the hydroxyl groups in agarose, hydrophobic modification could occur through the bonding of the activated hydroxyl groups and the amines in fatty aldehydes. It was found that HMA was insoluble in water, and as such a new method of cryogel creation was produced using dimethyl sulfoxide. Further testing of HMA cryogels showed that cell adhesiveness and cytotoxicity were low. Adsorption tests showed that HMA cryogels had the ability to adsorb larger amounts of hydrophobic dye than unmodified agarose cryogels and that the release of the hydrophobic dye from HMA cryogels could be controlled. These results showed that the HMA cryogels made using this novel approach have the potential to be used as drug delivery systems.

Raman Nanotags-Guided Intraoperative Sentinel Lymph Nodes Precise Location with Minimal Invasion

The accurate positioning of sentinel lymph node (SLN) by tracers during surgery is an important prerequisite for SLN biopsy. A major problem of traditional tracers in SLN biopsy is the short surgery window due to the fast diffusion of tracers through the lymphatics, resulting in a misjudgment between SLN and second echelon lymph node (2nd LN). Here, a nontoxic Raman nanoparticle tracer, termed gap-enhanced Raman tags (GERTs), for the accurate intraoperative positioning of SLNs with a sufficient surgical time window is designed. In white New Zealand rabbit models, GERTs enable precise identification of SLNs within 10 min, as well as provide the surgeon with a more than 4 h time window to differentiate SLN and 2nd LN. In addition, the ultrahigh sensitivity of GERTs (detection limit is 0.5 × 10-12 m) allows detection of labeled SLNs before surgery, thereby providing preoperative positioning information for minimally invasive surgery. Comprehensive biosafety evaluations carried out in the context of the Food and Drug Administration and International Standard Organization demonstrate no significant toxicity of GERTs, which supports a promising clinical translation opportunity of GERTs for precise SLN identification in breast cancer.

DNA Nanodevice-Based Drug Delivery Systems

DNA, a natural biological material, has become an ideal choice for biomedical applications, mainly owing to its good biocompatibility, ease of synthesis, modifiability, and especially programmability. In recent years, with the deepening of the understanding of the physical and chemical properties of DNA and the continuous advancement of DNA synthesis and modification technology, the biomedical applications based on DNA materials have been upgraded to version 2.0: through elaborate design and fabrication of smart-responsive DNA nanodevices, they can respond to external or internal physical or chemical stimuli so as to smartly perform certain specific functions. For tumor treatment, this advancement provides a new way to solve the problems of precise targeting, controllable release, and controllable elimination of drugs to a certain extent. Here, we review the progress of related fields over the past decade, and provide prospects for possible future development directions.

Enzyme-Induced Transformable Peptide Nanocarriers with Enhanced Drug Permeability and Retention to Improve Tumor Nanotherapy Efficacy

Temporal persistence is as important for nanocarriers as spatial accuracy. However, because of the insufficient aggreagtion and short retention time of chemotherapy drugs in tumors, their clinical application is greatly limited. A drug delivery approach dependent on the sensitivity to an enzyme present in the microenvironment of the tumor is designed to exhibit different sizes in different sites, achieving enhanced drug permeability and retention to improve tumor nanotherapy efficacy. In this work, we report a small-molecule peptide drug delivery system containing both tumor-targeting groups and enzyme response sites. This system enables the targeted delivery of peptide nanocarriers to tumor cells and a unique response to alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in the tumor microenvironment to activate morphological transformation and drug release. The amphiphilic peptide AYR self-aggregated into a spherical nanoparticle structure after encapsulating the lipid-soluble model drug doxorubicin (DOX) and rapidly converted to nanofibers via the induction of ALP. This morphological transformation toward a high aspect ratio allowed rapid, as well as effective drug release to tumor location while enhancing specific toxicity to tumor cells. Interestingly, this "transformer"-like drug delivery strategy can enhance local drug accumulation and effectively inhibit drug efflux. In vitro along with in vivo experiments further proved that the permeability and retention of antitumor drugs in tumor cells and tissues were significantly enhanced to reduce toxic side effects, and the therapeutic effect was remarkably improved compared with that of nondeformable drug-loaded peptide nanocarriers. The developed AYR nanoparticles with the ability to undergo morphological transformation in situ can improve local drug aggregation and retention time at the tumor site. Our findings provide a new and simple method for nanocarrier morphology transformation in novel cancer treatments.

Growth Dynamics of Colloidal Silver-Gold Core-Shell Nanoparticles Studied by In Situ Second Harmonic Generation and Extinction Spectroscopy

The in situ growth dynamics of colloidal silver-gold core-shell (Ag@Au CS) nanoparticles (NPs) in water are monitored in a stepwise synthesis approach using time-dependent second harmonic generation (SHG) and extinction spectroscopy. Three sequential additions of chloroauric acid, sodium citrate, and hydroquinone are added to the silver nanoparticle solution to grow a gold shell around a silver core. The first addition produces a stable urchin-like surface morphology, while the second and third additions continue to grow the gold shell thickness as the surface becomes more smooth and uniform, as determined using transmission electron microscopy. The extinction spectra after each addition are compared to finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) calculations, showing large deviations for the first and second additions due to the bumpy surface morphology and plasmonic hotspots while showing general agreement after the third addition reaches equilibrium. The in situ SHG signal is dominated by the NP surface, providing complementary information on the growth time scales due to changes to the surface morphology. This combined approach of synthesis and characterization of Ag@Au CS nanoparticles with in situ SHG spectroscopy, extinction spectroscopy, and FDTD calculations provides a detailed foundation for investigating complex colloidal nanoparticle growth mechanisms and dynamics in developing enhanced plasmonic nanomaterial technologies.

Theranostic nanobubbles towards smart nanomedicines

Targeted therapy and early accurate detection of malignant lesions are essential for the effectiveness of treatment and prognosis in cancer patients. The development of gaseous system as a versatile platform for the fabricated nanobubbles, has attracted much interest in improving the efficacy of ultrasound therapeutic, diagnostic, and theranostic platforms. Nano-sized bubble, as an ultrasound contrast agent, with spherical gas-filled structures exhibited contrast enhancement capability due to their inherent EPR effect. Additionally, nanobubbles exhibited good stability with extended retention time in the blood stream. The current review summarized various nanobubbles and discussed about the crucial parameters affecting the stability of ultrafine bubbles. Furthermore, therapeutic and theranostic gaseous systems for fighting against cancer were described.

Recent Advances of Manganese-Based Hybrid Nanomaterials for Cancer Precision Medicine

Cancer precision medicine (CPM) could tailor the best treatment for individual cancer patients, while imaging techniques play important roles in its application. With the characteristics of noninvasion, nonionized, radiation-free, multidimensional imaging function, and real-time monitoring, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an effective way for early tumor detection, and it has become a tower of strength in CPM imaging techniques. Due to linkage with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), gadolinium (Gd)-based contrast agent (CA), which was long used in MRI, has been restricted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In this review, we would like to introduce the manganese (Mn)-based CAs that could significantly increase the safety of MRI CAs by realizing more superior performance and functions simultaneously in the diagnosis and treatment of tumors. Also, recent advances in Mn-based hybrid nanomaterials for CPM are summarized and discussed.

Recent updates on bioactive properties of linalool

Natural products, including essential oils and their components, have been used for their bioactivities. Linalool (2,6-dimethyl-2,7-octadien-6-ol) is an aromatic monoterpene alcohol that is widely found in essential oils and is broadly used in perfumes, cosmetics, household cleaners and food additives. This review covers the sources, physicochemical properties, application, synthesis and bioactivities of linalool. The present study focuses on the bioactive properties of linalool, including anticancer, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anxiolytic, antidepressant, anti-stress, hepatoprotective, renal protective, and lung protective activity and the underlying mechanisms. Besides this, the therapeutic potential of linalool and the prospect of encapsulating linalool are also discussed. Linalool can induce apoptosis of cancer cells via oxidative stress, and at the same time protects normal cells. Linalool exerts antimicrobial effects through disruption of cell membranes. The protective effects of linalool to the liver, kidney and lung are owing to its anti-inflammatory activity. On account of its protective effects and low toxicity, linalool can be used as an adjuvant of anticancer drugs or antibiotics. Therefore, linalool has a great potential to be applied as a natural and safe alternative therapeutic.

Progress of Phototherapy Applications in the Treatment of Bone Cancer

Bone cancer including primary bone cancer and metastatic bone cancer, remains a challenge claiming millions of lives and affecting the life quality of survivors. Conventional treatments of bone cancer include wide surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. However, some bone cancer cells may remain or recur in the local area after resection, some are highly resistant to chemotherapy, and some are insensitive to radiotherapy. Phototherapy (PT) including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), is a clinically approved, minimally invasive, and highly selective treatment, and has been widely reported for cancer therapy. Under the irradiation of light of a specific wavelength, the photosensitizer (PS) in PDT can cause the increase of intracellular ROS and the photothermal agent (PTA) in PTT can induce photothermal conversion, leading to the tumoricidal effects. In this review, the progress of PT applications in the treatment of bone cancer has been outlined and summarized, and some envisioned challenges and future perspectives have been mentioned. This review provides the current state of the art regarding PDT and PTT in bone cancer and inspiration for future studies on PT.

3D-Printed Multifunctional Polyetheretherketone Bone Scaffold for Multimodal Treatment of Osteosarcoma and Osteomyelitis

In this work, we developed the first 3D-printed polyetheretherketone (PEEK)-based bone scaffold with multi-functions targeting challenging bone diseases such as osteosarcoma and osteomyelitis. A 3D-printed PEEK/graphene nanocomposite scaffold was deposited with a drug-laden (antibiotics and/or anti-cancer drugs) hydroxyapatite coating. The graphene nanosheets within the scaffold served as effective photothermal agents that endowed the scaffold with on-demand photothermal conversion function under near-infrared laser irradiation. The bioactive hydroxyapatite coating significantly boosted the stem cell proliferation in vitro and promoted new bone growth in vivo. The presence of antibiotics and anti-cancer drugs enabled eradication of drug-resistant bacteria and ablation of osteosarcoma cancer cells, the treatment efficacy of which can be further enhanced by on-demand laser-induced heating. The promising results demonstrate the strong potential of our multi-functional scaffold in applications such as bone defect repair and multimodal treatment of osteosarcoma and osteomyelitis.

Synthesis and characterization of gold nanorods coated by mesoporous silica MCM-41 as a platform bioapplication in photohyperthermia

Gold nanoparticles have been widely investigated for biomedical applications due to their optical properties. These particles present the interesting feature of absorbing light when stimulated with laser radiation to generate heating. Among the possible morphologies for synthetic gold nanoparticles, gold nanorods have properties of great interest for applications in the photohyperthermia processes. Due to their morphology, gold nanorods can absorb light at longer wavelengths comprising specific regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as the region of the biological window, in which laser radiation has less interaction with tissues. However, these nanoparticles present limitations in biomedical applications, such as low colloidal and thermal stabilities that can be overcome by coating the gold nanorods with silica MCM-41. The silicate covering can provide greater stability for gold nanorods and allow multifunctionality in treating different diseases through photohyperthermia. This work developed a specific chemical route through seed and growth solutions to synthesize gold nanorods with controlled particle size, rod morphology, and silica covering for photohyperthermia applications. The synthesized samples were characterized through a multi-technique approach that successfully demonstrated the presence of gold nanorods inside the silica coating, presenting high stability and desirable textural and morphological characteristics for bioapplications. Furthermore, silica-coated gold nanorods exhibit high biocompatibility and great performance in generating therapeutic heating by absorbing laser radiation in the biological window range, making the system developed in this work a promising agent in photohyperthermia.

Biomedical nanobubbles and opportunities for microfluidics

The use of bulk nanobubbles in biomedicine is increasing in recent years, which is attributable to the array of therapeutic and diagnostic tools promised by developing bulk nanobubble technologies. From cancer drug delivery and ultrasound contrast enhancement to malaria detection and the diagnosis of acute donor tissue rejection, the potential applications of bulk nanobubbles are broad and diverse. Developing these technologies to the point of clinical use may significantly impact the quality of patient care. This review compiles and summarizes a representative collection of the current applications, fabrication techniques, and characterization methods of bulk nanobubbles in biomedicine. Current state-of-the-art generation methods are not designed to create nanobubbles of high concentration and low polydispersity, both characteristics of which are important for several bulk nanobubble applications. To date, microfluidics has not been widely considered as a tool for generating nanobubbles, even though the small-scale precision and real-time control offered by microfluidics may overcome the challenges mentioned above. We suggest possible uses of microfluidics for improving the quality of bulk nanobubble populations and propose ways of leveraging existing microfluidic technologies, such as organ-on-a-chip platforms, to expand the experimental toolbox of researchers working to develop biomedical nanobubbles.

The use of bulk nanobubbles in biomedicine is increasing in recent years. This translates into new opportunities for microfluidics, which may enable the generation of higher quality nanobubbles that lead to advances in diagnostics and therapeutics.

Synthetic Antiferromagnetic Gold Nanoparticles as Bimodal Contrast Agents in MRI and CT-An Experimental In Vitro and In Vivo Study

The use of multimodal contrast agents can potentially overcome the intrinsic limitations of individual imaging methods. We have validated synthetic antiferromagnetic nanoparticles (SAF-NPs) as bimodal contrast agents for in vitro cell labeling and in vivo cell tracking using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT). SAF-NP-labeled cells showed high contrast in MRI phantom studies (r₂* = 712 s⁻¹ mM⁻¹), while pelleted cells showed clear contrast enhancement in CT. After intravenous SAF-NP injection, nanoparticles accumulated in the liver and spleen, as visualized in vivo by significant MRI contrast enhancement. Intravenous injection of SAF-NP-labeled cells resulted in cell accumulation in the lungs, which was clearly detectable by using CT but not by using MRI. SAF-NPs proved to be very efficient cell labeling agents for complementary MRI- and CT-based cell tracking. Bimodal monitoring of SAF-NP labeled cells is in particular of interest for applications where the applied imaging methods are not able to visualize the particles and/or cells in all organs.

Modulating Repolarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages with Targeted Therapeutic Nanoparticles as a Potential Strategy for Cancer Therapy

There are always some components in the tumor microenvironment (TME), such as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), that help tumor cells escape the body's immune surveillance. Therefore, this situation can lead to tumor growth, progression, and metastasis, resulting in low response rates for cancer therapy. Macrophages play an important role with strong plasticity and functional diversity. Facing different microenvironmental stimulations, macrophages undergo a dynamic change in phenotype and function into two major macrophage subpopulations, namely classical activation/inflammation (M1) and alternative activation/regeneration (M2) type. Through various signaling pathways, macrophages polarize into complex groups, which can perform different immune functions. In this review, we emphasize the use of nanopreparations for macrophage related immunotherapy based on the pathological knowledge of TAMs phenotype. These macrophages targeted nanoparticles re-edit and re-educate macrophages by attenuating M2 macrophages and reducing aggregation to the TME, thereby relieving or alleviating immunosuppression. Among them, we describe in detail the cellular mechanisms and regulators of several major signaling pathways involved in the plasticity and polarization functions of macrophages. The advantages and challenges of those nanotherapeutics for these pathways have been elucidated, providing the basis and insights for the diagnosis and treatment strategies of various diseases centered on macrophages.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterials Development for Nanomedicine and Cancer

Cancer is considered one of the leading causes of death, with a growing number of cases worldwide. However, the early diagnosis and efficient therapy of cancer have remained a critical challenge. The emergence of nanomedicine has opened up a promising window to address the drawbacks of cancer detection and treatment. A wide range of engineered nanomaterials and nanoplatforms with different shapes, sizes, and composition has been developed for various biomedical applications. Nanomaterials have been increasingly used in various applications in bioimaging, diagnosis, and therapy of cancers. Recently, numerous multifunctional and smart nanoparticles with the ability of simultaneous diagnosis and targeted cancer therapy have been reported. The multidisciplinary attempts led to the development of several exciting clinically approved nanotherapeutics. The nanobased materials and devices have also been used extensively to develop point-of-care and highly sensitive methods of cancer detection. In this review article, the most significant achievements and latest advances in the nanomaterials development for cancer nanomedicine are critically discussed. In addition, the future perspectives of this field are evaluated.

Fluorescent Phthalocyanine-Encapsulated Bovine Serum Albumin Nanoparticles: Their Deployment as Therapeutic Agents in the NIR Region

In recent times, researchers have aimed for new strategies to combat cancer by the implementation of nanotechnologies in biomedical applications. This work focuses on developing protein-based nanoparticles loaded with a newly synthesized NIR emitting and absorbing phthalocyanine dye, with photodynamic and photothermal properties. More precisely, we synthesized highly reproducible bovine serum albumin-based nanoparticles (75% particle yield) through a two-step protocol and successfully encapsulated the NIR active photosensitizer agent, achieving a good loading efficiency of 91%. Making use of molecular docking simulations, we confirm that the NIR photosensitizer is well protected within the nanoparticles, docked in site I of the albumin molecule. Encouraging results were obtained for our nanoparticles towards biomedical use, thanks to their negatively charged surface (−13.6 ± 0.5 mV) and hydrodynamic diameter (25.06 ± 0.62 nm), favorable for benefitting from the enhanced permeability and retention effect; moreover, the MTT viability assay upholds the good biocompatibility of our NIR active nanoparticles. Finally, upon irradiation with an NIR 785 nm laser, the dual phototherapeutic effect of our NIR fluorescent nanoparticles was highlighted by their excellent light-to-heat conversion performance (photothermal conversion efficiency 20%) and good photothermal and size stability, supporting their further implementation as fluorescent therapeutic agents in biomedical applications.

The Nanosystems Involved in Treating Lung Cancer

Even though there are various types of cancer, this pathology as a whole is considered the principal cause of death worldwide. Lung cancer is known as a heterogeneous condition, and it is apparent that genome modification presents a significant role in the occurrence of this disorder. There are conventional procedures that can be utilized against diverse cancer types, such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy, but they are hampered by the numerous side effects. Owing to the many adverse events observed in these therapies, it is imperative to continuously develop new and improved strategies for managing individuals with cancer. Nanomedicine plays an important role in establishing new methods for detecting chromosomal rearrangements and mutations for targeted chemotherapeutics or the local delivery of drugs via different types of nano-particle carriers to the lungs or other organs or areas of interest. Because of the complex signaling pathways involved in developing different types of cancer, the need to discover new methods for prevention and detection is crucial in producing gene delivery materials that exhibit the desired roles. Scientists have confirmed that nanotechnology-based procedures are more effective than conventional chemotherapy or radiotherapy, with minor side effects. Several nanoparticles, nanomaterials, and nanosystems have been studied, including liposomes, dendrimers, polymers, micelles, inorganic nanoparticles, such as gold nanoparticles or carbon nanotubes, and even siRNA delivery systems. The cytotoxicity of such nanosystems is a debatable concern, and nanotechnology-based delivery systems must be improved to increase the bioavailability, biocompatibility, and safety profiles, since these nanosystems boast a remarkable potential in many biomedical applications, including anti-tumor activity or gene therapy. In this review, the nanosystems involved in treating lung cancer and its associated challenges are discussed.

pH-responsive black phosphorus quantum dots for tumor-targeted photodynamic therapy

Black phosphorus quantum dots(BPQDs) have shown a good application prospect in the field of tumor therapy due to their photoelectric effect and good biodegradability. Due to the active endocytosis and fast metabolic efficiency of tumor cells, BPQDs are easy to be absorbed by tumor cells. However, this does not guarantee that BPQDs will be completely targeted to tumor cells, and normal cells will also absorb BPQDs. Because the cell membrane is negatively charged, BPQDs are also negatively charged and are not easily absorbed by cells under the action of electrostatic repulsion. Surface pegylation is the most common modification method of black phosphorus at present. However, surface pegylation can reduce the uptake of BPQDs by tumor cells. Positive PEG is also easy to be recognized and swallowed by the reticuloendothelial system. The inherent instability and poor tumor targeting of BPQDs under physiological conditions limit further research and clinical application. For this purpose, we selected cationic polymer polyethylenimine (PEI) to modify BPQDs and then added RGD peptides targeting tumor cells. An outer layer of negatively charged PEG+DMMA makes the nanosystem more stable . In the acidic environment of the tumor, the PEG layer has a charge reversal, and the positively charged PEI and the RGD polypeptide BPQDs targeted by the tumor cells are released into the tumor cells. It provides a new method for efficiently and accurately transporting BPQDs, a novel photosensitive nanomaterial, into tumor cells for photodynamic therapy.

Emerging roles of the nectin family of cell adhesion molecules in tumour-associated pathways

Tumour cells achieve maximum survival by modifying cellular machineries associated with processes such as cell division, migration, survival, and apoptosis, resulting in genetically complex and heterogeneous populations. While nectin and nectin-like cell adhesion molecules control development and maintenance of multicellular organisation in higher vertebrates by mediating cell-cell adhesion and related signalling processes, recent studies indicate that they also critically regulate growth and development of different types of cancers. In this review, we detail current knowledge about the role of nectin family members in various tumours. Furthermore, we also analyse the seemingly opposing roles of some members of nectin family in tumour-associated pathways, as they function as both tumour suppressors and oncogenes. Understanding this functional duality of nectin family in tumours will further our knowledge of molecular mechanisms regulating tumour development and progression, and contribute to the advancement of tumour diagnosis and therapy.

Theranostic Applications of Nanomaterials in the Field of Cardiovascular Diseases

A large percentage of people are being exposed to mortality due to cardiovascular diseases. Convention approaches have not provided satisfactory outcomes in the management of these diseases. To overcome the limitations of conventional approaches, nanomaterials like nanoparticles, nanotubes, micelles, lipid based nanocarriers, dendrimers, carbon based nano-formulations represent the new aspect of diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. The unique inherent properties of the nanomaterials are the major reasons for their rapidly growing demand in the field of medicine. Profound knowledge in the field of nanotechnology and biomedicine is needed for the notable translation of nanomaterials into theranostic cardiovascular applications. In this review, the authors have summarized different nanomaterials which are being extensively used to diagnose and treat the diseases such as coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, stroke and thrombosis.

Biomimetic black phosphorus quantum dots-based photothermal therapy combined with anti-PD-L1 treatment inhibits recurrence and metastasis in triple-negative breast cancer

Background

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive malignant disease with a high rate of recurrence and metastasis, few effective treatment options and poor prognosis. Here, we designed and constructed a combined photothermal immunotherapy strategy based on cancer cell membrane-coated biomimetic black phosphorus quantum dots (BBPQDs) for tumor-targeted photothermal therapy and anti-PD-L1 mediated immunotherapy.

Results

BBPQDs have good photothermal conversion efficiency and can efficiently target tumor cells through homologous targeting and tumor homing. Under near infrared irradiation, we found that BBPQDs kill tumors directly through photothermal effects and induce dendritic cells maturation. In vivo studies have confirmed that the combined photothermal immunotherapy strategy displays a stronger antitumor activity than anti-PD-L1 monotherapy. In addition, BBPQDs-mediated photothermal therapy in combination with anti-PD-L1 treatment inhibit tumor recurrence and metastasis by reprograming the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment into an immune-active microenvironment, and promoting the local and systemic antitumor immune response. We further found that the combined photothermal immunotherapy strategy can produce an immune memory effect against tumor rechallenge.

Conclusions

This study provides a novel therapeutic strategy for inhibiting the recurrence and metastasis of TNBC, with broad application prospects.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-00932-2.

Recent Progress on Immunotherapy for Breast Cancer: Tumor Microenvironment, Nanotechnology and More

Immunotherapy is a major emerging treatment for breast cancer (BC). However, not all breast cancer patients derive benefit from immunotherapy. Predictive biomarkers of immunotherapy, such as tumor mutation burden and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, are promising to stratify the patients with BC and optimize the therapeutic effect. Various targets of the immune response pathway have also been explored to expand the modalities of immunotherapy. The use of nanotechnology for the imaging of predictive biomarkers and the combination with other therapeutic modalities presents a number of advantages for the immunotherapy of BC. In this review, we summary the emerging therapeutic modalities of immunotherapy, present prominent examples of immunotherapy in BC, and discuss the future opportunity of nanotechnology in the immunotherapy of BC.

Multifunctional theranostic nanoparticles for biomedical cancer treatments - A comprehensive review

Modern-day search for the novel agents (their preparation and consequent implementation) to effectively treat the cancer is mainly fuelled by the historical failure of the conventional treatment modalities. Apart from that, the complexities such as higher rate of cell mutations, variable tumor microenvironment, patient-specific disparities, and the evolving nature of cancers have made this search much stronger in the latest times. As a result of this, in about two decades, the theranostic nanoparticles (TNPs) - i.e., nanoparticles that integrate therapeutic and diagnostic characteristics - have been developed. The examples for TNPs include mesoporous silica nanoparticles, luminescence nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles. These TNPs have emerged as single and powerful cancer-treating multifunctional nanoplatforms, as they widely provide the necessary functionalities to overcome the previous/conventional limitations including lack of the site-specific delivery of anti-cancer drugs, and real-time continuous monitoring of the target cancer sites while performing therapeutic actions. This has been mainly possible due to the association of the as-developed TNPs with the already-available unique diagnostic (e.g., luminescence, photoacoustic, and magnetic resonance imaging) and therapeutic (e.g., photothermal, photodynamic, hyperthermia therapy) modalities in the biomedical field. In this review, we have discussed in detail about the recent developments on the aforementioned important TNPs without/with targeting ability (i.e., attaching them with ligands or tumor-specific antibodies) and also the strategies that are implemented to increase their tumor accumulation and to enhance their theranostic efficacies for effective biomedical cancer treatments.

Reactive Oxygen Species-Based Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapy

Nanotechnology advances in cancer therapy applications have led to the development of nanomaterials that generate cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) specifically in tumor cells. ROS act as a double-edged sword, as they can promote tumorigenesis and proliferation but also trigger cell death by enhancing intracellular oxidative stress. Various nanomaterials function by increasing ROS production in tumor cells and thereby disturbing their redox balance, leading to lipid peroxidation, and oxidative damage of DNA and proteins. In this review, we outline these mechanisms, summarize recent progress in ROS-based nanomaterials, including metal-based nanoparticles, organic nanomaterials, and chemotherapy drug-loaded nanoplatforms, and highlight their biomedical applications in cancer therapy as drug delivery systems (DDSs) or in combination with chemodynamic therapy (CDT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), or sonodynamic therapy (SDT). Finally, we discuss the advantages and limitations of current ROS-mediated nanomaterials used in cancer therapy and speculate on the future progress of this nanotechnology for oncological applications.

A pH-sensitive drug delivery system based on hyaluronic acid co-deliver doxorubicin and aminoferrocene for the combined application of chemotherapy and chemodynamic therapy

Doxorubicin is a broad-spectrum antineoplastic drug used in tumor therapy, its clinical application is limited by side effects on normal tissues. In this article, a pH-responsive drug delivery system (NPs(DOX/AFc)) with co-delivers doxorubicin (DOX) and aminoferrocene (AFc) was prepared by a two-step synthesis method including the oxidation of hyaluronic acid and Schiff base reaction. NPs(DOX/AFc) can be used in combination therapy of chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and chemotherapy (CT), thus the dosage of the chemotherapeutic drug DOX was reduced. The drug release behavior of NPs(DOX/AFc) in vitro showed that acid-responsive drug releases under the endosomal/lysosomal environment were 56.5 % of DOX and 61.8 % of AFc. In vitro toxicity experiments showed that DOX and AFc had synergistic effects (CI = 0.878). The results of intracellular ROS measurement and the mitochondrial membrane potential analysis showed that in tumor cells NPs(DOX₄/AFc) induced more production of reactive oxygen species and more loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential. In short, this co-delivery system based on polymer prodrugs provides a new idea for the combined application of CT and CDT.

Advanced Biomedical Applications of Reactive Oxygen Species-Based Nanomaterials in Lung Cancer

Over the years, lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer deaths in worldwide. In view of this, increasingly importance has been attached to the further optimization and improvement of its treatment. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a key role in regulating tumor development and anti-cancer treatment. Recently, the development of nanomaterials provides new platforms for ROS-based cancer treatment methods, which can help to reduce side effects and enhance anti-cancer effects. In recent years, a variety of lung cancer treatment models have been reported, such as chemodynamic therapy (CDT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), radiation therapy (RT) and controlled drug release (CDR). In this review, we are going to discuss the possible mechanism of action and current research status of ROS-based nanomaterials in the treatment of lung cancer in order to provide constructive ideas for relative research and expect this work could inspire the future development of novel lung cancer treatments.

Design, Synthesis, Molecular Modeling and Antitumor Evaluation of Novel Indolyl-Pyrimidine Derivatives with EGFR Inhibitory Activity

Scaffolds hybridization is a well-known drug design strategy for antitumor agents. Herein, series of novel indolyl-pyrimidine hybrids were synthesized and evaluated in vitro and in vivo for their antitumor activity. The in vitro antiproliferative activity of all compounds was obtained against MCF-7, HepG2, and HCT-116 cancer cell lines, as well as against WI38 normal cells using the resazurin assay. Compounds 1-4 showed broad spectrum cytotoxic activity against all these cancer cell lines compared to normal cells. Compound 4g showed potent antiproliferative activity against these cell lines (IC₅₀ = 5.1, 5.02, and 6.6 μM, respectively) comparable to the standard treatment (5-FU and erlotinib). In addition, the most promising group of compounds was further evaluated for their in vivo antitumor efficacy against EAC tumor bearing mice. Notably, compound 4g showed the most potent in vivo antitumor activity. The most active compounds were evaluated for their EGFR inhibitory (range 53-79%) activity. Compound 4g was found to be the most active compound against EGFR (IC₅₀ = 0.25 µM) showing equipotency as the reference treatment (erlotinib). Molecular modeling study was performed on compound 4g revealed a proper binding of this compound inside the EGFR active site comparable to erlotinib. The data suggest that compound 4g could be used as a potential anticancer agent.

Metal-phenolic networks for cancer theranostics

Metal-phenolic networks (MPNs) have shown promising potential in biomedical applications since they provide a rapid, simple and robust way to construct multifunctional nanoplatforms. As a novel nanomaterial self-assembled from metal ions and polyphenols, MPNs can be prepared to assist the theranostics of cancer owing to their bio-adhesiveness, good biocompatibility, versatile drug loading, and stimuli-responsive profile. This Critical Review aims to summarize recent progress in MPN-based nanoplatforms for multimodal tumor therapy and imaging. First, the advantages of MPNs as drug carriers are summarized. Then, various tumor therapeutic modalities based on MPNs are introduced. Next, MPN-based theranostic systems are reviewed. In terms of in vivo applications, specific attention is paid to their biosafety, biodistribution, as well as excretion. Finally, some problems and limitations of MPNs are discussed, along with a future perspective on the field.

Smart Stimuli-Responsive Liposomal Nanohybrid Systems: A Critical Review of Theranostic Behavior in Cancer

The epoch of nanotechnology has authorized novel investigation strategies in the area of drug delivery. Liposomes are attractive biomimetic nanocarriers characterized by their biocompatibility, high loading capacity, and their ability to reduce encapsulated drug toxicity. Nevertheless, various limitations including physical instability, lack of site specificity, and low targeting abilities have impeded the use of solo liposomes. Metal nanocarriers are emerging moieties that can enhance the therapeutic activity of many drugs with improved release and targeted potential, yet numerous barriers, such as colloidal instability, cellular toxicity, and poor cellular uptake, restrain their applicability in vivo. The empire of nanohybrid systems has shelled to overcome these curbs and to combine the criteria of liposomes and metal nanocarriers for successful theranostic delivery. Metallic moieties can be embedded or functionalized on the liposomal systems. The current review sheds light on different liposomal-metal nanohybrid systems that were designed as cellular bearers for therapeutic agents, delivering them to their targeted terminus to combat one of the most widely recognized diseases, cancer.

Research Progress of Thermosensitive Hydrogel in Tumor Therapeutic

Compared with traditional tumor therapy strategies, hydrogel as a drug reservoir system can realize on-demand drug release and deep tissue penetration ability. It also exhibits great tumor-site retention to enhance the permeability and retention effect of tumor treatment. This can significantly overcome the drug's resistance and severe side effects. Inorganic/organic composite hydrogel has attracted wide attention due to its combined effects, enhancing therapeutic effects against various kinds of tumors. In situ injectable hydrogel can securely restrict the drugs in the lesion sites without leakage and guarantee better biosafety. Moreover, hydrogel possesses interconnected macropores which can provide enough space for nutrient transport, cellular activity, and cell-cell interactions. Thermal therapy is an effective strategy for tumor therapy due to its minimal invasiveness and high selectivity. Because the location temperature can be precisely controlled and helps avoid the risks of destroying the body's immune system and ablate normal cells, thermal therapy exhibits significant treatment outcomes. Nonetheless, when the cellular temperature reaches approximately 43 °C, it causes long-term cell inactivation. Based on these merits, thermosensitive hydrogel formulation with adaptive functions shows excellent efficacy, unlimited tissue penetration capacity, and few deleterious side effects. Furthermore, the thermosensitive hydrogel has unique physical properties under the external stimuli, which is the ideal drug delivery system for on-demand release in tumor treatment. This article will review the state of the thermosensitive hydrogel in clinic application for cancer therapy.

Intraoperative Assessment and Photothermal Ablation of the Tumor Margins Using Gold Nanoparticles

Surgical resection is commonly used for therapeutic management of different solid tumors and is regarded as a primary standard of care procedure, but precise localization of tumor margins is a major intraoperative challenge. Herein, a generalized method by optimizing gold nanoparticles for intraoperative detection and photothermal ablation of tumor margins is introduced. These nanoparticles are detectable by highly sensitive surface-enhanced Raman scattering imaging. This non-invasive technique assists in delineating the two surgically challenged tumors in live mice with orthotopic colon or ovarian tumors. Any remaining residual tumors are also ablated by using post-surgical adjuvant photothermaltherapy (aPTT), which results in microscale heat generation due to interaction of these nanoparticles with near-infrared laser. Ablation of these post-operative residual micro-tumors prolongs the survival of mice significantly and delays tumor recurrence by 15 days. To validate clinical translatability of this method, the pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, Raman contrast, aPTT efficiency, and toxicity of these nanoparticles are also investigated. The nanoparticles have long blood circulation time (≈24 h), high tumor accumulation (4.87 ± 1.73%ID g-1) and no toxicity. This high-resolution and sensitive intraoperative approach is versatile and can be potentially used for targeted ablation of residual tumor after resection within different organs.

EGFR-specific single-chain variable fragment antibody-conjugated Fe3O4/Au nanoparticles as an active MRI contrast agent for NSCLC

Overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is closely associated with a poor prognosis in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), thus making it a promising biomarker for NSCLC diagnosis. Here, we conjugated a single-chain antibody (scFv) targeting EGFR with Fe₃O₄/Au nanoparticles to form an EGFR-specific molecular MRI bioprobe (scFv@Fe₃O₄/Au) to better detect EGFR-positive NSCLC tumors in vivo. In vitro, we demonstrated that the EGFR-specific scFv could specifically deliver Fe₃O₄/Au to EGFR-positive NSCLC cells. In vivo experiments showed that the accumulation of scFv@Fe₃O₄/Au in tumor tissue was detectable by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at the indicated time points after systemic injection. The T2W signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of EGFR-positive SPC-A1 tumors was significantly decreased after scFv@Fe₃O₄/Au injection, which was not observed in the tumors of mice injected with BSA@Fe₃O₄/Au. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis showed the specific localization of scFv@Fe₃O₄/Au in the SPC-A1 tumor cell cytoplasm. Collectively, the results of our study demonstrated that scFv@Fe₃O₄/Au might be a useful probe for the noninvasive diagnosis of EGFP-positive NSCLC.

Ultrahigh Penetration and Retention of Graphene Quantum Dot Mesoporous Silica Nanohybrids for Image Guided Tumor Regression

So far, near-infrared (NIR) light responsive nanostructures have been well-defined in cancer nanomedicine. However, poor penetration and retention in tumors are the limiting factors. Here, we report the ultrahigh penetration and retention of carbanosilica (graphene quantum dots, GQDs embedded mesoporous silica) in solid tumors. After NIR light exposure, quick (0.5 h) emission from the tumor area is observed that is further retained up to a week (tested up to 10 days) with a single dose administration of nanohybrids. Emissive and photothermally active GQDs and porous silica shell (about 31% drug loading) make carbanosilica a promising nanotheranostic agent exhibiting 68.75% tumor shrinking compared to without NIR light exposure (34.48%). Generated heat (∼52 °C) alters the permeability of tumor enhancing the accumulation of nanotheranostics into the tumor environment. Successive tumor imaging ensures the prolonged follow-up of image guided tumor regression due to synergistic therapeutic effect of nanohybrids.

Injectable hydrogels of newly designed brush biopolymers as sustained drug-delivery vehicle for melanoma treatment

Novel biocompatible and brush copolymers have been developed for cancer treatment using its controlled drug-release potential. Polyurethane graft on linear dextrin has been synthesized to control the hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance for regulated drug delivery. The properties of the graft copolymers have been tuned through graft density. The prepared grafts are thermally stable and mechanically strong. An injectable hydrogel has been developed by embedding the drug-loaded brush copolymers in methyl cellulose to better control the release for a prolonged period, importantly by keeping the drug release at a constant rate. Cellular studies indicate the biocompatible nature of the brush copolymers whose controlled and slow release of drug exhibit significant cytotoxic effects on cancer cells. Endocytosis of drug tagged contrast agent indicates greater transport of biologically active material inside cell as observed through cellular uptake studies. In vivo studies on melanoma mice exhibit the real efficacy of the controlled drug release from the injectable hydrogel with significant melanoma suppression without any side effects as opposed to severe toxic effects observed in conventional chemotherapy. Special application method of drug-loaded hydrogel just beneath the tumor makes this system incredibly effective through confinement. Thus, brush copolymer injectable hydrogel is a promising vehicle for control release of drug for cancer treatment in future.

Can the biomolecular corona induce an allergic reaction?-A proof-of-concept study

Ferumoxytol nanoparticles are being used clinically for the treatment of anemia and molecular imaging in patients. It is well documented that while most patients tolerate ferumoxytol well, a small percentage of patients (i.e., 0.01%) develop severe allergic reactions. The purpose of our proof-of-concept study was to determine whether patients with or without hypersensitivity reactions have specific protein corona profiles around ferumoxytol nanoparticles. In a retrospective, institutional review board approved pilot study, we enrolled 13 pediatric patients (5 girls, 8 boys, mean age 16.9 ± 8.2 years) who received a ferumoxytol-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and who did (group 1, n = 5) or did not (group 2, n = 8) develop an allergic reaction. Blood samples of these patients were incubated with ferumoxytol, and the formation of a hard protein corona around ferumoxytol nanoparticles was measured by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. We also performed in vitro immune response analyses to randomly selected coronas from each group. Our results provide preliminary evidence that ex vivo analysis of the biomolecular corona may provide useful and predictive information on the possibility of severe allergic reactions to ferumoxytol nanoparticles. In the future, patients with predisposition of an allergic reaction to ferumoxytol may be diagnosed based on the proteomic patterns of the corona around ferumoxytol in their blood sample.

Milk exosomes: A biogenic nanocarrier for small molecules and macromolecules to combat cancer

Exosomes are unique biogenic nanocarriers of endocytic origin that are generated from most of the cells and found in biofluids like milk, plasma, saliva, and urine. Bovine milk represents the largest and an economic source for the production of exosomes. In recent past, the utility of the milk exosomes as drug carriers is intensified. Exosomes are emerging for delivery of both small and large therapeutics due to their biocompatibility. In this article, we highlighted the various exosomal isolation techniques, physicochemical properties, their biodistribution, and utility of milk exosomes in delivering the small drug molecules and siRNA to combat cancer.

Perspectives of gold nanoparticles and their applications in pancreatic cancer (Review)

Nanoparticles (NPs) represent a major point of interest in the scientific field, with an increasing number of studies revealing promising results. Nano-oncology is a relatively new area of research that continues to expand, revealing new perspectives in both diagnosing and treating cancer. Treating pancreatic cancer (PC) remains a major challenge, with modest positive results, thus an increasing number of studies have focused on this disease. Out of all the NPs that have been used in experimental studies, gold NPs (GNPs) appear to be the most efficient, with little systemic toxicity. This review aims to summarize the latest studies that reveal the effects that GNPs have on PC cells, focusing on different ways in which they can be used to diagnose this disease, to induce apoptosis or cause cytotoxicity in cancer cells. Although literature has limited data concerning this specific topic, the results are promising. However more studies are required until GNPs can be used in clinical practice.

Organic dots (O-dots) for theranostic applications: preparation and surface engineering

Organic dots is a term used to represent materials including graphene quantum dots and carbon quantum dots because they rely on the presence of other atoms (O, H, and N) for their photoluminescence or fluorescence properties. They generally have a small size (as low as 2.5 nm), and show good photostability under prolonged irradiation. The excitation and emission wavelengths of O-dots can be tailored according to their synthetic procedure, where although their quantum yield is quite low compared with organic dyes, this is partly compensated by their large absorption coefficients. A wide range of strategies have been used to modify the surface of O-dots for passivation, improving their solubility and biocompatibility, and allowing the attachment of targeting moieties and therapeutic cargos. Hybrid nanostructures based on O-dots have been used for theranostic applications, particularly for cancer imaging and therapy. This review covers the synthesis, physics, chemistry, and characterization of O-dots. Their applications cover the prevention of protein fibril formation, and both controlled and targeted drug and gene delivery. Multifunctional therapeutic and imaging platforms have been reported, which combine four or more separate modalities, frequently including photothermal or photodynamic therapy and imaging and drug release.

Self-assembling a natural small molecular inhibitor that shows aggregation-induced emission and potentiates antitumor efficacy

Targeted therapy using small molecular inhibitors has been developed to rewire key signaling pathways in tumor cells, but these inhibitors have had mixed success in the clinic due to their poor pharmaceutical properties and suboptimal intratumoral concentrations. Here, we developed a "self-assembling natural molecular inhibitor" strategy to test the efficacy and feasibility of the water-insoluble agent dasatinib (DAS), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, for cancer therapy. By exploiting a facile reprecipitation protocol, the DAS inhibitor self-assembled into soluble supramolecular nanoparticles (termed sDNPs) in aqueous solution, without an exogenous excipient. This strategy is applicable for generating systemically injectable and colloid-stable therapeutic nanoparticles of hydrophobic small-molecule inhibitors. Concurrently, during this process, we observed aggregation-induced emission (AIE) of fluorescence for this self-assembled DAS, which makes sDNPs suitable for bioimaging and tracing of cellular trafficking. Notably, in an orthotopic model of breast cancer, administration of sDNPs induced a durable inhibition of primary tumors and reduced the metastatic tumor burden, significantly surpassing the effects of the free DAS inhibitor after oral delivery. In addition, low toxicity was observed for this platform, with effective avoidance of immunotoxicity. To the best of our knowledge, our studies provide the first successful demonstration of self-assembling natural molecular inhibitors with AIE and highlight the feasibility of this approach for the preparation of therapeutic nanoparticles for highly lethal human cancers and many other diseases.

Current update on nanoplatforms as therapeutic and diagnostic tools: A review for the materials used as nanotheranostics and imaging modalities

In the last decade, the use of nanotheranostics as emerging diagnostic and therapeutic tools for various diseases, especially cancer, is held great attention. Up to date, several approaches have been employed in order to develop smart nanotheranostics, which combine bioactive targeting on specific tissues as well as diagnostic properties. The nanotheranostics can deliver therapeutic agents by concomitantly monitor the therapy response in real-time. Consequently, the possibility of over- or under-dosing is decreased. Various non-invasive imaging techniques have been used to quantitatively monitor the drug delivery processes. Radiolabeling of nanomaterials is widely used as powerful diagnostic approach on nuclear medicine imaging. In fact, various radiolabeled nanomaterials have been designed and developed for imaging tumors and other lesions due to their efficient characteristics. Inorganic nanoparticles as gold, silver, silica based nanomaterials or organic nanoparticles as polymers, carbon based nanomaterials, liposomes have been reported as multifunctional nanotheranostics. In this review, the imaging modalities according to their use in various diseases are summarized, providing special details for radiolabeling. In further, the most current nanotheranostics categorized via the used nanomaterials are also summed up. To conclude, this review can be beneficial for medical and pharmaceutical society as well as material scientists who work in the field of nanotheranostics since they can use this research as guide for producing newer and more efficient nanotheranostics.

Cascade Drug-Release Strategy for Enhanced Anticancer Therapy

Chemotherapy serves as one of the most effective approaches in numerous tumor treatments but also suffers from the limitations of low bioavailability and adverse side effects due to premature drug leakage. Therefore, it is crucial to realize accurate on-demand drug release for promoting the application of chemotherapeutic agents. To achieve this, stimuli-responsive nanomedicines that can be activated by delicately designed cascade reactions have been developed in recent years. In general, the nanomedicines are triggered by an internal or external stimulus, generating an intermediate stimulus at tumor site, which can intensify the differences between tumor and normal tissues; the drug release process is then further activated by the intermediate stimulus. In this review, the latest progress made in cascade reactions-driven drug-release modes, based on the intermediate stimuli of heat, hypoxia, and reactive oxygen species, is systematically summarized. The perspectives and challenges of cascade strategy for drug delivery are also discussed.

Current status and future directions of hepatocellular carcinoma-targeted nanoparticles and nanomedicine

INTRODUCTION

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major health problem worldwide. Conventional therapies covering either chemotherapy or combination therapy still have sub-optimal responses with significant adverse effects and toxicity. Moreover, tumor cells usually acquire resistance quickly for traditional approaches, limiting their use in HCC. Interest in nanomedicine due to minimal systemic toxicity and a high degree of target-specific drug-delivery have pulled the attention of health scientists in this area of therapeutics.

AREA COVERED

The review covers the incidence and epidemiology of HCC, proposed molecular drug targets, mechanistic approach and emergence of nanomedicines including nanoparticles, lipidic nanoparticles, vesicular-based nanocarrier, virus-like particles with momentous therapeutic aspects including biocompatibility, and toxicity of nanocarriers along with conclusions and future perspective, with an efficient approach to safely cross physiological barriers to reach the target site for treating liver cancer.

EXPERT OPINION

Remarkable outcomes have recently been observed for the therapeutic efficacy of nanocarriers with respect to a specific drug target against the treatment of HCC by existing under trial drugs.

Progress of Cancer Nanotechnology as Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Theranostics Nanomedicine: Preclinical Promise and Translational Challenges

Early detection, right therapeutic intervention, and simultaneous effectiveness mapping are considered the critical factors in successful cancer therapy. Nevertheless, these factors experience the limitations of conventional cancer diagnostics and therapeutics delivery approaches. Along with providing the targeted therapeutics delivery, advances in nanomedicines have allowed the combination of therapy and diagnostics in a single system (called cancer theranostics). This paper discusses the progress in the pre-clinical and clinical development of therapeutics, diagnostics, and theranostics cancer nanomedicines. It has been well evident that compared to the overabundance of works that claimed success in pre-clinical studies, merely 15 and around 75 cancer nanomedicines are approved, and currently under clinical trials, respectively. Thus, we also brief the critical bottlenecks in the successful clinical translation of cancer nanomedicines.