Parental Education Attainment and Educational Upward Mobility; Role of Race and Gender

Association Between Parental Educational Attainment and Youth Outcomes and Role of Race/Ethnicity

Importance

The concept of minorities' diminished returns refers to the smaller protective effects of educational attainment for racial and ethnic minority groups compared with those for majority groups.

Objective

To explore racial and ethnic differences in the associations between parental educational attainment and youth outcomes among US adolescents.

Design, Setting, and Participants

A cross-sectional study was performed of 10 619 youth aged 12 to 17 years who were participants at wave 1 of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) study, a nationally representative survey, in 2013. Data analysis was performed from August to October 2019.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The dependent variables were youth tobacco dependence, aggression, school performance, psychological distress, and chronic medical conditions. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. Age and sex of the adolescents and marital status of the parents were the covariates. Race and ethnicity were the moderating variables. Logistic regression was used for data analysis.

Results

Among the participants, 5412 (51.0%) were aged 12 to 15 years, and 5207 (49.0%) were aged 16 to 17 years; 5480 (51.7%) were male. For non-Hispanic white youth, as parental educational attainment increased, there were stepwise reductions in the prevalence of tobacco dependence (13.2% vs 6.9% vs 2.7%), aggression (37.9% vs 34.8% vs 26.1%), low grade point average (84.2% vs 75.6% vs 53.3%), and chronic medical conditions (51.7% vs 50.8% vs 43.9%), but there was not such a trend for psychological distress (43.7% vs 48.6% vs 41.0%). Interactions were significant between Hispanic ethnicity and parental education on tobacco dependence (OR, 3.37 [95% CI, 2.00-5.69] for high school graduation; OR, 5.40 [95% CI, 2.52-11.56] for college graduation; P < .001 for both), aggression (OR, 1.41 [95% CI, 1.09-1.81]; P = .008 for high school graduation; OR, 1.59 [95% CI, 1.14-2.21]; P = .006 for college graduation), and psychological distress (OR, 1.50 [95% CI, 1.05-2.13]; P = .03). Black race showed an interaction with college graduation on poor school performance (OR, 2.00 [95% CI, 1.26-3.17]; P = .003) and chronic medical conditions (OR, 1.56 [95% CI, 1.14-2.14]; P = .005). All these findings suggest that the protective associations between high parental educational attainment and youth development might be systemically smaller for Hispanic and black youth than for non-Hispanic youth.

Conclusions and Relevance

Although high parental educational attainment is associated with better outcomes for youth, this association is systemically less significant for Hispanic and black than non-Hispanic white youth. The result is an increased health risk in youth from middle class black and Hispanic families. Given the systemic pattern for outcomes across domains, the diminishing returns of parental educational attainment may be due to upstream social processes that hinder ethnic minority families from translating their capital and human resources into health outcomes.

Unequal Protective Effects of Parental Educational Attainment on the Body Mass Index of Black and White Youth

BACKGROUND

Parental educational attainment is shown to be protective against health problems; the Minorities' Diminished Returns theory, however, posits that these protective effects tend to be smaller for socially marginalized groups particularly blacks than whites.

AIMS

To explore racial differences in the effect of parental educational attainment on body mass index (BMI) in a national sample of US adolescents.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, we used baseline data of 10,701 (8678 white and 2023 black) 12-17 years old adolescents in the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH; 2013). Parental educational attainment was the predictor. Youth BMI (based on self-reported weight and height) was the dependent variable. Age, gender, ethnicity, and family structure were covariates. Race was the focal moderator.

RESULTS

Overall, higher parental educational attainment was associated with lower youth BMI. Race, however, moderated the effect of parental educational attainment on BMI, suggesting that the protective effect of parental educational attainment on BMI is significantly smaller for black than white youth.

CONCLUSIONS

In the United States, race alters the health gains that are expected to follow parental educational attainment. While white youth who are from highly educated families are fit, black youth have high BMI at all levels of parental educational attainment. This means, while the most socially privileged group, whites, gain the most health from their parental education, blacks, the least privileged group, gain the least. Economic, social, public, and health policymakers should be aware that health disparities are not all due to lower socioeconomic status (SES) of the disadvantaged group but also diminished returns of SES resources for them. Black-white health disparities exist across all high socioeconomic status (SES) levels.

Unequal Associations between Educational Attainment and Occupational Stress across Racial and Ethnic Groups

Background: Although other mechanisms are also involved, at least one reason high educational attainment (EA) is associated with better health is lower employment stress in individuals with high EA. Minorities’ Diminished Returns, however, refer to the smaller protective health effects of EA for racial- and ethnic-minority individuals, particularly African Americans (AAs) and Hispanics, as compared to Whites. We are, however, not aware of many studies that have explored differential associations between EA and work-related stress across racial and ethnic groups. Aims: We aimed to compare racial and ethnic groups for the association between EA and occupational stress in a national sample of American adults. Methods: The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS 2015), a cross-sectional survey, included 15,726 employed adults. Educational attainment was the independent variable. Occupational stress was the outcome. Race and ethnicity were the moderators. Age, gender, number of jobs, and years in the job were the covariates. Results: Overall, higher EA was associated with lower levels of occupational stress. Race and ethnicity both interacted with EA, suggesting that the association between high EA and reduced occupational stress is systemically smaller for AAs and Hispanics than it is for Whites. Conclusions: In the United States, race and ethnicity limit the health gains that follow EA. While EA helps individuals avoid environmental risk factors, such as occupational stress, this is more valid for non-Hispanic Whites than AAs and Hispanics. The result is additional physical and mental health risks in highly educated AAs and Hispanics. The results are important, given racial and ethnic minorities are the largest growing section of the US population. We should not assume that EA is similarly protective across all racial and ethnic groups. In this context, EA may increase, rather than reduce, health disparities.

Race, Educational Attainment, and E-Cigarette Use

BACKGROUND

Although higher educational attainment lowers high-risk behaviors such as substance use, according to the Minorities' Diminished Returns theory, the effect of educational attainment may be smaller for Blacks than Whites.

AIMS

To explore the racial differences in the link between educational attainment and electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes).

METHODS

We used the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) data. This national survey was conducted in 2017 and included 2,277 American adults composed of 1,868 White and 409 Black individuals. Educational attainment was the independent variable. E-cigarette use (lifetime) was the dependent variables. Age and gender were the covariates. Race was the effect modifier.

RESULTS

In the overall sample, a higher level of education attainment was linked to lower odds of e-cigarette use (OR = 0.76, 95% CI =0.61-0.95). Race showed a significant interaction with educational attainment on the outcome (OR = 1.63, 95% CI =1.04-2.56), suggesting a weaker negative association between high educational attainment and e-cigarette use for Blacks than Whites. In race-stratified logistic regression models, high educational attainment was inversely associated with risk of e-cigarette use for Whites but not Blacks.

CONCLUSIONS

Educational attainment shows a stronger effect on e-cigarette use in White than Black Americans.

Being Married Increases Life Expectancy of White but Not Black Americans

Objective: The positive effect of high socioeconomic position (SEP) on health is well established. According Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory, however, the SEP-health link is smaller for Blacks compared to Whites. Using a 25-year follow up data of a national sample, this study tested racial differences in the effects of marital status on life expectancy among American adults. Materials and methods: The data of Americans' Changing Lives (ACL, 1986 - 2011) were used. The ACL is a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study followed 3,361 White or Blacks adults from 1986 to 2011. The predictor of interest was marital status in 1986. Confounders included demographic factors (age and gender), SEP (education and employment), health behaviors (drinking, smoking, and physical activity), and health status (depressive symptoms, chronic disease, and self-rated health) all measured at baseline. Race was the moderator variable. All-cause mortality was the main dependent variable (outcome). Cox proportional hazard modeling was applied for data analysis. Results: In the overall sample, individuals who were married at baseline had a lower risk of mortality during the 25 years of follow up. Race altered the effect of marital status on life expectancy, indicating smaller protective effect for Blacks relative to Whites. Race -specific Cox regression models showed an association between marital status and life expectancy for White but not Black Americans. Conclusion: In line with the MDRs theory, the health gain that follows marital status is diminished for Black Americans compared to White Americans. Only equalizing SEP across racial groups may not be adequate for eliminating racial/ethnic health inequalities. Policies should go beyond SEP and reduce societal and structural barriers that disproportionately hinder Blacks from translating their SEP indicators to desirable health outcomes.

Parental Educational Attainment and Chronic Medical Conditions among American Youth; Minorities' Diminished Returns

Background: Parental educational attainment is protective against chronic medical conditions (CMCs). According to the minorities’ diminished returns (MDRs) theory, however, the health effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators are smaller for socially marginalized groups such as racial and ethnic minorities rather than Whites. Aims: To explore racial and ethnic differences in the effect of parental educational attainment on CMCs in a nationally representative sample of American youth. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we used baseline data of 10,701 12–17 years old youth in the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH; 2013). Parental educational attainment was the independent variable. The dependent variable was the number of CMCs in youth. Age, gender, and family structure were covariates. Race and ethnicity were the focal moderators. Linear and multinomial regression were applied to analyze the data. Results: Overall, higher parental educational attainment was associated with a lower number of CMCs. Race and ethnicity, however, showed significant interactions with parental educational attainment on a number of CMCs as well as 2+ CMCs, suggesting that the effect of parenting educational attainment on CMCs is significantly smaller for Black and Hispanic than White youth. Conclusions: In the United States, race and ethnicity alter the health gains that are expected to follow parental educational attainment. While White youth who are from highly educated families are most healthy, Black and Hispanic youth from highly educated families remain at higher risk for CMCs. That means, while the most socially privileged group, Whites, gain the most health from their parental education, Blacks and Hispanics, the least privileged groups, gain the least. The result is a disproportionately high number of CMCs in middle-class Blacks and Hispanics. Economic, social, public, and health policy makers should be aware that health disparities are not all due to lower SES of the disadvantaged group but also diminished returns of SES resources for them. Youth physical health disparities due to race and ethnicity exist across all SES levels.

Educational Attainment and Subjective Health and Well-Being; Diminished Returns of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Individuals

Background: Educational attainment is one of the strongest determinants of subjective health and well-being. Minorities' Diminished Returns, however, suggests that such an effect may be smaller for the members of racial/ethnic minorities such as Blacks and Hispanics relative to non-Hispanic Whites. Only one study has previously shown that minorities' diminished returns may also apply to lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals; however, that study has focused on other outcomes (i.e., obesity). Aims: To compare LGB and non-LGB American adults for the effects of educational attainment on subjective health and well-being. Methods: This cross-sectional study used baseline data of 31,480 adults in the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH, 2013), a nationally representative study in the United States. The independent variable was educational attainment. The dependent variable was subjective health and well-being, measured using four items. Race, ethnicity, age, gender, poverty status, and employment were the covariates. LGB status was the moderator. Results: Overall, individuals with higher educational attainment had better subjective health and well-being. We found a significant interaction between LGB status and educational attainment which was suggestive of that the boosting effect of high educational attainment on better subjective health and well-being was systemically smaller for LGB than non-LGB individuals. Conclusions: In the United States, highly educated LGB adults experience poor subjective health and well-being, a status that is disproportionate to their educational attainment.

Unequal Effects of Educational Attainment on Workplace Exposure to Second-Hand Smoke by Race and Ethnicity; Minorities' Diminished Returns in the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS)

BACKGROUND

One of the mechanisms by which high educational attainment promotes populations' health is through reducing exposure to environmental risk factors such as second-hand smoke. Minorities' Diminished Returns theory, however, posits that the protective effect of educational attainment may be smaller for racial and ethnic minority individuals particularly Blacks and Hispanics compared to Whites.

AIMS

To explore racial and ethnic differences in the association between educational attainment and second-hand smoke exposure at work in a national sample of American adults.

METHODS

Data came from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS 2015), a cross-sectional study that included 15,726 employed adults. The independent variable was educational attainment, the dependent variables were any and daily second-hand smoke exposure at workplace, age and gender were covariates, and race and ethnicity were the moderators.

RESULTS

Overall, higher educational attainment was associated with lower odds of any and daily second-hand smoke exposure at work. Race and ethnicity both interacted with educational attainment suggesting that the protective effects of educational attainment on reducing the odds of any and daily second-hand smoke exposure at work are systemically smaller for Blacks and Hispanics than Whites.

CONCLUSIONS

In the United States, race and ethnicity bound the health gains that follow educational attainment. While educational attainment helps individuals avoid environmental risk factors such as second-hand smoke, this is more valid for Whites than Blacks and Hispanics. The result is additional risk of cancer and tobacco related disease in highly educated Blacks and Hispanics. The results are important given racial and ethnic minorities are the largest growing section of the US population. We should not assume that educational attainment is similarly protective across all racial and ethnic groups. In this context, educational attainment may increase, rather than reduce, health disparities.

Educational Attainment and Exercise Frequency in American Women; Blacks' Diminished Returns

BACKGROUND

Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) refer to smaller protects health effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators for Blacks and other minority groups than Whites.

OBJECTIVES

The current study aimed to explore Black- White differences in the association between educational attainment and exercise frequency among women in the US.

METHODS

For the current study, we used the National Survey of American Life's (NSAL) data which included 3,175 women who were either White (n = 876) or Black (n = 2,299). The independent variable was educational attainment. The dependent variable was exercise frequency. Age, region, household income, financial distress, marital status, unemployment, and depression were the covariates. Race was the focal moderator. Linear regression was applied for data analysis.

RESULTS

In the overall sample of women, high educational attainment was associated with higher exercise frequency (b = 0.07, 95% CI = 0.02-0.12). Race and educational attainment showed a significant interaction (b = -0.09, 95% CI = -0.19-0.00), suggestive of a smaller effect of education attainment on exercise frequency for Black women than White women. In race specific models, high educational attainment was associated with higher exercise frequency for White (b = 0.12, 95% CI =0.04-0.20) but not Black (b = 0.03, 95% CI = -0.03-0.08) women.

CONCLUSION

In line with the past research on MDRs, White women gain more health from their educational attainment than Black women. It is not race or class but race and class that shape the health behaviors of American women.

Substance Use among Economically Disadvantaged African American Older Adults; Objective and Subjective Socioeconomic Status

Purpose. This study investigated the effects of objective and subjective socioeconomic status (SES) indicators on two health behaviors, cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking, among African American older adults. Methods. This community-based study recruited 619 economically disadvantaged African American older adults (age ≥ 65 years) residing in South Los Angeles. Structured face-to-face interviews were conducted to collect data. Data on demographic factors (age and gender), subjective SES (financial difficulties), objective SES (educational attainment), living arrangement, marital status, healthcare access (insurance), and health (number of chronic medical conditions, self-rated health, sick days, depression, and chronic pain) and health behaviors (cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking) were collected from participants. Logistic regressions were used to analyze the data. Results. High financial difficulties were associated with higher odds of smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol, independent of covariates. Educational attainment did not correlate with our outcomes. Similar patterns emerged for cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking. Conclusion. Subjective SES indicators such as financial difficulties may be more relevant than objective SES indicators such as educational attainment to health risk behaviors such as cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking among African American older adults in economically constrain urban environments. Smoking and drinking may serve as coping mechanisms with financial difficulty, especially among African American older adults. In line with the minorities' diminished returns (MDR) theory, and probably due to discrimination against racial minorities, educational attainment has a smaller protective effect among economically disadvantaged African American individuals against health risk behaviors.

Parental Educational Attainment Differentially Boosts School Performance of American Adolescents: Minorities' Diminished Returns

Objective: To explore racial and ethnic variation in the effects of parental educational attainment on students' grade point average (GPA) in the US. As suggested by the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDR) theory, socioeconomic status (SES) systemically results in smaller outcomes for non-Whites compared to Whites. We still know very little about diminished trans-generational returns of SES resources such as parental educational attainment. For example, the differential impacts of parental educational attainment on school performance of youth from various racial and ethnic backgrounds are still unknown. Materials and methods: The Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH 2013 - 2014) is a nationally representative survey in the US. The total sample was 10,701 youth (12-17 years old) were enrolled. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. The main outcome was GPA measured using self-report. Age, gender, and parental marital status were the covariates. Race and ethnicity were the effect modifiers. Linear regression models were used to analyze the data. Results: Overall, higher parental educational attainment was associated with a higher GPA, independent of all possible confounders. Race and ethnicity, however, both showed significant interaction with parental educational attainment on students' GPA, indicating smaller positive effects of parental educational attainment on students' GPA for Hispanic and Black compared to non-Hispanic White youth. Conclusion: The boosting effect of parental educational attainment on GPA is smaller for Black and Hispanic compared to White youth. To minimize diminished returns of parental educational attainment for Black and Hispanic families, there is a need for innovative public and social policies and programs that are not limited to equalizing SES but also address the structural barriers that disproportionately limit upward social mobility of racial and ethnic minority students and their families. The US society should reduce extra costs of upward social mobility for racial and ethnic minority families. As the underlying mechanisms are multifaceted, multi-level approach is needed to undo minorities' diminished returns, so every individual can gain the same tangible outcome from their SES resources.

Education Attainment and Obesity：Differential Returns Based on Sexual Orientation

Background: Although high educational attainment is linked to better health and lower health risk behaviors, this effect may be systemically smaller for racial and ethnic minority groups compared to Whites. However, it is still unknown whether these diminished returns also apply to marginalization based on sexual orientation. Aims: In a national sample of adults which was composed of people of color, we compared straight and homosexual people for the association between education attainment and obesity. Methods: The Social Justice Sexuality Project (SJS-2010) is a cross-sectional national survey of health and wellbeing of predominantly people of color who identify as homosexual. The current analysis included 2884 adults (age 24 or more) who were either heterosexual (n = 260) or homosexual (n = 2624). The predictor variable was education attainment, and the outcome variable was obesity status (body mass index larger than 30 kg/m² [kilograms per meter squared]). Demographic factors (age and gender), household income, nativity (US born vs. immigrant), and health (self-rated health and current smoking) were the covariates. Sexual orientation was the moderator. Results: In the pooled sample, high education attainment was protective against obesity status. Sexual orientation interacted with education attainment on odds of obesity, which was suggestive of stronger protective effects of high education attainment against obesity for heterosexual than homosexual individuals. Conclusion: High education attainment better protects heterosexual than homosexual people against obesity, a pattern similar to what has been observed for comparison of Whites and non-Whites. Smaller protective effects of education attainment on health behaviors of marginalized people are possibly, due to prejudice and discrimination that they experience. Discrimination may minimize stigmatized individuals' abilities to mobilize their economic and human resources and translate them to tangible outcomes. This finding extends the Minorities' Diminished Returns theory, suggesting that it is not just race/ethnicity but possibly any marginalizing and stigmatizing social identity that results in diminished returns of socioeconomic status resources.

Parental Educational Attainment and Academic Performance of American College Students; Blacks' Diminished Returns

BACKGROUND

As suggested by the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDR) theory, socioeconomic status (SES) systemically results in smaller outcomes for non-Whites compared to Whites. We still know very little about diminished trans-generational returns of SES resources such as parental educational attainment (PEA).

PURPOSE

This cross-sectional study explored racial variation in the effect of PEA on the college students' grade point average (GPA) in the US.

METHODS

The Healthy Mind Study (HMS, 2016-2017) is a national telephone of college students in the US. The total sample was 18,072 domestic undergraduate college students who were either non-Hispanic Whites (n = 16,718; %92.50) or non-Hispanic Blacks (n = 1,354; %7.50). The independent variable was PEA. The main outcome was GPA measured using self-reported data. Age, gender, sexual orientation, transgender status, and financial difficulty were covariates. Race/ethnicity was the effect modifier. Linear regression models were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Overall, higher PEA was associated with a higher GPA, independent of all possible confounders. Race/ethnicity, however, showed a significant interaction with PEA on students' GPA, indicating a smaller positive effect of PEA on non-Hispanic Blacks compared to non-Hispanic Whites college students' GPA. Race/ethnicity stratified models also showed a larger effect for White than Black students.

CONCLUSIONS

The boosting effect of PEA in GPA is smaller for Black compared to White college students. US should systematically reduce extra costs of upward social mobility for racial and ethnic minority families.

Protective Effects of Educational Attainment Against Cigarette Smoking; Diminished Returns of American Indians and Alaska Natives in the National Health Interview Survey

BACKGROUND

Although educational attainment is protective against health risk behaviors such as smoking, Minorities' Diminished Returns theory posits that these protective effects are smaller for ethnic minority than the majority groups.

AIMS

compare the effects of educational attainment on smoking status of American Indian Alaska Native (AIAN) and White adults.

METHODS

Data came from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS - 2015). A total number of 21114 individuals entered our analysis. The independent variable was years of schooling. The dependent variable was current smoking status. Age, gender, region, marital status, and employment were covariates. Ethnicity was the moderator.

RESULTS

Overall, educational attainment was inversely associated with current smoking. Ethnicity showed a significant interaction with educational attainment that was suggestive that the protective effects of educational attainment against smoking is smaller for AIAN than Whites.

CONCLUSIONS

In the United States, while educational attainment helps individuals stay healthy by avoiding high risk behaviors such as smoking, this effect is smaller for AIANs than Whites. The result is additional risk of smoking in highly educated AIANs. To reduce ethnic disparities I tobacco use, it is important to go beyond SES inequalities and investigate why high SES ethnic minorities remain at high risk of tobacco use.