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Cavalcanti JHF, Kirma M, Barros JAS, Quinhones CGS, Pereira-Lima ÍA, Obata T, Nunes-Nesi A, Galili G, Fernie AR, Avin-Wittenberg T, Araújo WL. An L,L-diaminopimelate aminotransferase mutation leads to metabolic shifts and growth inhibition in Arabidopsis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2018; 69:5489-5506. [PMID: 30215754 PMCID: PMC6255705 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ery325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Lysine (Lys) connects the mitochondrial electron transport chain to amino acid catabolism and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. However, our understanding of how a deficiency in Lys biosynthesis impacts plant metabolism and growth remains limited. Here, we used a previously characterized Arabidopsis mutant (dapat) with reduced activity of the Lys biosynthesis enzyme L,L-diaminopimelate aminotransferase to investigate the physiological and metabolic impacts of impaired Lys biosynthesis. Despite displaying similar stomatal conductance and internal CO2 concentration, we observed reduced photosynthesis and growth in the dapat mutant. Surprisingly, whilst we did not find differences in dark respiration between genotypes, a lower storage and consumption of starch and sugars was observed in dapat plants. We found higher protein turnover but no differences in total amino acids during a diurnal cycle in dapat plants. Transcriptional and two-dimensional (isoelectric focalization/SDS-PAGE) proteome analyses revealed alterations in the abundance of several transcripts and proteins associated with photosynthesis and photorespiration coupled with a high glycine/serine ratio and increased levels of stress-responsive amino acids. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that biochemical alterations rather than stomatal limitations are responsible for the decreased photosynthesis and growth of the dapat mutant, which we hypothesize mimics stress conditions associated with impairments in the Lys biosynthesis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Henrique F Cavalcanti
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Max-Planck-partner group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Menny Kirma
- Department of Plant Science, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Jessica A S Barros
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Max-Planck-partner group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Carla G S Quinhones
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Max-Planck-partner group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ítalo A Pereira-Lima
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Max-Planck-partner group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Toshihiro Obata
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Adriano Nunes-Nesi
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Max-Planck-partner group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Gad Galili
- Department of Plant Science, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Tamar Avin-Wittenberg
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem Israel
| | - Wagner L Araújo
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Max-Planck-partner group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Lorenz C, Brandt S, Borisjuk L, Rolletschek H, Heinzel N, Tohge T, Fernie AR, Braun HP, Hildebrandt TM. The Role of Persulfide Metabolism During Arabidopsis Seed Development Under Light and Dark Conditions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1381. [PMID: 30283487 PMCID: PMC6156424 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The sulfur dioxygenase ETHE1 oxidizes persulfides in the mitochondrial matrix and is involved in the degradation of L-cysteine and hydrogen sulfide. ETHE1 has an essential but as yet undefined function in early embryo development of Arabidopsis thaliana. In leaves, ETHE1 is strongly induced by extended darkness and participates in the use of amino acids as alternative respiratory substrates during carbohydrate starvation. Thus, we tested the effect of darkness on seed development in an ETHE1 deficient mutant in comparison to the wild type. Since ETHE1 knock-out is embryo lethal, the knock-down line ethe1-1 with about 1% residual sulfur dioxygenase activity was used for this study. We performed phenotypic analysis, metabolite profiling and comparative proteomics in order to investigate the general effect of extended darkness on seed metabolism and further define the specific function of the mitochondrial sulfur dioxygenase ETHE1 in seeds. Shading of the siliques had no morphological effect on embryogenesis in wild type plants. However, the developmental delay that was already visible in ethe1-1 seeds under control conditions was further enhanced in the darkness. Dark conditions strongly affected seed quality parameters of both wild type and mutant plants. The effect of ETHE1 knock-down on amino acid profiles was clearly different from that found in leaves indicating that in seeds persulfide oxidation interacts with alanine and glycine rather than branched-chain amino acid metabolism. Sulfur dioxygenase deficiency led to defects in endosperm development possibly due to alterations in the cellularization process. In addition, we provide evidence for a potential role of persulfide metabolism in abscisic acid (ABA) signal transduction in seeds. We conclude that the knock-down of ETHE1 causes metabolic re-arrangements in seeds that differ from those in leaves. Putative mechanisms that cause the aberrant endosperm and embryo development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christin Lorenz
- Department of Plant Proteomics, Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Saskia Brandt
- Department of Plant Proteomics, Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Ljudmilla Borisjuk
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Hardy Rolletschek
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Nicolas Heinzel
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Gatersleben, Germany
| | - Takayuki Tohge
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany
| | | | - Hans-Peter Braun
- Department of Plant Proteomics, Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Tatjana M. Hildebrandt
- Department of Plant Proteomics, Institute of Plant Genetics, Leibniz University Hannover, Hanover, Germany
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Wang W, Xu M, Wang G, Galili G. New insights into the metabolism of aspartate-family amino acids in plant seeds. PLANT REPRODUCTION 2018; 31:203-211. [PMID: 29399717 DOI: 10.1007/s00497-018-0322-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Aspartate-family amino acids. Aspartate (Asp)-family pathway, via several metabolic branches, leads to four key essential amino acids: Lys, Met, Thr, and Ile. Among these, Lys and Met have received the most attention, as they are the most limiting amino acid in cereals and legumes crops, respectively. The metabolic pathways of these four essential amino acids and their interactions with regulatory networks have been well characterized. Using this knowledge, extensive efforts have been devoted to augmenting the levels of these amino acids in various plant organs, especially seeds, which serve as the main source of human food and livestock feed. Seeds store a number of storage proteins, which are utilized as nutrient and energy resources. Storage proteins are composed of amino acids, to guarantee the continuation of plant progeny. Thus, understanding the seed metabolism, especially with respect to the accumulation of aspartate-derived amino acids Lys and Met, is a crucial factor for sustainable agriculture. In this review, we summarized the Asp-family pathway, with some new examples of accumulated Asp-family amino acids, particularly Lys and Met, in plant seeds. We also discuss the recent advances in understanding the roles of Asp-family amino acids during seed development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyi Wang
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
- Department of Plant Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Mengyun Xu
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Guoping Wang
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Gad Galili
- Department of Plant Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100, Rehovot, Israel.
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Latimer S, Li Y, Nguyen TTH, Soubeyrand E, Fatihi A, Elowsky CG, Block A, Pichersky E, Basset GJ. Metabolic reconstructions identify plant 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase that is crucial for branched-chain amino acid catabolism in mitochondria. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 95:358-370. [PMID: 29742810 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The proteinogenic branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) leucine, isoleucine and valine are essential nutrients for mammals. In plants, BCAAs double as alternative energy sources when carbohydrates become limiting, the catabolism of BCAAs providing electrons to the respiratory chain and intermediates to the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Yet, the actual architecture of the degradation pathways of BCAAs is not well understood. In this study, gene network modeling in Arabidopsis and rice, and plant-prokaryote comparative genomics detected candidates for 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase (4.2.1.18), one of the missing plant enzymes of leucine catabolism. Alignments of these protein candidates sampled from various spermatophytes revealed non-homologous N-terminal extensions that are lacking in their bacterial counterparts, and green fluorescent protein-fusion experiments demonstrated that the Arabidopsis protein, product of gene At4g16800, is targeted to mitochondria. Recombinant At4g16800 catalyzed the dehydration of 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA into 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA, and displayed kinetic features similar to those of its prokaryotic homolog. When at4g16800 knockout plants were subjected to dark-induced carbon starvation, their rosette leaves displayed accelerated senescence as compared with control plants, and this phenotype was paralleled by a marked increase in the accumulation of free and total leucine, isoleucine and valine. The seeds of the at4g16800 mutant showed a similar accumulation of free BCAAs. These data suggest that 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase is not solely involved in the degradation of leucine, but is also a significant contributor to that of isoleucine and valine. Furthermore, evidence is shown that unlike the situation observed in Trypanosomatidae, leucine catabolism does not contribute to the formation of the terpenoid precursor mevalonate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Latimer
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Yubing Li
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Thuong T H Nguyen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, USA
| | - Eric Soubeyrand
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
| | - Abdelhak Fatihi
- Center for Plant Science Innovation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, USA
| | - Christian G Elowsky
- Center for Plant Science Innovation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, 68588, USA
| | - Anna Block
- Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, ARS, USDA, Gainesville, Florida, 32608, USA
| | - Eran Pichersky
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109, USA
| | - Gilles J Basset
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, USA
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Global analysis of threonine metabolism genes unravel key players in rice to improve the abiotic stress tolerance. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9270. [PMID: 29915249 PMCID: PMC6006157 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27703-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The diversity in plant metabolites with improved phytonutrients is essential to achieve global food security and sustainable crop yield. Our study using computational metabolomics genome wide association study (cmGWAS) reports on a comprehensive profiling of threonine (Thr) metabolite in rice. Sixteen abiotic stress responsive (AbSR) – Thr metabolite producing genes (ThrMPG), modulate metabolite levels and play a significant role determining both physiological and nutritional importance of rice. These AbSR-ThrMPG were computationally analysed for their protein properties using OryzaCyc through plant metabolic network analyser. A total of 1373 and 1028 SNPs were involved in complex traits and genomic variations. Comparative mapping of AbSR-ThrMPG revealed the chromosomal colinearity with C4 grass species. Further, computational expression pattern of these genes predicted a differential expression profiling in diverse developmental tissues. Protein interaction of protein coding gene sequences revealed that the abiotic stresses (AbS) are multigenic in nature. In silico expression of AbSR-ThrMPG determined the putative involvement in response to individual AbS. This is the first comprehensive genome wide study reporting on AbSR –ThrMPG analysis in rice. The results of this study provide a pivotal resource for further functional investigation of these key genes in the vital areas of manipulating AbS signaling in rice improvement.
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56
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Horikoshi HM, Sekozawa Y, Kobayashi M, Saito K, Kusano M, Sugaya S. Metabolomics analysis of 'Housui' Japanese pear flower buds during endodormancy reveals metabolic suppression by thermal fluctuation. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2018; 126:134-141. [PMID: 29524800 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2018.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Dormancy is a complex phenomenon that allows plants to survive the winter season. Studies of dormancy have recently attracted more attention due to the expansion of temperate fruit production in areas under mild winters and due to climate changes. This study aimed to identify and characterize the metabolic changes induced by chilling temperatures, as well as during thermal fluctuation conditions that simulate mild winter and/or climate change scenarios. To do this, we compared the metabolic profile of Japanese pear flower buds exposed to constant chilling at 6 °C and thermal fluctuations of 6 °C/18 °C (150 h/150 h) during endodormancy. We detected 91 metabolites by gas chromatography paired with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) that could be classified into eight groups: amino acids, amino acid derivatives, organic acids, sugars and polyols, fatty acids and sterols, phenol lipids, phenylpropanoids, and other compounds. Metabolomics analysis revealed that the level of several amino acids decreased during endodormancy. Sugar and polyol levels increased during endodormancy during constant chilling and might be associated with chilling stress tolerance and providing an energy supply for resuming growth. In contrast, thermal fluctuations produced low levels of metabolites related to the pentose phosphate pathway, energy production, and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle in flower buds, which may be associated with failed endodormancy release. This metabolic profile contributes to our understanding of the biological mechanism of dormancy during chilling accumulation and clarifies the metabolic changes during mild winters and future climate change scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yoshihiko Sekozawa
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - Makoto Kobayashi
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Kazuki Saito
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan; Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba, Chiba, Japan.
| | - Miyako Kusano
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan; RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Sumiko Sugaya
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Noman A, Ali Q, Maqsood J, Iqbal N, Javed MT, Rasool N, Naseem J. Deciphering physio-biochemical, yield, and nutritional quality attributes of water-stressed radish (Raphanus sativus L.) plants grown from Zn-Lys primed seeds. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 195:175-189. [PMID: 29268176 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Water shortage appears to be expedited under the current climate change scenario worldwide. The present work was aimed to investigate the effects of zinc-chelated lysine (Zn-Lys) on germination and yield of water stressed radish plants. The research was comprised of two studies where the effect of Zn-Lys seed priming on germination attributes under PEG-induced water stress was investigated in the first experiment. In the second experiment, growth, physio-biochemical, and yield responses of water-stressed radish plants raised from Zn-Lys primed seeds were recorded. The seeds pre-conditioned with 0, 1.5, 3, 4.5, or 6 mg kg-1 of Zn-Lys was grown in petri-dishes and pots. Priming treatments significantly improved the germination attributes under water stress. Plants raised from primed seeds exhibited significant improvements in plant biomass production, leaf photosynthetic pigments, final root yield, and nutritional quality. Furthermore, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD) were increased, while the melondialdehyde (MDA) content decreased. Root flavonoids, ascorbic acid, carotenoids, protein, carbohydrates, fiber and lysine content were significantly improved due to Zn-Lys seed priming, both under water-stressed and non-stressed conditions. Moreover, plant's mineral nutrients such as K and Ca as well as Mg, Fe, P, and Zn of final harvested roots were also improved due to Zn-Lys seed priming. Overall, for the induction of drought tolerance and nutritional quality, Zn-Lys regimes of 3 and 4.5 mg kg-1 were most effective. It can be inferred that the Zn-Lys priming maintained a potential balance of nutrient uptake and translocation by preventing drought-induced lipid peroxidation of membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Noman
- Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan.
| | - Qasim Ali
- Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - Junaid Maqsood
- Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - Naeem Iqbal
- Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - M Tariq Javed
- Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - Nasir Rasool
- Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
| | - Jazia Naseem
- Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, 38000, Pakistan
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Saccenti E, Smilde AK, Camacho J. Group-wise ANOVA simultaneous component analysis for designed omics experiments. Metabolomics 2018; 14:73. [PMID: 29861703 PMCID: PMC5962647 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-018-1369-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Modern omics experiments pertain not only to the measurement of many variables but also follow complex experimental designs where many factors are manipulated at the same time. This data can be conveniently analyzed using multivariate tools like ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis (ASCA) which allows interpretation of the variation induced by the different factors in a principal component analysis fashion. However, while in general only a subset of the measured variables may be related to the problem studied, all variables contribute to the final model and this may hamper interpretation. OBJECTIVES We introduce here a sparse implementation of ASCA termed group-wise ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis (GASCA) with the aim of obtaining models that are easier to interpret. METHODS GASCA is based on the concept of group-wise sparsity introduced in group-wise principal components analysis where structure to impose sparsity is defined in terms of groups of correlated variables found in the correlation matrices calculated from the effect matrices. RESULTS The GASCA model, containing only selected subsets of the original variables, is easier to interpret and describes relevant biological processes. CONCLUSIONS GASCA is applicable to any kind of omics data obtained through designed experiments such as, but not limited to, metabolomic, proteomic and gene expression data.
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Malinovsky FG, Thomsen MLF, Nintemann SJ, Jagd LM, Bourgine B, Burow M, Kliebenstein DJ. An evolutionarily young defense metabolite influences the root growth of plants via the ancient TOR signaling pathway. eLife 2017; 6:29353. [PMID: 29231169 PMCID: PMC5730369 DOI: 10.7554/elife.29353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To optimize fitness a plant should monitor its metabolism to appropriately control growth and defense. Primary metabolism can be measured by the universally conserved TOR (Target of Rapamycin) pathway to balance growth and development with the available energy and nutrients. Recent work suggests that plants may measure defense metabolites to potentially provide a strategy ensuring fast reallocation of resources to coordinate plant growth and defense. There is little understanding of mechanisms enabling defense metabolite signaling. To identify mechanisms of defense metabolite signaling, we used glucosinolates, an important class of plant defense metabolites. We report novel signaling properties specific to one distinct glucosinolate, 3-hydroxypropylglucosinolate across plants and fungi. This defense metabolite, or derived compounds, reversibly inhibits root growth and development. 3-hydroxypropylglucosinolate signaling functions via genes in the ancient TOR pathway. If this event is not unique, this raises the possibility that other evolutionarily new plant metabolites may link to ancient signaling pathways. Plants, like all organisms, must invest their resources carefully. Growing new roots or shoots may allow a plant to better exploit its environment. But a plant should never leave itself vulnerable to disease. As such, there must be a balance between allocating resources to growth or to defense. Brassicas like cabbage, Brussels sprouts and wasabi use unique compounds called glucosinolates to protect themselves against pests and disease-causing microbes. These same compounds give these vegetables their distinctive flavors, and they are the source of many of the health benefits linked to eating these vegetables. Yet it was not known if glucosinolates could also affect a plant’s growth and development. Malinovsky et al. tested a number of purified glucosinolates with the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, and found that one (called 3-hydroxypropylglucosinolate) caused the plants to grow with stunted roots. When 10 other species of plant were grown with this glucosinolate, almost all had shorter-than-normal roots. The effect was not limited to plants; baker’s yeast also grew less when its liquid media contained the plant-derived compound. The reason glucosinolates can protect plants against insect pests, provide us with health benefits, and widely inhibit growth is most likely because they have evolved to interact with proteins that are found in many different organisms.Indeed, through experiments with mutant Arabidopsis plants, Malinovsky et al. revealed that their glucosinolate influences the TOR complex. This complex of proteins works in an ancient and widespread signaling pathway that balances growth and development with the available energy and nutrients in organisms ranging from humans to yeast to plants. The TOR complex plays such a vital role in living cells that problems with this complex have been linked to diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Importantly, the chemical structure of this glucosinolate is unlike other compounds that have already been tested against the TOR complex. As such, it is possible that this glucosinolate might lead to new drugs for a range of human diseases. Further, as this compound affects plant growth, it could also act as a starting point for new herbicides. Together these findings show how studying molecules made in model organisms and understanding how they function can lead to the identification of new compounds and targets with an unexpectedly wide range of potential uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederikke Gro Malinovsky
- DynaMo Center, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marie-Louise F Thomsen
- DynaMo Center, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sebastian J Nintemann
- DynaMo Center, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lea Møller Jagd
- DynaMo Center, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Baptiste Bourgine
- DynaMo Center, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Meike Burow
- DynaMo Center, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Daniel J Kliebenstein
- DynaMo Center, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, United States
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Proteomics reveals key proteins participating in growth difference between fall dormant and non-dormant alfalfa in terminal buds. J Proteomics 2017; 173:126-138. [PMID: 29229487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
To explore the molecular mechanism of growth differences between fall dormant (FD) and non-FD alfalfa, we conducted iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomics on terminal buds of Maverick (FD) and Cuf101 (non-FD) cultivars, identified differential abundance protein species (DAPS) and verified expression profiling of certain corresponding mRNA by qRT-PCR. A total of 3872 protein species were annotated. Of the 90 DAPS, 56 and 34 were respectively up- and down-accumulated in Maverick, compared to Cuf101. They were grouped into 35 functional categories and enriched in seven pathways. Of which, auxin polar transport was up-regulated, while phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, pyruvate metabolism and transportation, vitamin B1 synthesis process and flavonoid biosynthesis were down-regulated in Maverick, comparing with Cuf101. In Maverick, mRNA abundances of l-asparaginase, chalcone and stilbene synthase family protein, cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase-like protein, thiazole biosynthetic enzyme, pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 beta subunit, and aldo/keto reductase family oxidoreductase were significantly lower at FD than at other stages, and lower than in Cuf101. We also observed opposite mRNA profiles of thiazole biosynthetic enzyme, chalcone and stilbene synthase family protein, pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 beta subunit in both cultivars from summer to autumn. Our results suggest that these DAPS could play important roles in growth difference between FD and non-FD alfalfa. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Up to now, as far as we know, currently the proteins related with the growth differences between FD and non-FD alfalfa cultivars in autumn have not yet been identified in terminal buds. This study identified the protein species expressed in alfalfa terminal buds, selected differentially abundant protein species in terminal buds between Maverick (FD) and Cuf101 (non-FD) cultivars in autumn and identified the important protein species participated in the growth differences. This study lays a foundation for further investigation of the molecular mechanism of the growth differences between FD and non-FD alfalfa and the cultivation of advanced alfalfa cultivars.
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Cavalcanti JHF, Quinhones CGS, Schertl P, Brito DS, Eubel H, Hildebrandt T, Nunes-Nesi A, Braun HP, Araújo WL. Differential impact of amino acids on OXPHOS system activity following carbohydrate starvation in Arabidopsis cell suspensions. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2017; 161:451-467. [PMID: 28767134 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Plant respiration mostly depends on the activity of glycolysis and the oxidation of organic acids in the tricarboxylic acid cycle to synthesize ATP. However, during stress situations plant cells also use amino acids as alternative substrates to donate electrons through the electron-transfer flavoprotein (ETF)/ETF:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (ETF/ETFQO) complex to the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC). Given this, we investigated changes of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system in Arabidopsis thaliana cell culture under carbohydrate starvation supplied with a range of amino acids. Induction of isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase (IVDH) activity was observed under carbohydrate starvation which was associated with increased amounts of IVDH protein detected by immunoblotting. Furthermore, activities of the protein complexes of the mETC were reduced under carbohydrate starvation. We also observed that OXPHOS system activity behavior is differently affected by different amino acids and that proteins associated with amino acids catabolism are upregulated in cells following carbohydrate starvation. Collectively, our results support the contention that ETF/ETFQO is an essential pathway to donate electrons to the mETC and that amino acids are alternative substrates to maintain respiration under carbohydrate starvation.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Henrique F Cavalcanti
- Max-Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Carla G S Quinhones
- Max-Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Peter Schertl
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Danielle S Brito
- Max-Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Holger Eubel
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Tatjana Hildebrandt
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Adriano Nunes-Nesi
- Max-Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Hans-Peter Braun
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, 30419, Hannover, Germany
| | - Wagner L Araújo
- Max-Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Smolikova G, Dolgikh E, Vikhnina M, Frolov A, Medvedev S. Genetic and Hormonal Regulation of Chlorophyll Degradation during Maturation of Seeds with Green Embryos. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E1993. [PMID: 28926960 PMCID: PMC5618642 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18091993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The embryos of some angiosperms (usually referred to as chloroembryos) contain chlorophylls during the whole period of embryogenesis. Developing embryos have photochemically active chloroplasts and are able to produce assimilates, further converted in reserve biopolymers, whereas at the late steps of embryogenesis, seeds undergo dehydration, degradation of chlorophylls, transformation of chloroplast in storage plastids, and enter the dormancy period. However, in some seeds, the process of chlorophyll degradation remains incomplete. These residual chlorophylls compromise the quality of seed material in terms of viability, nutritional value, and shelf life, and represent a serious challenge for breeders and farmers. The mechanisms of chlorophyll degradation during seed maturation are still not completely understood, and only during the recent decades the main pathways and corresponding enzymes could be characterized. Among the identified players, the enzymes of pheophorbide a oxygenase pathway and the proteins encoded by STAY GREEN (SGR) genes are the principle ones. On the biochemical level, abscisic acid (ABA) is the main regulator of seed chlorophyll degradation, mediating activity of corresponding catabolic enzymes on the transcriptional level. In general, a deep insight in the mechanisms of chlorophyll degradation is required to develop the approaches for production of chlorophyll-free high quality seeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina Smolikova
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia.
| | - Elena Dolgikh
- All-Russia Institute for Agricultural Microbiology, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia.
| | - Maria Vikhnina
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany.
- Department of Biochemistry, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia.
| | - Andrej Frolov
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany.
| | - Sergei Medvedev
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia.
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Barros JAS, Cavalcanti JHF, Medeiros DB, Nunes-Nesi A, Avin-Wittenberg T, Fernie AR, Araújo WL. Autophagy Deficiency Compromises Alternative Pathways of Respiration following Energy Deprivation in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 175:62-76. [PMID: 28710132 PMCID: PMC5580740 DOI: 10.1104/pp.16.01576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Under heterotrophic conditions, carbohydrate oxidation inside the mitochondrion is the primary energy source for cellular metabolism. However, during energy-limited conditions, alternative substrates are required to support respiration. Amino acid oxidation in plant cells plays a key role in this by generating electrons that can be transferred to the mitochondrial electron transport chain via the electron transfer flavoprotein/ubiquinone oxidoreductase system. Autophagy, a catabolic mechanism for macromolecule and protein recycling, allows the maintenance of amino acid pools and nutrient remobilization. Although the association between autophagy and alternative respiratory substrates has been suggested, the extent to which autophagy and primary metabolism interact to support plant respiration remains unclear. To investigate the metabolic importance of autophagy during development and under extended darkness, Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) mutants with disruption of autophagy (atg mutants) were used. Under normal growth conditions, atg mutants showed lower growth and seed production with no impact on photosynthesis. Following extended darkness, atg mutants were characterized by signatures of early senescence, including decreased chlorophyll content and maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II coupled with increases in dark respiration. Transcript levels of genes involved in alternative pathways of respiration and amino acid catabolism were up-regulated in atg mutants. The metabolite profiles of dark-treated leaves revealed an extensive metabolic reprogramming in which increases in amino acid levels were partially compromised in atg mutants. Although an enhanced respiration in atg mutants was observed during extended darkness, autophagy deficiency compromises protein degradation and the generation of amino acids used as alternative substrates to the respiration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A S Barros
- Max Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - João Henrique F Cavalcanti
- Max Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - David B Medeiros
- Max Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Adriano Nunes-Nesi
- Max Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Tamar Avin-Wittenberg
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Wagner L Araújo
- Max Planck Partner Group at the Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, 36570-900 Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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65
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Arena S, D'Ambrosio C, Vitale M, Mazzeo F, Mamone G, Di Stasio L, Maccaferri M, Curci PL, Sonnante G, Zambrano N, Scaloni A. Differential representation of albumins and globulins during grain development in durum wheat and its possible functional consequences. J Proteomics 2017; 162:86-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Fasbender L, Maurer D, Kreuzwieser J, Kreuzer I, Schulze WX, Kruse J, Becker D, Alfarraj S, Hedrich R, Werner C, Rennenberg H. The carnivorous Venus flytrap uses prey-derived amino acid carbon to fuel respiration. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2017; 214:597-606. [PMID: 28042877 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The present study was performed to elucidate the fate of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) derived from protein of prey caught by carnivorous Dionaea muscipula. For this, traps were fed 13 C/15 N-glutamine (Gln). The release of 13 CO2 was continuously monitored by isotope ratio infrared spectrometry. After 46 h, the allocation of C and N label into different organs was determined and tissues were subjected to metabolome, proteome and transcriptome analyses. Nitrogen of Gln fed was already separated from its C skeleton in the decomposing fluid secreted by the traps. Most of the Gln-C and Gln-N recovered inside plants were localized in fed traps. Among nonfed organs, traps were a stronger sink for Gln-C compared to Gln-N, and roots were a stronger sink for Gln-N compared to Gln-C. A significant amount of the Gln-C was respired as indicated by 13 C-CO2 emission, enhanced levels of metabolites of respiratory Gln degradation and increased abundance of proteins of respiratory processes. Transcription analyses revealed constitutive expression of enzymes involved in Gln metabolism in traps. It appears that prey not only provides building blocks of cellular constituents of carnivorous Dionaea muscipula, but also is used for energy generation by respiratory amino acid degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Fasbender
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Chair of Ecosystem Physiology, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 53/54, Freiburg, 79110, Germany
| | - Daniel Maurer
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Chair of Tree Physiology, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 53/54, Freiburg, 79110, Germany
| | - Jürgen Kreuzwieser
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Chair of Tree Physiology, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 53/54, Freiburg, 79110, Germany
| | - Ines Kreuzer
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, 97070, Germany
| | - Waltraud X Schulze
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, 70593, Germany
| | - Jörg Kruse
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Chair of Tree Physiology, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 53/54, Freiburg, 79110, Germany
| | - Dirk Becker
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, 97070, Germany
| | - Saleh Alfarraj
- College of Science, King Saud University, PO Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rainer Hedrich
- Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology and Biophysics, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, 97070, Germany
- College of Science, King Saud University, PO Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Christiane Werner
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Chair of Ecosystem Physiology, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 53/54, Freiburg, 79110, Germany
| | - Heinz Rennenberg
- Institute of Forest Sciences, Chair of Tree Physiology, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 53/54, Freiburg, 79110, Germany
- College of Science, King Saud University, PO Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
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Luo L, Zhang P, Zhu R, Fu J, Su J, Zheng J, Wang Z, Wang D, Gong Q. Autophagy Is Rapidly Induced by Salt Stress and Is Required for Salt Tolerance in Arabidopsis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:1459. [PMID: 28878796 PMCID: PMC5572379 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Salinity stress challenges agriculture and food security globally. Upon salt stress, plant growth slows down, nutrients are recycled, osmolytes are produced, and reallocation of Na+ takes place. Since autophagy is a high-throughput degradation pathway that contributes to nutrient remobilization in plants, we explored the involvement of autophagic flux in salt stress response of Arabidopsis with various approaches. Confocal microscopy of GFP-ATG8a in transgenic Arabidopsis showed that autophagosome formation is induced shortly after salt treatment. Immunoblotting of ATG8s and the autophagy receptor NBR1 confirmed that the level of autophagy peaks within 30 min of salt stress, and then settles to a new homeostasis in Arabidopsis. Such an induction is absent in mutants defective in autophagy. Within 3 h of salt treatment, accumulation of oxidized proteins is alleviated in the wild-type; however, such a reduction is not seen in atg2 or atg7. Consistently, the Arabidopsis atg mutants are hypersensitive to both salt and osmotic stresses, and plants overexpressing ATG8 perform better than the wild-type in germination assays. Quantification of compatible osmolytes further confirmed that the autophagic flux contributes to salt stress adaptation. Imaging of intracellular Na+ revealed that autophagy is required for Na+ sequestration in the central vacuole of root cortex cells following salt treatment. These data suggest that rapid protein turnover through autophagy is a prerequisite for salt stress tolerance in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Dan Wang
- *Correspondence: Dan Wang, Qingqiu Gong,
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68
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Wang L, Nägele T, Doerfler H, Fragner L, Chaturvedi P, Nukarinen E, Bellaire A, Huber W, Weiszmann J, Engelmeier D, Ramsak Z, Gruden K, Weckwerth W. System level analysis of cacao seed ripening reveals a sequential interplay of primary and secondary metabolism leading to polyphenol accumulation and preparation of stress resistance. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 87:318-32. [PMID: 27136060 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Theobroma cacao and its popular product, chocolate, are attracting attention due to potential health benefits including antioxidative effects by polyphenols, anti-depressant effects by high serotonin levels, inhibition of platelet aggregation and prevention of obesity-dependent insulin resistance. The development of cacao seeds during fruit ripening is the most crucial process for the accumulation of these compounds. In this study, we analyzed the primary and the secondary metabolome as well as the proteome during Theobroma cacao cv. Forastero seed development by applying an integrative extraction protocol. The combination of multivariate statistics and mathematical modelling revealed a complex consecutive coordination of primary and secondary metabolism and corresponding pathways. Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and aromatic amino acid metabolism dominated during the early developmental stages (stages 1 and 2; cell division and expansion phase). This was accompanied with a significant shift of proteins from phenylpropanoid metabolism to flavonoid biosynthesis. At stage 3 (reserve accumulation phase), metabolism of sucrose switched from hydrolysis into raffinose synthesis. Lipids as well as proteins involved in lipid metabolism increased whereas amino acids and N-phenylpropenoyl amino acids decreased. Purine alkaloids, polyphenols, and raffinose as well as proteins involved in abiotic and biotic stress accumulated at stage 4 (maturation phase) endowing cacao seeds the characteristic astringent taste and resistance to stress. In summary, metabolic key points of cacao seed development comprise the sequential coordination of primary metabolites, phenylpropanoid, N-phenylpropenoyl amino acid, serotonin, lipid and polyphenol metabolism thereby covering the major compound classes involved in cacao aroma and health benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Nägele
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Vienna Metabolomics Center (VIME); University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Doerfler
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lena Fragner
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Palak Chaturvedi
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ella Nukarinen
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Anke Bellaire
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Rennweg 14, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Werner Huber
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Rennweg 14, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jakob Weiszmann
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Engelmeier
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ziva Ramsak
- Department of Systems Biology and Biotechnology, National Institute of Biology, Vecna pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Kristina Gruden
- Department of Systems Biology and Biotechnology, National Institute of Biology, Vecna pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Wolfram Weckwerth
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- Vienna Metabolomics Center (VIME); University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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69
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He H, Willems LAJ, Batushansky A, Fait A, Hanson J, Nijveen H, Hilhorst HWM, Bentsink L. Effects of Parental Temperature and Nitrate on Seed Performance are Reflected by Partly Overlapping Genetic and Metabolic Pathways. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 57:473-87. [PMID: 26738545 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcv207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Seed performance is affected by the seed maturation environment, and previously we have shown that temperature, nitrate and light intensity were the most influential environmental factors affecting seed performance. Seeds developed in these environments were selected to assess the underlying metabolic pathways, using a combination of transcriptomics and metabolomics. These analyses revealed that the effects of the parental temperature and nitrate environments were reflected by partly overlapping genetic and metabolic networks, as indicated by similar changes in the expression levels of metabolites and transcripts. Nitrogen metabolism-related metabolites (asparagine, γ-aminobutyric acid and allantoin) were significantly decreased in both low temperature (15 °C) and low nitrate (N0) maturation environments. Correspondingly, nitrogen metabolism genes (ALLANTOINASE, NITRATE REDUCTASE 1, NITRITE REDUCTASE 1 and NITRILASE 4) were differentially regulated in the low temperature and nitrate maturation environments, as compared with control conditions. High light intensity during seed maturation increased galactinol content, and displayed a high correlation with seed longevity. Low light had a genotype-specific effect on cell surface-encoding genes in the DELAY OF GERMINATION 6-near isogenic line (NILDOG6). Overall, the integration of phenotypes, metabolites and transcripts led to new insights into the regulation of seed performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanzi He
- Wageningen Seed Lab, Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Leo A J Willems
- Wageningen Seed Lab, Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Albert Batushansky
- The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 84990, Midreshet Ben-Gurion, Israel
| | - Aaron Fait
- The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 84990, Midreshet Ben-Gurion, Israel
| | - Johannes Hanson
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Utrecht University, NL-3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Harm Nijveen
- Wageningen Seed Lab, Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henk W M Hilhorst
- Wageningen Seed Lab, Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Leónie Bentsink
- Wageningen Seed Lab, Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Utrecht University, NL-3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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70
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Dekkers BJW, He H, Hanson J, Willems LAJ, Jamar DCL, Cueff G, Rajjou L, Hilhorst HWM, Bentsink L. The Arabidopsis DELAY OF GERMINATION 1 gene affects ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE 5 (ABI5) expression and genetically interacts with ABI3 during Arabidopsis seed development. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 85:451-65. [PMID: 26729600 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The seed expressed gene DELAY OF GERMINATION (DOG) 1 is absolutely required for the induction of dormancy. Next to a non-dormant phenotype, the dog1-1 mutant is also characterized by a reduced seed longevity suggesting that DOG1 may affect additional seed processes as well. This aspect however, has been hardly studied and is poorly understood. To uncover additional roles of DOG1 in seeds we performed a detailed analysis of the dog1 mutant using both transcriptomics and metabolomics to investigate the molecular consequences of a dysfunctional DOG1 gene. Further, we used a genetic approach taking advantage of the weak aba insensitive (abi) 3-1 allele as a sensitized genetic background in a cross with dog1-1. DOG1 affects the expression of hundreds of genes including LATE EMBRYOGENESIS ABUNDANT and HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN genes which are affected by DOG1 partly via control of ABI5 expression. Furthermore, the content of a subset of primary metabolites, which normally accumulate during seed maturation, was found to be affected in the dog1-1 mutant. Surprisingly, the abi3-1 dog1-1 double mutant produced green seeds which are highly ABA insensitive, phenocopying severe abi3 mutants, indicating that dog1-1 acts as an enhancer of the weak abi3-1 allele and thus revealing a genetic interaction between both genes. Analysis of the dog1 and dog1 abi3 mutants revealed additional seed phenotypes and therefore we hypothesize that DOG1 function is not limited to dormancy but that it is required for multiple aspects of seed maturation, in part by interfering with ABA signalling components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas J W Dekkers
- Wageningen Seed Laboratory, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708, PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Utrecht University, NL-3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hanzi He
- Wageningen Seed Laboratory, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708, PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes Hanson
- Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Utrecht University, NL-3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, SE-90187, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Leo A J Willems
- Wageningen Seed Laboratory, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708, PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Diaan C L Jamar
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708, PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gwendal Cueff
- INRA, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), UMR 1318 INRA/AgroParisTech, ERL CNRS 3559, Université Paris-Saclay, 'Saclay Plant Sciences' - RD10, F-78026, Versailles, France
- Chair of Plant Physiology, AgroParisTech, 16 rue Claude Bernard, F-75231, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Loïc Rajjou
- INRA, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), UMR 1318 INRA/AgroParisTech, ERL CNRS 3559, Université Paris-Saclay, 'Saclay Plant Sciences' - RD10, F-78026, Versailles, France
- Chair of Plant Physiology, AgroParisTech, 16 rue Claude Bernard, F-75231, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Henk W M Hilhorst
- Wageningen Seed Laboratory, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708, PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Leónie Bentsink
- Wageningen Seed Laboratory, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, NL-6708, PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Wang L, Fu J, Li M, Fragner L, Weckwerth W, Yang P. Metabolomic and Proteomic Profiles Reveal the Dynamics of Primary Metabolism during Seed Development of Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:750. [PMID: 27375629 PMCID: PMC4894879 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) belongs to the Nelumbonaceae family. Its seeds are widely consumed in Asian countries as snacks or even medicine. Besides the market value, lotus seed also plays a crucial role in the lotus life cycle. Consequently, it is essential to gain a comprehensive understanding of the development of lotus seed. During its development, lotus seed undergoes cell division, expansion, reserve accumulation, desiccation, and maturation phases. We observed morphological and biochemical changes from 10 to 25 days after pollination (DAP) which corresponded to the reserve synthesis and accumulation phase. The volume of the seed expanded until 20 DAP with the color of the seed coat changing from yellow-green to dark green and gradually fading again. Starch and protein rapidly accumulated from 15 to 20 DAP. To further reveal metabolic adaptation, primary metabolites and proteins profiles were obtained using mass spectrometry based platforms. Metabolites and enzymes involved in sugar metabolism, glycolysis, TCA cycle and amino acid metabolism showed sequential dynamics enabling the clear separation of the different metabolic states during lotus seed development. The integration of the data revealed a highly significant metabolic switch at 15 DAP going through a transition of metabolically highly active tissue to the preparation of storage tissue. The results provide a reference data set for the evaluation of primary metabolism during lotus seed development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of ViennaVienna, Austria
| | - Jinlei Fu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Speciality Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of SciencesWuhan, China
| | - Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Speciality Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of SciencesWuhan, China
| | - Lena Fragner
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of ViennaVienna, Austria
| | - Wolfram Weckwerth
- Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology, University of ViennaVienna, Austria
- Vienna Metabolomics Center, University of ViennaVienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Pingfang Yang, ; Wolfram Weckwerth,
| | - Pingfang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Speciality Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of SciencesWuhan, China
- Sino-African Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of SciencesWuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Pingfang Yang, ; Wolfram Weckwerth,
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72
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Hildebrandt TM, Nunes Nesi A, Araújo WL, Braun HP. Amino Acid Catabolism in Plants. MOLECULAR PLANT 2015; 8:1563-79. [PMID: 26384576 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2015.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 546] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Amino acids have various prominent functions in plants. Besides their usage during protein biosynthesis, they also represent building blocks for several other biosynthesis pathways and play pivotal roles during signaling processes as well as in plant stress response. In general, pool sizes of the 20 amino acids differ strongly and change dynamically depending on the developmental and physiological state of the plant cell. Besides amino acid biosynthesis, which has already been investigated in great detail, the catabolism of amino acids is of central importance for adjusting their pool sizes but so far has drawn much less attention. The degradation of amino acids can also contribute substantially to the energy state of plant cells under certain physiological conditions, e.g. carbon starvation. In this review, we discuss the biological role of amino acid catabolism and summarize current knowledge on amino acid degradation pathways and their regulation in the context of plant cell physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana M Hildebrandt
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Adriano Nunes Nesi
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais 36570-900, Brazil
| | - Wagner L Araújo
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais 36570-900, Brazil.
| | - Hans-Peter Braun
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany
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73
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Winkelmann T, Ratjens S, Bartsch M, Rode C, Niehaus K, Bednarz H. Metabolite profiling of somatic embryos of Cyclamen persicum in comparison to zygotic embryos, endosperm, and testa. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:597. [PMID: 26300898 PMCID: PMC4523879 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Somatic embryogenesis has been shown to be an efficient in vitro plant regeneration system for many crops such as the important ornamental plant Cyclamen persicum, for which this regeneration pathway of somatic embryogenesis is of interest for the vegetative propagation of parental lines as well as elite plants. However, somatic embryogenesis is not commercially used in many crops due to several unsolved problems, such as malformations, asynchronous development, deficiencies in maturation and germination of somatic embryos. In contrast, zygotic embryos in seeds develop and germinate without abnormalities in most cases. Instead of time-consuming and labor-intensive experiments involving tests of different in vitro culture conditions and plant growth regulator supplements, we follow a more directed approach. Zygotic embryos served as a reference and were compared to somatic embryos in metabolomic analyses allowing the future optimization of the in vitro system. The aims of this study were to detect differences in the metabolite profiles of torpedo stage somatic and zygotic embryos of C. persicum. Moreover, major metabolites in endosperm and testa were identified and quantified. Two sets of extracts of two to four biological replicates each were analyzed. In total 52 metabolites were identified and quantified in the different tissues. One of the most significant differences between somatic and zygotic embryos was that the proline concentration in the zygotic embryos was about 40 times higher than that found in somatic embryos. Epicatechin, a scavenger for reactive oxygen species, was found in highest abundance in the testa. Sucrose, the most abundant metabolite was detected in significantly higher concentrations in zygotic embryos. Also, a yet unknown trisaccharide, was significantly enriched in zygotic embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Traud Winkelmann
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität HannoverHannover, Germany
| | - Svenja Ratjens
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität HannoverHannover, Germany
| | - Melanie Bartsch
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität HannoverHannover, Germany
| | - Christina Rode
- Institute of Horticultural Production Systems, Leibniz Universität HannoverHannover, Germany
| | - Karsten Niehaus
- Faculty of Biology, Bio 27, Proteome and Metabolome Research, Bielefeld UniversityBielefeld, Germany
| | - Hanna Bednarz
- Faculty of Biology, Bio 27, Proteome and Metabolome Research, Bielefeld UniversityBielefeld, Germany
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74
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Sabelli PA, Larkins BA. New insights into how seeds are made. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:196. [PMID: 25859256 PMCID: PMC4374391 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paolo A. Sabelli
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of ArizonaTucson, AZ, USA
| | - Brian A. Larkins
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of NebraskaLincoln, NE, USA
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75
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Rogalski M, do Nascimento Vieira L, Fraga HP, Guerra MP. Plastid genomics in horticultural species: importance and applications for plant population genetics, evolution, and biotechnology. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:586. [PMID: 26284102 PMCID: PMC4520007 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
During the evolution of the eukaryotic cell, plastids, and mitochondria arose from an endosymbiotic process, which determined the presence of three genetic compartments into the incipient plant cell. After that, these three genetic materials from host and symbiont suffered several rearrangements, bringing on a complex interaction between nuclear and organellar gene products. Nowadays, plastids harbor a small genome with ∼130 genes in a 100-220 kb sequence in higher plants. Plastid genes are mostly highly conserved between plant species, being useful for phylogenetic analysis in higher taxa. However, intergenic spacers have a relatively higher mutation rate and are important markers to phylogeographical and plant population genetics analyses. The predominant uniparental inheritance of plastids is like a highly desirable feature for phylogeny studies. Moreover, the gene content and genome rearrangements are efficient tools to capture and understand evolutionary events between different plant species. Currently, genetic engineering of the plastid genome (plastome) offers a number of attractive advantages as high-level of foreign protein expression, marker gene excision, gene expression in operon and transgene containment because of maternal inheritance of plastid genome in most crops. Therefore, plastid genome can be used for adding new characteristics related to synthesis of metabolic compounds, biopharmaceutical, and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Here, we describe the importance and applications of plastid genome as tools for genetic and evolutionary studies, and plastid transformation focusing on increasing the performance of horticultural species in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Rogalski
- Laboratório de Fisiologia Molecular de Plantas, Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Federal de ViçosaViçosa, Brazil
| | - Leila do Nascimento Vieira
- Laboratório de Fisiologia do Desenvolvimento e Genética Vegetal, Programa de Pós-graduação em Recursos Genéticos Vegetais, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Santa CatarinaFlorianópolis, Brazil
| | - Hugo P. Fraga
- Laboratório de Fisiologia do Desenvolvimento e Genética Vegetal, Programa de Pós-graduação em Recursos Genéticos Vegetais, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Santa CatarinaFlorianópolis, Brazil
| | - Miguel P. Guerra
- Laboratório de Fisiologia do Desenvolvimento e Genética Vegetal, Programa de Pós-graduação em Recursos Genéticos Vegetais, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Santa CatarinaFlorianópolis, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Miguel P. Guerra, Laboratório de Fisiologia do Desenvolvimento e Genética Vegetal, Programa de Pós-graduação em Recursos Genéticos Vegetais, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Rod. Admar Gonzaga, 1346 Florianópolis, SC 88034-000, Brazil,
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76
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Seabra AR, Carvalho HG. Glutamine synthetase in Medicago truncatula, unveiling new secrets of a very old enzyme. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:578. [PMID: 26284094 PMCID: PMC4515544 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Glutamine synthetase (GS) catalyzes the first step at which nitrogen is brought into cellular metabolism and is also involved in the reassimilation of ammonium released by a number of metabolic pathways. Due to its unique position in plant nitrogen metabolism, GS plays essential roles in all aspects of plant development, from germination to senescence, and is a key component of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and plant yield. Understanding the mechanisms regulating GS activity is therefore of utmost importance and a great effort has been dedicated to understand how GS is regulated in different plant species. The present review summarizes exciting recent developments concerning the structure and regulation of GS isoenzymes, using the model legume Medicago truncatula. These include the understanding of the structural determinants of both the cytosolic and plastid located isoenzymes, the existence of a seed-specific GS gene unique to M. truncatula and closely related species and the discovery that GS isoenzymes are regulated by nitric oxide at the post-translational level. The data is discussed and integrated with the potential roles of the distinct GS isoenzymes within the whole plant context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Helena G. Carvalho
- *Correspondence: Helena G. Carvalho, Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Nitrogen Assimilation, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 823, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal,
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