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Bigeard J, Hirt H. Nuclear Signaling of Plant MAPKs. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:469. [PMID: 29696029 PMCID: PMC5905223 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are conserved protein kinases in eukaryotes that establish signaling modules where MAPK kinase kinases (MAPKKKs) activate MAPK kinases (MAPKKs) which in turn activate MAPKs. In plants, they are involved in the signaling of multiple environmental stresses and developmental programs. MAPKs phosphorylate their substrates and this post-translational modification (PTM) contributes to the regulation of proteins. PTMs may indeed modify the activity, subcellular localization, stability or trans-interactions of modified proteins. Plant MAPKs usually localize to the cytosol and/or nucleus, and in some instances they may also translocate from the cytosol to the nucleus. Upon the detection of environmental changes at the cell surface, MAPKs participate in the signal transduction to the nucleus, allowing an adequate transcriptional reprogramming. The identification of plant MAPK substrates largely contributed to a better understanding of the underlying signaling mechanisms. In this review, we highlight the nuclear signaling of plant MAPKs. We discuss the activation, regulation and activity of plant MAPKs, as well as their nuclear re-localization. We also describe and discuss known nuclear substrates of plant MAPKs in the context of biotic stress, abiotic stress and development and consider future research directions in the field of plant MAPKs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Bigeard
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay IPS2, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Université Paris-Sud, Université Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay IPS2, Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris-Cité, Orsay, France
| | - Heribert Hirt
- Center for Desert Agriculture, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
- *Correspondence: Heribert Hirt
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Jacob P, Hirt H, Bendahmane A. The heat-shock protein/chaperone network and multiple stress resistance. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2017; 15:405-414. [PMID: 27860233 PMCID: PMC5362687 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Crop yield has been greatly enhanced during the last century. However, most elite cultivars are adapted to temperate climates and are not well suited to more stressful conditions. In the context of climate change, stress resistance is a major concern. To overcome these difficulties, scientists may help breeders by providing genetic markers associated with stress resistance. However, multistress resistance cannot be obtained from the simple addition of single stress resistance traits. In the field, stresses are unpredictable and several may occur at once. Consequently, the use of single stress resistance traits is often inadequate. Although it has been historically linked with the heat stress response, the heat-shock protein (HSP)/chaperone network is a major component of multiple stress responses. Among the HSP/chaperone 'client proteins', many are primary metabolism enzymes and signal transduction components with essential roles for the proper functioning of a cell. HSPs/chaperones are controlled by the action of diverse heat-shock factors, which are recruited under stress conditions. In this review, we give an overview of the regulation of the HSP/chaperone network with a focus on Arabidopsis thaliana. We illustrate the role of HSPs/chaperones in regulating diverse signalling pathways and discuss several basic principles that should be considered for engineering multiple stress resistance in crops through the HSP/chaperone network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Jacob
- Institute of Plant Science—Paris‐SaclayOrsayFrance
| | - Heribert Hirt
- Center for Desert AgricultureKing Abdullah University of Science and TechnologyThuwalSaudi Arabia
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Yin YL, Zhou Y, Zhou YH, Shi K, Zhou J, Yu Y, Yu JQ, Xia XJ. Interplay between mitogen-activated protein kinase and nitric oxide in brassinosteroid-induced pesticide metabolism in Solanum lycopersicum. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2016; 316:221-31. [PMID: 27236431 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.04.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MPK) play important roles in brassinosteroid (BR)-induced stress tolerance, however, their functions in BR-induced pesticides metabolism remain unclear. Here, we showed that MPK activity and transcripts of SlMPK1 and SlMPK2 were induced by chlorothalonil (CHT), a widely used fungicide, in tomato leaves. However, cosilencing of SlMPK1/2 compromised the 24-epibrassinolide (EBR)-induced upregulation of detoxification genes and CHT metabolism in tomato leaves. In addition, cosilencing of SlMPK1/2 inhibited the accumulation of S-nitrosothiol (SNO), the reservoir of nitric oxide (NO) in plants, whereas tungstate, the inhibitor of nitrate reductase (NR), blocked EBR-induced SNO accumulation and MPK activity. Inhibiting the accumulation of NO by cPTIO, the specific scavenger and tungstate abolished the EBR-induced upregulation of detoxification genes, glutathione accumulation and CHT metabolism. The results showed that MPK and NR-dependent NO were involved in BR-induced CHT metabolism. Notably, there was a positive crosstalk between the MPK and NO production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Ling Yin
- Department of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yue Zhou
- Department of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yan-Hong Zhou
- Department of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Kai Shi
- Department of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yunlong Yu
- Institute of Pesticide & Environmental Toxicology, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jing-Quan Yu
- Department of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Integrative Biology, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiao-Jian Xia
- Department of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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Goswami S, Kumar RR, Dubey K, Singh JP, Tiwari S, Kumar A, Smita S, Mishra DC, Kumar S, Grover M, Padaria JC, Kala YK, Singh GP, Pathak H, Chinnusamy V, Rai A, Praveen S, Rai RD. SSH Analysis of Endosperm Transcripts and Characterization of Heat Stress Regulated Expressed Sequence Tags in Bread Wheat. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1230. [PMID: 27582756 PMCID: PMC4988357 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Heat stress is one of the major problems in agriculturally important cereal crops, especially wheat. Here, we have constructed a subtracted cDNA library from the endosperm of HS-treated (42°C for 2 h) wheat cv. HD2985 by suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH). We identified ~550 recombinant clones ranging from 200 to 500 bp with an average size of 300 bp. Sanger's sequencing was performed with 205 positive clones to generate the differentially expressed sequence tags (ESTs). Most of the ESTs were observed to be localized on the long arm of chromosome 2A and associated with heat stress tolerance and metabolic pathways. Identified ESTs were BLAST search using Ensemble, TriFLD, and TIGR databases and the predicted CDS were translated and aligned with the protein sequences available in pfam and InterProScan 5 databases to predict the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs). We observed eight different types of post-translational modifications (PTMs) in the DEPs corresponds to the cloned ESTs-147 sites with phosphorylation, 21 sites with sumoylation, 237 with palmitoylation, 96 sites with S-nitrosylation, 3066 calpain cleavage sites, and 103 tyrosine nitration sites, predicted to sense the heat stress and regulate the expression of stress genes. Twelve DEPs were observed to have transmembrane helixes (TMH) in their structure, predicted to play the role of sensors of HS. Quantitative Real-Time PCR of randomly selected ESTs showed very high relative expression of HSP17 under HS; up-regulation was observed more in wheat cv. HD2985 (thermotolerant), as compared to HD2329 (thermosusceptible) during grain-filling. The abundance of transcripts was further validated through northern blot analysis. The ESTs and their corresponding DEPs can be used as molecular marker for screening or targeted precision breeding program. PTMs identified in the DEPs can be used to elucidate the thermotolerance mechanism of wheat-a novel step toward the development of "climate-smart" wheat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suneha Goswami
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
- *Correspondence: Suneha Goswami
| | - Ranjeet R. Kumar
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
- Ranjeet R. Kumar
| | - Kavita Dubey
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Jyoti P. Singh
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Sachidanand Tiwari
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Shuchi Smita
- Centre for Agricultural Bio-Informatics, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Dwijesh C. Mishra
- Centre for Agricultural Bio-Informatics, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Sanjeev Kumar
- Centre for Agricultural Bio-Informatics, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Monendra Grover
- Centre for Agricultural Bio-Informatics, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | | | - Yugal K. Kala
- Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Gyanendra P. Singh
- Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Himanshu Pathak
- Centre for Environment Science and Climate Resilient Agriculture, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | | | - Anil Rai
- Centre for Agricultural Bio-Informatics, Indian Agricultural Statistics Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Shelly Praveen
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
| | - Raj D. Rai
- Division of Biochemistry, Indian Agricultural Research InstituteNew Delhi, India
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Guo M, Liu JH, Ma X, Luo DX, Gong ZH, Lu MH. The Plant Heat Stress Transcription Factors (HSFs): Structure, Regulation, and Function in Response to Abiotic Stresses. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:114. [PMID: 26904076 PMCID: PMC4746267 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 330] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Abiotic stresses such as high temperature, salinity, and drought adversely affect the survival, growth, and reproduction of plants. Plants respond to such unfavorable changes through developmental, physiological, and biochemical ways, and these responses require expression of stress-responsive genes, which are regulated by a network of transcription factors (TFs), including heat stress transcription factors (HSFs). HSFs play a crucial role in plants response to several abiotic stresses by regulating the expression of stress-responsive genes, such as heat shock proteins (Hsps). In this review, we describe the conserved structure of plant HSFs, the identification of HSF gene families from various plant species, their expression profiling under abiotic stress conditions, regulation at different levels and function in abiotic stresses. Despite plant HSFs share highly conserved structure, their remarkable diversification across plants reflects their numerous functions as well as their integration into the complex stress signaling and response networks, which can be employed in crop improvement strategies via biotechnological intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Guo
- Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F UniversityYangling, China
| | - Jin-Hong Liu
- Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F UniversityYangling, China
| | - Xiao Ma
- Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F UniversityYangling, China
| | - De-Xu Luo
- Vegetable Research and Development Centre, Huaiyin Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai RegionHuaian, China
| | - Zhen-Hui Gong
- Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F UniversityYangling, China
- *Correspondence: Zhen-Hui Gong
| | - Ming-Hui Lu
- Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F UniversityYangling, China
- Ming-Hui Lu
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56
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Wang F, Yang Y, Wang Z, Zhou J, Fan B, Chen Z. A Critical Role of Lyst-Interacting Protein5, a Positive Regulator of Multivesicular Body Biogenesis, in Plant Responses to Heat and Salt Stresses. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 169:497-511. [PMID: 26229051 PMCID: PMC4577394 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.00518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Multivesicular bodies (MVBs) are unique endosomes containing vesicles in the lumen and play critical roles in many cellular processes. We have recently shown that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Lyst-Interacting Protein5 (LIP5), a positive regulator of the Suppressor of K(+) Transport Growth Defect1 (SKD1) AAA ATPase in MVB biogenesis, is a critical target of the mitogen-activated protein kinases MPK3 and MPK6 and plays an important role in the plant immune system. In this study, we report that the LIP5-regulated MVB pathway also plays a critical role in plant responses to abiotic stresses. Disruption of LIP5 causes compromised tolerance to both heat and salt stresses. The critical role of LIP5 in plant tolerance to abiotic stresses is dependent on its ability to interact with Suppressor of K(+) Transport Growth Defect1. When compared with wild-type plants, lip5 mutants accumulate increased levels of ubiquitinated protein aggregates and NaCl under heat and salt stresses, respectively. Further analysis using fluorescent dye and MVB markers reveals that abiotic stress increases the formation of endocytic vesicles and MVBs in a largely LIP5-dependent manner. LIP5 is also required for the salt-induced increase of intracellular reactive oxygen species, which have been implicated in signaling of salt stress responses. Basal levels of LIP5 phosphorylation by MPKs and the stability of LIP5 are elevated by salt stress, and mutation of MPK phosphorylation sites in LIP5 reduces the stability and compromises the ability to complement the lip5 salt-sensitive mutant phenotype. These results collectively indicate that the MVB pathway is positively regulated by pathogen/stress-responsive MPK3/6 through LIP5 phosphorylation and plays a critical role in broad plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wang
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2054 (F.W., Z.W., J.Z., B.F., Z.C.); andDepartment of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China (Y.Y., J.Z., Z.C.)
| | - Yan Yang
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2054 (F.W., Z.W., J.Z., B.F., Z.C.); andDepartment of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China (Y.Y., J.Z., Z.C.)
| | - Zhe Wang
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2054 (F.W., Z.W., J.Z., B.F., Z.C.); andDepartment of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China (Y.Y., J.Z., Z.C.)
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2054 (F.W., Z.W., J.Z., B.F., Z.C.); andDepartment of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China (Y.Y., J.Z., Z.C.)
| | - Baofang Fan
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2054 (F.W., Z.W., J.Z., B.F., Z.C.); andDepartment of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China (Y.Y., J.Z., Z.C.)
| | - Zhixiang Chen
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2054 (F.W., Z.W., J.Z., B.F., Z.C.); andDepartment of Horticulture, Zijingang Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China (Y.Y., J.Z., Z.C.)
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Ma W, Kong Q, Grix M, Mantyla JJ, Yang Y, Benning C, Ohlrogge JB. Deletion of a C-terminal intrinsically disordered region of WRINKLED1 affects its stability and enhances oil accumulation in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 83:864-74. [PMID: 26305482 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
WRINKLED1 (WRI1) is a key transcription factor governing plant oil biosynthesis. We characterized three intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) in Arabidopsis WRI1, and found that one C-terminal IDR of AtWRI1 (IDR3) affects the stability of AtWRI1. Analysis by bimolecular fluorescence complementation and yeast-two-hybrid assays indicated that the IDR3 domain does not determine WRI1 stability by interacting with BTB/POZ-MATH proteins connecting AtWRI1 with CULLIN3-based E3 ligases. Analysis of the WRI1 sequence revealed that a putative PEST motif (proteolytic signal) is located at the C-terminal region of AtWRI1(IDR) (3). We also show that a 91 amino acid domain at the C-terminus of AtWRI1 without the PEST motif is sufficient for transactivation. We found that removal of the PEST motif or mutations in putative phosphorylation sites increased the stability of AtWRI1, and led to increased oil biosynthesis when these constructs were transiently expressed in tobacco leaves. Oil content was also increased in the seeds of stable transgenic wri1-1 plants expressing AtWRI1 with mutations in the IDR3-PEST motif. Taken together, our data suggest that intrinsic disorder of AtWRI1(IDR3) may facilitate exposure of the PEST motif to protein kinases. Thus, phosphorylation of the PEST motif in the AtWRI1(IDR) (3) domain may affect AtWRI1-mediated plant oil biosynthesis. The results obtained here suggest a means to increase accumulation of oils in plant tissues through WRI1 engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ma
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Que Kong
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Michael Grix
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Jenny J Mantyla
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Yang Yang
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Christoph Benning
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - John B Ohlrogge
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
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58
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Shankar A, Agrawal N, Sharma M, Pandey A, Pandey GK. Role of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases in Plants. Curr Genomics 2015; 16:224-36. [PMID: 26962298 PMCID: PMC4765517 DOI: 10.2174/1389202916666150424234300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 04/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Reversible protein phosphorylation is a crucial regulatory mechanism that controls many biological processes in eukaryotes. In plants, phosphorylation events primarily occur on serine (Ser) and threonine (Thr) residues, while in certain cases, it was also discovered on tyrosine (Tyr) residues. In contrary to plants, extensive reports on Tyr phosphorylation regulating a large numbers of biological processes exist in animals. Despite of such prodigious function in animals, Tyr phosphorylation is a least studied mechanism of protein regulation in plants. Recently, various chemical analytical procedures have strengthened the view that Tyr phosphorylation is equally prevalent in plants as in animals. However, regardless of Tyr phosphorylation events occuring in plants, no evidence could be found for the existence of gene encoding for Tyr phosphorylation i.e. the typical Tyr kinases. Various methodologies have suggested that plant responses to stress signals and developmental processes involved modifications in protein Tyr phosphorylation. Correspondingly, various reports have established the role of PTPs (Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases) in the dephosphorylation and inactivation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) hence, in the regulation of MAPK signaling cascade. Besides this, many dual specificity protein phosphatases (DSPs) are also known to bind starch and regulate starch metabolism through reversible phosphorylation. Here, we are emphasizing the significant progress on protein Tyr phosphatases to understand the role of these enzymes in the regulation of post-translational modification in plant physiology and development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Girdhar K. Pandey
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, Dhaula Kuan, New Delhi-110021, India
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Bigeard J, Colcombet J, Hirt H. Signaling mechanisms in pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). MOLECULAR PLANT 2015; 8:521-39. [PMID: 25744358 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2014.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 536] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In nature, plants constantly have to face pathogen attacks. However, plant disease rarely occurs due to efficient immune systems possessed by the host plants. Pathogens are perceived by two different recognition systems that initiate the so-called pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI), both of which are accompanied by a set of induced defenses that usually repel pathogen attacks. Here we discuss the complex network of signaling pathways occurring during PTI, focusing on the involvement of mitogen-activated protein kinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Bigeard
- Unité de Recherche en Génomique Végétale (URGV), UMR INRA/CNRS/Université d'Evry Val d'Essonne/Saclay Plant Sciences, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Jean Colcombet
- Unité de Recherche en Génomique Végétale (URGV), UMR INRA/CNRS/Université d'Evry Val d'Essonne/Saclay Plant Sciences, 2 rue Gaston Crémieux, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Heribert Hirt
- Center for Desert Agriculture, 4700 King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
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60
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Pitzschke A. Modes of MAPK substrate recognition and control. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 20:49-55. [PMID: 25301445 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Revised: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are universal, evolutionary conserved signalling modules, which translate environmental information into appropriate responses via phosphorylation of their substrate proteins. In Arabidopsis, the MAPK MPK3 regulates numerous cellular processes, including the adaptation to abiotic and biotic stresses. The molecular steps immediately downstream of MPK3 induction have, therefore, received abundant attention, and a respectable number of MPK3 targets are known by now. These proteins illustrate the substrate promiscuity of MPK3. They also are evidence for how manifold phosphorylation-regulated functions can be. This review presents the current knowledge about the function and regulation of MPK3-targeted proteins, takes a close look at their primary protein sequences, and proposes a model of how MPK3 recognises, binds, and phosphorylates its targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Pitzschke
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology (DAGZ), University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), Muthgasse 18, Vienna A-1190, Austria.
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61
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Driedonks N, Xu J, Peters JL, Park S, Rieu I. Multi-Level Interactions Between Heat Shock Factors, Heat Shock Proteins, and the Redox System Regulate Acclimation to Heat. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:999. [PMID: 26635827 PMCID: PMC4647109 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
High temperature has become a global concern because it seriously affects the growth and reproduction of plants. Exposure of plant cells to high temperatures result in cellular damage and can even lead to cell death. Part of the damage can be ascribed to the action of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which accumulate during abiotic stresses such as heat stress. ROS are toxic and can modify other biomacromolecules including membrane lipids, DNA, and proteins. In order to protect the cells, ROS scavenging is essential. In contrast with their inherent harms, ROS also function as signaling molecules, inducing stress tolerance mechanisms. This review examines the evidence for crosstalk between the classical heat stress response, which consists of heat shock factors (HSFs) and heat shock proteins (HSPs), with the ROS network at multiple levels in the heat response process. Heat stimulates HSF activity directly, but also indirectly via ROS. HSFs in turn stimulate the expression of HSP chaperones and also affect ROS scavenger gene expression. In the short term, HSFs repress expression of superoxide dismutase scavenger genes via induction of miRNA398, while they also activate scavenger gene expression and stabilize scavenger protein activity via HSP induction. We propose that these contrasting effects allow for the boosting of the heat stress response at the very onset of the stress, while preventing subsequent oxidative damage. The described model on HSFs, HSPs, ROS, and ROS scavenger interactions seems applicable to responses to stresses other than heat and may explain the phenomenon of crossacclimation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicky Driedonks
- Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Jiemeng Xu
- Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Janny L. Peters
- Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Sunghun Park
- Department of Horticulture, Forestry and Recreation Resources, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Ivo Rieu
- Department of Molecular Plant Physiology, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Ivo Rieu,
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Satoh M, Tokaji Y, Nagano AJ, Hara-Nishimura I, Hayashi M, Nishimura M, Ohta H, Masuda S. Arabidopsis mutants affecting oxylipin signaling in photo-oxidative stress responses. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2014; 81:90-95. [PMID: 24342708 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Plant oxylipins derive from oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in thylakoid membranes and oxylipins such as jasmonic acid (JA) and 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA) play important roles in adaptation to photo-oxidative stress. OPDA functions both as a JA precursor and as a biologically active signaling molecule that induces expression of a specific set of genes. These genes can be induced by OPDA in the JA-insensitive coronatine insensitive1 (coi1) mutant, suggesting that there is an alternative pathway for OPDA signaling, independent of COI1-dependent JA signaling. However, little is known about OPDA signaling in photo-oxidative stress responses. In this study, we isolated Arabidopsis mutants with constitutively enhanced expression from the OPDA-responsive HsfA2 promoter. We used deletion mapping and complementation analysis to identify one responsible gene as CATALASE2. Our results thus indicate that ROS-producing cellular metabolism links to OPDA signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Satoh
- Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Yoshihito Tokaji
- Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Atsushi J Nagano
- Center for Ecological Research, Kyoto University, Shiga 520-2113, Japan; PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | | | - Makoto Hayashi
- Department of Bioscience, Nagahama Institute of Bio-Science and Technology, Tamura 1266, Nagahama, Shiga, 526-0829 Japan
| | - Mikio Nishimura
- Department of Cell Biology, National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki 444-0867, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ohta
- Center for Biological Resources and Informatics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan; Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
| | - Shinji Masuda
- Center for Biological Resources and Informatics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan; Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan.
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63
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Liu JZ, Braun E, Qiu WL, Shi YF, Marcelino-Guimarães FC, Navarre D, Hill JH, Whitham SA. Positive and negative roles for soybean MPK6 in regulating defense responses. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2014; 27:824-34. [PMID: 24762222 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-11-13-0350-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
It has been well established that MPK6 is a positive regulator of defense responses in model plants such as Arabidopsis and tobacco. However, the functional importance of soybean MPK6 in disease resistance has not been investigated. Here, we showed that silencing of GmMPK6 in soybean using virus-induced gene silencing mediated by Bean pod mottle virus (BPMV) caused stunted growth and spontaneous cell death on the leaves, a typical phenotype of activated defense responses. Consistent with this phenotype, expression of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes and the conjugated form of salicylic acid were significantly increased in GmMPK6-silenced plants. As expected, GmMPK6-silenced plants were more resistant to downy mildew and Soybean mosaic virus compared with vector control plants, indicating a negative role of GmMPK6 in disease resistance. Interestingly, overexpression of GmMPK6, either transiently in Nicotiana benthamiana or stably in Arabidopsis, resulted in hypersensitive response (HR)-like cell death. The HR-like cell death was accompanied by increased PR gene expression, suggesting that GmMPK6, like its counterpart in other plant species, also plays a positive role in cell death induction and defense response. Using bimolecular fluorescence complementation analysis, we determined that GmMKK4 might function upstream of GmMPK6 and GmMKK4 could interact with GmMPK6 independent of its phosphorylation status. Taken together, our results indicate that GmMPK6 functions as both repressor and activator in defense responses of soybean.
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64
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Li CH, Wang G, Zhao JL, Zhang LQ, Ai LF, Han YF, Sun DY, Zhang SW, Sun Y. The Receptor-Like Kinase SIT1 Mediates Salt Sensitivity by Activating MAPK3/6 and Regulating Ethylene Homeostasis in Rice. THE PLANT CELL 2014; 26:2538-2553. [PMID: 24907341 PMCID: PMC4114950 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.114.125187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
High salinity causes growth inhibition and shoot bleaching in plants that do not tolerate high salt (glycophytes), including most crops. The molecules affected directly by salt and linking the extracellular stimulus to intracellular responses remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that rice (Oryza sativa) Salt Intolerance 1 (SIT1), a lectin receptor-like kinase expressed mainly in root epidermal cells, mediates salt sensitivity. NaCl rapidly activates SIT1, and in the presence of salt, as SIT1 kinase activity increased, plant survival decreased. Rice MPK3 and MPK6 function as the downstream effectors of SIT1. SIT1 phosphorylates MPK3 and 6, and their activation by salt requires SIT1. SIT1 mediates ethylene production and salt-induced ethylene signaling. SIT1 promotes accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to growth inhibition and plant death under salt stress, which occurred in an MPK3/6- and ethylene signaling-dependent manner in Arabidopsis thaliana. Our findings demonstrate the existence of a SIT1-MPK3/6 cascade that mediates salt sensitivity by affecting ROS and ethylene homeostasis and signaling. These results provide important information for engineering salt-tolerant crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Hui Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
| | - Geng Wang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
| | - Ji-Long Zhao
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
| | - Li-Qing Zhang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
| | - Lian-Feng Ai
- Hebei Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau of China, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050028, P.R. China
| | - Yong-Feng Han
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
| | - Da-Ye Sun
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
| | - Sheng-Wei Zhang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
| | - Ying Sun
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Hebei 050024, P.R. China Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050024, P.R. China
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65
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Pérez-Salamó I, Papdi C, Rigó G, Zsigmond L, Vilela B, Lumbreras V, Nagy I, Horváth B, Domoki M, Darula Z, Medzihradszky K, Bögre L, Koncz C, Szabados L. The heat shock factor A4A confers salt tolerance and is regulated by oxidative stress and the mitogen-activated protein kinases MPK3 and MPK6. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 165:319-34. [PMID: 24676858 PMCID: PMC4012591 DOI: 10.1104/pp.114.237891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Heat shock factors (HSFs) are principal regulators of plant responses to several abiotic stresses. Here, we show that estradiol-dependent induction of HSFA4A confers enhanced tolerance to salt and oxidative agents, whereas inactivation of HSFA4A results in hypersensitivity to salt stress in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Estradiol induction of HSFA4A in transgenic plants decreases, while the knockout hsfa4a mutation elevates hydrogen peroxide accumulation and lipid peroxidation. Overexpression of HSFA4A alters the transcription of a large set of genes regulated by oxidative stress. In yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays, HSFA4A shows homomeric interaction, which is reduced by alanine replacement of three conserved cysteine residues. HSFA4A interacts with mitogen-activated protein kinases MPK3 and MPK6 in yeast and plant cells. MPK3 and MPK6 phosphorylate HSFA4A in vitro on three distinct sites, serine-309 being the major phosphorylation site. Activation of the MPK3 and MPK6 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway led to the transcriptional activation of the HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN17.6A gene. In agreement that mutation of serine-309 to alanine strongly diminished phosphorylation of HSFA4A, it also strongly reduced the transcriptional activation of HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN17.6A. These data suggest that HSFA4A is a substrate of the MPK3/MPK6 signaling and that it regulates stress responses in Arabidopsis.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Arabidopsis/enzymology
- Arabidopsis/genetics
- Arabidopsis/growth & development
- Arabidopsis/physiology
- Arabidopsis Proteins/chemistry
- Arabidopsis Proteins/genetics
- Arabidopsis Proteins/metabolism
- Cell Nucleus/drug effects
- Cell Nucleus/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- DNA, Bacterial/genetics
- Estradiol/pharmacology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Plant/drug effects
- Genes, Plant
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinases/metabolism
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutagenesis, Insertional/genetics
- Oxidation-Reduction/drug effects
- Oxidative Stress/drug effects
- Oxidative Stress/genetics
- Phosphorylation/drug effects
- Plants, Genetically Modified
- Protein Binding/drug effects
- Protein Multimerization/drug effects
- Salinity
- Salt Tolerance/drug effects
- Salt Tolerance/genetics
- Sodium Chloride/pharmacology
- Stress, Physiological/drug effects
- Stress, Physiological/genetics
- Transcription Factors/chemistry
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Transcription, Genetic/drug effects
- Transformation, Genetic/drug effects
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66
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Sarkar NK, Kim YK, Grover A. Coexpression network analysis associated with call of rice seedlings for encountering heat stress. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 84:125-43. [PMID: 23975147 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-013-0123-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/17/2013] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Coexpression network analysis is useful tool for identification of functional association of coexpressed genes. We developed a coexpression network of rice from heat stress transcriptome data. Global transcriptome of rice leaf tissues was performed by microarray at three time points--post 10 and 60 min heat stress at 42 °C and 30 min recovery at 26 °C following 60 min 42 °C heat stress to investigate specifically the early events in the heat stress and recovery response. The transcriptome profile was significantly modulated within 10 min of heat stress. Strikingly, the number of up-regulated genes was higher than the number of down-regulated genes in 10 min of heat stress. The enrichment of GO terms protein kinase activity/protein serine threonine kinase activity, response to heat and reactive oxygen species in up-regulated genes after 10 min signifies the role of signal transduction events and reactive oxygen species during early heat stress. The enrichment of transcription factor (TF) binding sites for heat shock factors, bZIPs and DREBs coupled with up-regulation of TFs of different families suggests that the heat stress response in rice involves integration of various regulatory networks. The interpretation of microarray data in the context of coexpression network analysis identified several functionally correlated genes consisting of previously documented heat upregulated genes as well as new genes that can be implicated in heat stress. Based on the findings on parallel analysis of growth of seedlings, associated changes in transcripts of selected Hsps, genome-wide microarray profiling and the coexpression network analysis, this study is a step forward in understanding heat response of rice, the world's most important food crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelam K Sarkar
- Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, 110021, India
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Liu HC, Charng YY. Common and distinct functions of Arabidopsis class A1 and A2 heat shock factors in diverse abiotic stress responses and development. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 163:276-90. [PMID: 23832625 PMCID: PMC3762648 DOI: 10.1104/pp.113.221168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
There are 21 heat shock factor (HSF) homologs in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), of which members of class A1 (HSFA1a/HSFA1b/HSFA1d/HSFA1e) play the major role in activating the transcription of heat-induced genes, including HSFA2. Once induced, HSFA2 becomes the dominant HSF and is able to form heterooligomeric complexes with HSFA1. However, whether HSFA2 could function independently as a transcription regulator in the absence of the HSFA1s was undetermined. To address this question, we introduced a Cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter:HSFA2 construct into hsfa1a/hsfa1b/hsfa1d/hsfa1e quadruple knockout (QK) and wild-type (Wt) backgrounds to yield transgenic lines A2QK and A2Wt, respectively. Constitutive expression of HSFA2 rescued the developmental defects of the QK mutant and promoted callus formation in A2QK, but not in A2Wt, after heat treatment. Transcriptome analysis showed that heat stress response genes are differentially regulated by the HSFA1s and HSFA2; the genes involved in metabolism and redox homeostasis are preferentially regulated by HSFA2, while HSFA1-preferring genes are enriched in transcription function. Ectopic expression of HSFA2 complemented the defects of QK in tolerance to different heat stress regimes, and to hydrogen peroxide, but not to salt and osmotic stresses. Furthermore, we showed that HSFA1a/HSFA1b/HSFA1d are involved in thermotolerance to mild heat stress at temperatures as low as 27°C. We also noticed subfunctionalization of the four Arabidopsis A1-type HSFs in diverse abiotic stress responses. Overall, this study reveals the overlapping and distinct functions of class A1 and A2 HSFs and may enable more precise use of HSFs in engineering stress tolerance in the future.
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68
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Smékalová V, Doskočilová A, Komis G, Samaj J. Crosstalk between secondary messengers, hormones and MAPK modules during abiotic stress signalling in plants. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 32:2-11. [PMID: 23911976 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The crosstalk between second messengers, hormones and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in plant signalling systems facilitates adaptation and survival in the face of diverse environmental stresses. This review focuses on the transduction of second messenger and hormone signals by MAPK modules in plant abiotic stress responses. We discuss how this crosstalk regulates gene expression (e.g. by controlling transcription factor activity) and other cellular and physiological responses to enable adaptation and/or resistance to abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Smékalová
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Anna Doskočilová
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - George Komis
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jozef Samaj
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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