Hyaluronan: from extracellular glue to pericellular cue

Dynamic mechanical analysis and biomineralization of hyaluronan-polyethylene copolymers for potential use in osteochondral defect repair

Treatment options for damaged articular cartilage are limited due to its lack of vasculature and its unique viscoelastic properties. This study was the first to fabricate a hyaluronan (HA)-polyethylene copolymer for potential use in the replacement of articular cartilage and repair of osteochondral defects. Amphiphilic graft copolymers consisting of HA and high-density polyethylene (HA-co-HDPE) were fabricated with 10, 28 and 50 wt.% HA. Dynamic mechanical analysis was used to assess the effect of varying constituent weight ratios on the viscoelastic properties of HA-co-HDPE materials. The storage moduli of HA-co-HDPE copolymers ranged from 2.4 to 15.0 MPa at physiological loading frequencies. The viscoelastic properties of the HA-co-HDPE materials were significantly affected by varying the wt.% of HA and/or crosslinking of the HA constituent. Cytotoxicity and the ability of the materials to support mineralization were evaluated in the presence of bone marrow stromal cells. HA-co-HDPE materials were non-cytotoxic, and calcium and phosphorus were present on the surface of the HA-co-HDPE materials 2 weeks after osteogenic differentiation of the bone marrow stromal cells. This study is the first to measure the viscoelastic properties and osseocompatibility of HA-co-HDPE for potential use in orthopedic applications.

Hyaluronan as an immune regulator in human diseases

Accumulation and turnover of extracellular matrix components are the hallmarks of tissue injury. Fragmented hyaluronan stimulates the expression of inflammatory genes by a variety of immune cells at the injury site. Hyaluronan binds to a number of cell surface proteins on various cell types. Hyaluronan fragments signal through both Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and TLR2 as well as CD44 to stimulate inflammatory genes in inflammatory cells. Hyaluronan is also present on the cell surface of epithelial cells and provides protection against tissue damage from the environment by interacting with TLR2 and TLR4. Hyaluronan and hyaluronan-binding proteins regulate inflammation, tissue injury, and repair through regulating inflammatory cell recruitment, release of inflammatory cytokines, and cell migration. This review focuses on the role of hyaluronan as an immune regulator in human diseases.

Identification of CD44 as a surface biomarker for drug resistance by surface proteome signature technology

We developed surface proteome signatures (SPS) for identification of new biomarkers playing a role in cancer drug resistance. SPS compares surface antigen expression of different cell lines by immunocytochemistry of a phage display antibody library directed to surface antigens of HT1080 fibrosarcoma cells. We applied SPS to compare the surface proteomes of two epithelial derived cancer cell lines, MCF7 and NCI/ADR-RES, which is drug resistant because of overexpression of the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) drug efflux pump. Surface proteomic profiling identified CD44 as an additional biomarker that distinguishes between these two cell lines. CD44 immunohistochemistry can distinguish between tumors derived from these lines and predict tumor response to doxorubicin in vivo. We further show that CD44 plays a role in drug resistance, independently of P-gp, in NCI/ADR-RES cells and increases expression of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL. Our findings illustrate the utility of SPS to distinguish between cancer cell lines and their derived tumors and identify novel biomarkers involved in drug resistance.

Hyaluronan suppresses prostate tumor cell proliferation through diminished expression of N-cadherin and aberrant growth factor receptor signaling

Hyaluronan (HA) production has been functionally implicated in prostate tumorigenesis and metastasis. We previously used prostate tumor cells overexpressing the HA synthesizing enzyme HAS3 or the clinically relevant hyaluronidase Hyal1 to show that excess HA production suppresses tumor growth, while HA turnover accelerates spontaneous metastasis from the prostate. Here, we examined pathways responsible for effects of HAS3 and Hyal1 on tumor cell phenotype. Detailed characterization of cell cycle progression revealed that expression of Hyal1 accelerated cell cycle re-entry following synchronization, whereas HAS3 alone delayed entry. Hyal1 expressing cells exhibited a significant reduction in their ability to sustain ERK phosphorylation upon stimulation by growth factors, and in their expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. In contrast, HAS3 expressing cells showed prolonged ERK phosphorylation and increased expression of both p21 and p27, in asynchronous and synchronized cultures. Changes in cell cycle regulatory proteins were accompanied by HA-induced suppression of N-cadherin, while E-cadherin expression and β-catenin expression and distribution remained unchanged. Our results are consistent with a model in which excess HA synthesis suppresses cell proliferation by promoting homotypic E-cadherin mediated cell-cell adhesion, consequently signaling to elevate cell cycle inhibitor expression and suppress G1- to S-phase transition.

Hollow spheroids in ascites of ovarian clear cell carcinoma: how are they formed and how do they behave?

OBJECTIVE

Although the multicellular aggregates (spheroids) in malignant ascites are usually solid throughout, they sometimes have acellular hollow spaces, especially in ascites of ovarian clear cell carcinoma. The purpose of this study is to analyse the origin and behaviour of hollow spheroids.

METHODS

Archival cytological and histological specimens of 32 ovarian carcinomas, including 12 clear cell carcinomas, were reviewed. HAC-2, a clear cell carcinoma cell line, was injected into the abdominal cavity of nude mice for direct comparison of ascitic cytology and tumour histology. Spheroids that were collected from nude mice ascites were cultured in vitro to observe their behaviour.

RESULTS

Five of six clear cell carcinomas with hollow spheroids showed spherule-like hyaluronan-rich stroma in their tumour tissue, whereas those without hollow spheroids did not. After heterotransplantation, both ascites and tumour imprints showed small or large hollow spheroids. Hyaluronan was detected in the former but not in the latter. The abdominal tumours showed compact spherule-like hyaluronan-rich stroma, enlarged oedematous stroma or intermediate stroma. In both size and hyaluronan status, small and large hollow spheroids were approximately comparable to spherule-like hyaluronan-rich stroma and oedematous stroma, respectively. During culture in vitro, hollow spheroids were maintained as hollow spheroids in suspension, and produced daughter hollow spheroids.

CONCLUSIONS

The hollow space in the spheroids originates from spherule-like hyaluronan-rich stroma, where water trapping by hyaluronan causes enlargement of the space. The matrix within the hollow space serves as a scaffold that regulates cell polarity and matrix production.

Role of versican, hyaluronan and CD44 in ovarian cancer metastasis

There is increasing evidence to suggest that extracellular matrix (ECM) components play an active role in tumor progression and are an important determinant for the growth and progression of solid tumors. Tumor cells interfere with the normal programming of ECM biosynthesis and can extensively modify the structure and composition of the matrix. In ovarian cancer alterations in the extracellular environment are critical for tumor initiation and progression and intra-peritoneal dissemination. ECM molecules including versican and hyaluronan (HA) which interacts with the HA receptor, CD44, have been shown to play critical roles in ovarian cancer metastasis. This review focuses on versican, HA, and CD44 and their potential as therapeutic targets for ovarian cancer.

Hyaluronan metabolism in remodeling extracellular matrix: probes for imaging and therapy of breast cancer

Clinical and experimental evidence increasingly support the concept of cancer as a disease that emulates a component of wound healing, in particular abnormal stromal extracellular matrix remodeling. Here we review the biology and function of one remodeling process, hyaluronan (HA) metabolism, which is essential for wound resolution but closely linked to breast cancer (BCA) progression. Components of the HA metabolic cycle (HAS2, SPAM1 and HA receptors CD44, RHAMM/HMMR and TLR2) are discussed in terms of their known functions in wound healing and in breast cancer progression. Finally, we discuss recent advances in the use of HA-based platforms for developing nanoprobes to image areas of active HA metabolism and for therapeutics in breast cancer.

Characteristics of high-molecular-weight hyaluronic acid as a brain-derived neurotrophic factor scaffold in periodontal tissue regeneration

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), for which bovine collagen-derived atelocollagen is used as a scaffold, enhances periodontal tissue regeneration. However, a scaffold that does not contain unknown ingredients is preferable. Since the synthesized high-molecular-weight (HMW)-hyaluronic acid (HA) is safe and inexpensive, we evaluated the efficacy of HMW-HA as a BDNF scaffold. CD44, a major receptor of HA, was expressed in cultures of human periodontal ligament cells, and HMW-HA promoted the adhesion and proliferation of human periodontal ligament cells, although it did not influence the mRNA expression of bone (cementum)-related proteins. The in vitro release kinetics of BDNF from HMW-HA showed that BDNF release was sustained for 14 days. Subsequently, we examined the effect of BDNF/HMW-HA complex on periodontal tissue regeneration in dogs. A greater volume of newly formed alveolar bone and a longer newly formed cementum were observed in the BDNF/HMW-HA group than in the HMW-HA group, suggesting that HMW-HA assists the regenerative capacity of BDNF, although HMW-HA itself does not enhance periodontal tissue regeneration. Neither the poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) group nor the BDNF/poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) group enhanced periodontal tissue regeneration. In conclusion, HMW-HA is an adequate scaffold for the clinical application of BDNF.

Simvastatin prevents skeletal metastasis of breast cancer by an antagonistic interplay between p53 and CD44

Substantial data from clinical trials and epidemiological studies show promising results for use of statins in many cancers, including mammary carcinoma. Breast tumor primarily metastasizes to bone to form osteolytic lesions, causing severe pain and pathological fracture. Here, we report that simvastatin acts as an inhibitor of osteolysis in a mouse model of breast cancer skeletal metastasis of human mammary cancer cell MDA-MB-231, which expresses the mutant p53R280K. Simvastatin and lovastatin attenuated migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 and BT-20 breast tumor cells in culture. Acquisition of phenotype to express the cancer stem cell marker, CD44, leads to invasive potential of the tumor cells. Interestingly, statins significantly decreased the expression of CD44 protein via a transcriptional mechanism. shRNA-mediated down-regulation of CD44 markedly reduced the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells in culture. We identified that in the MDA-MB-231 cells, simvastatin elevated the levels of mutated p53R280K, which was remarkably active as a transcription factor. shRNA-derived inhibition of mutant p53R280K augmented the expression of CD44, leading to increased migration and invasion. Finally, we demonstrate an inverse correlation between expression of p53 and CD44 in the tumors of mice that received simvastatin. Our results reveal a unique function of statins, which foster enhanced expression of mutant p53R280K to prevent breast cancer cell metastasis to bone.

Growth factor PDGF-BB stimulates cultured cardiomyocytes to synthesize the extracellular matrix component hyaluronan

Background

Hyaluronan (HA) is a glycosaminoglycan located in the interstitial space which is essential for both structural and cell regulatory functions in connective tissue. We have previously shown that HA synthesis is up-regulated in a rat model of experimental cardiac hypertrophy and that cardiac tissue utilizes two different HA synthases in the hypertrophic process. Cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts are two major cell types in heart tissue. The fibroblasts are known to produce HA, but it has been unclear if cardiomyocytes share the same feature, and whether or not the different HA synthases are activated in the different cell types.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This study shows, for the first time that cardiomyocytes can produce HA. Cardiomyocytes (HL-1) and fibroblasts (NIH 3T3) were cultivated in absence or presence of the growth factors FGF2, PDGF-BB and TGFB2. HA concentration was quantified by ELISA, and the size of HA was estimated using dynamic light scattering. Cardiomyocytes synthesized HA but only when stimulated by PDGF-BB, whereas fibroblasts synthesized HA without addition of growth factors as well as when stimulated by any of the three growth factors. When fibroblasts were stimulated by the growth factors, reverse dose dependence was observed, where the highest dose induced the least amount of HA. With the exception of TGFB2, a trend of reverse dose dependence of HA size was also observed.

Conclusions/Significance

Co-cultivation of cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts (80%/20%) increased HA concentration far more that can be explained by HA synthesis by the two cell types separately, revealing a crosstalk between cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts that induces HA synthesis. We conclude that dynamic changes of the myocardium, such as in cardiac hypertrophy, do not depend on the cardiomyocyte alone, but are achieved when both cardiomyocytes and fibroblasts are present.

Common skeletal growth retardation disorders resulting from abnormalities within the mesenchymal stem cells reservoirs in the epiphyseal organs pertaining to the long bones

Among the objectives in writing the current chapter were the curiosity and the interest in allocating the sites and routes of migration of the reservoirs of the mesenchymal precartilaginous stem cells of the developing limbs in health and in disease. We chose to emphasize the events believed to initiate in these regions of stem cells, which may lead to growth retardation disorders. Thus, this narrow niche touches an enlarged scope of developmental biology angles and fields. The enclosed coverage sheds light on part of the musculoskeletal system, skeletogenesis, organogenesis of mobile structures and organs, the limbs, joints and digits (arthrology). It appears that the key role of the cartilage-bone regions is their responsibility to replenish the physis with committed chondrocytes, during the developmental, maturation and puberty periods. We shall start by outlining the framework of normal limb formation, the modalities, signals and the agents participating in this biological creation and regulation, illustrating potential sites that might deviate from normal development during the growth periods.

Congenital disorders of glycosylation with emphasis on loss of dermatan-4-sulfotransferase

The autosomal, recessively inherited, adducted thumb-clubfoot syndrome (ATCS) represents a generalized connective tissue disorder with congenital malformations, contractures of thumbs and feet, and a typical facial appearance. Cognitive development is normal in ATCS patients during childhood. ATCS is caused by homozygous nonsense and missense mutations in CHST14 which encodes an N-acetylgalactosamine 4-O-sulfotransferase 1 (D4ST1) that catalyzes the 4-O-sulfation of N-acetylgalactosamine in the repeating iduronic acid-alpha-1,3-N-acetylgalactosamine disaccharide sequence to form dermatan sulfate (DS). ATCS mutations lead to either a decrease or a loss of D4ST1 activity, as revealed by absence of DS and an excess of chondroitin sulfate (CS) in patient's fibroblasts. Either of these effects or their combination might cause the observed clinical symptoms by altering the physiological pattern of dermatan and CS chains on their corresponding proteoglycans (PGs). ATCS is the only recognized disorder resulting from a defect that is specific to DS biosynthesis, and thus represents another class of the congenital glycosylation disorders. Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) include all genetic diseases that result from defects in the synthesis of glycans. These disorders cause a wide range of human diseases, with examples emanating from all medical subspecialties. ATCS is the first human disorder that emphasizes a role for DS in human development and extracellular matrix maintenance.

Reconstructing the differentiation niche of embryonic stem cells using biomaterials

The biochemical cues and topographical architecture of the extracellular environment extensively influence ES cell fate. The microenvironment surrounding the developing embryo presents these instructive cues in a complex and interactive manner in order to guide cell fate decisions. Current stem cell research aims to reconstruct this multifaceted embryonic niche to recapitulate development in vitro. This review focuses on 2D and 3D differentiation niches created from natural and synthetic biomaterials to guide the differentiation of ES cells toward specific lineages. Biomaterials engineered to present specific physical constraints are also reviewed for their role in differentiation.

Aging-related alterations in the extracellular matrix modulate the microenvironment and influence tumor progression

Age is the greatest risk factor for the development of epithelial cancers. In this minireview, we will examine key extracellular matrix and matricellular components, their changes with aging, and discuss how these alterations might influence the subsequent progression of cancer in the aged host. Because of the tight correlation between advanced age and the prevalence of prostate cancer, we will use prostate cancer as the model throughout this minireview.

Involvement of hyaluronidases in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Hyaluronidases belong to a class of enzymes that degrade, predominantly, hyaluronan. These enzymes are known to be involved in physiological and pathological processes, such as tumor growth, infiltration and angiogenesis, but their exact role in tumor promotion or suppression is not clear yet. Advanced colorectal cancer is associated with elevated amounts of hyaluronan of varying size. The aim of the present study was therefore to illuminate the importance of hyaluronidases in colon carcinoma progression.

METHODS

The patients' samples (macroscopically normal and cancerous) were subjected to sequential extraction with PBS, 4 M GdnHCl and 4 M GdnHCl --1% Triton X-100. The presence of the various hyaluronidases in the extracts was examined by zymography and western blotting. Their expression was also examined by RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Among hyaluronidases examined, Hyal-1, -2, -3 and PH-20 were detected. Their activity was higher in cancerous samples. Hyal-1 and Hyal-2 were overexpressed in cancerous samples, especially in advanced stages of cancer. Both isoforms were mainly extracted with PBS. Hyal-3 was observed only in the third extract of advanced stages of cancer. PH-20 was abundant in all three extracts of all stages of cancer. The expression of only Hyal-1 and PH-20 was verified by RT-PCR.

CONCLUSION

A high association of hyaluronidases in colorectal cancer was observed. Each hyaluronidase presented different tissue distribution, which indicated the implication of certain isoforms in certain cancer stages. The results provided new evidence on the mechanisms involved in the progression of colorectal cancer.

Inhibitors of hyaluronan export from hops prevent osteoarthritic reactions

SCOPE

An early reaction in osteoarthritic chondrocytes is hyaluronan overproduction followed by proteoglycan loss and collagen degradation. We recently found that hyaluronan is exported by the ATP-binding cassette transporter multidrug resistance associated protein 5 (MRP5) in competition with cGMP and that some phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors also inhibited hyaluronan export. These inhibitors also prevented osteoarthritic reactions in cartilage. In an effort to identify the improved inhibitors directed primarily toward MRP5, we analyzed the flavonoids.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Prenylflavonoids from hop xanthohumol, isoxanthohumol and 8-prenylnaringenin inhibited MRP5 export at lower concentrations than phosphodiesterase 5 activity. They were analyzed for their effect on IL-induced osteoarthritic reactions in bovine chondrocytes. Xanthohumol was the superior compound to inhibit hyaluronan export, as well as proteoglycan and collagen loss. It also prevented the shedding of metalloproteases into the culture medium. It directly inhibited MRP5, because it reduced the export of the MRP5 substrate fluorescein immediately and did not influence the hyaluronan synthase activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Xanthohumol may be a natural compound to prevent hyaluronan overproduction and subsequent reactions in osteoarthritis.

Nodular basal cell carcinoma is associated with increased hyaluronan homeostasis

BACKGROUND

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is one of the most frequent forms of malignancy in humans. Although BCC is a tumour of low degree of malignancy, if left untreated, it can be locally aggressive, eat away at tissues and cause ulceration. Nodular is the most common subtype of BCC (>50%). Although apparently non-invasive, micronodular, a certain subgroup of nodular, is likely to recur. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), such as hyaluronic acid (HA), are extracellular matrix molecules of high importance in malignant transformation, metastasis and other complex remodelling processes.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the expression of GAGs and their metabolizing enzymes in nodular BCC, when compared with adjacent healthy human skin tissue specimens.

METHODS

Total GAGs were isolated and purified from nodular BCC and normal adjacent human skin tissue specimens. GAGs were subsequently fractionated by electrophoresis on cellulose acetate membranes and characterized using specific GAG-degrading enzymes. The content of HA in total GAGs was measured using ELISA and the expression of HA synthases (HAS), hyaluronidases (HYAL) and HA receptors (CD44 and receptor hyaluronic acid-mediated motility (RHAMM) was assessed using RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Nodular BCC is associated with increased levels of HA concomitant with upregulation of gene expression of HAS3, HYAL3 and RHAMM, when compared with normal adjacent skin.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that HA homeostasis in nodular BCC shows distinct features which may be helpful in understanding the complex behaviour of nodular subtype of BCC, thus eventually leading to new treatment strategies.

Hyaluronan deficiency in tumor stroma impairs macrophage trafficking and tumor neovascularization

Despite the importance of stromal cells in tumor progression, our overall understanding of the molecular signals that regulate the complex cellular interactions within tumor stroma is limited. Here, we provide multiple lines of evidence that tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) preferentially traffic to stromal areas formed within tumors in a manner dependent on a hyaluronan (HA)-rich tumor microenvironment. To address the role of stroma-derived HA in macrophage recruitment, we disrupted the HA synthase 2 (Has2) gene in stromal fibroblasts using conditional gene targeting. The Has2 null fibroblasts showed severe impairment in recruiting macrophages when inoculated with tumor cells into nude mice, which shows the contribution of stroma-derived HA in intratumoral macrophage mobilization. Furthermore, a deficiency in stromal HA attenuated tumor angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis concomitantly with impaired macrophage recruitment. Taken together, our results suggest that stromal HA serves as a microenvironmental signal for the recruitment of TAMs, which are key regulatory cells involved in tumor neovascularization.

Three-dimensional perfusion bioreactor culture supports differentiation of human fetal liver cells

The ability of human fetal liver cells to survive, expand, and form functional tissue in vitro is of high interest for the development of bioartificial extracorporeal liver support systems, liver cell transplantation therapies, and pharmacologic models. Conventional static two-dimensional culture models seem to be inadequate tools. We focus on dynamic three-dimensional perfusion technologies and developed a scaled-down bioreactor, providing decentralized mass exchange with integral oxygenation. Human fetal liver cells were embedded in a hyaluronan hydrogel within the capillary system to mimic an in vivo matrix and perfusion environment. Metabolic performance was monitored daily, including glucose consumption, lactate dehydrogenase activity, and secretion of alpha-fetoprotein and albumin. At culture termination cells were analyzed for proliferation and liver-specific lineage-dependent cytochrome P450 (CYP3A4/3A7) gene expression. Occurrence of hepatic differentiation in bioreactor cultures was demonstrated by a strong increase in CYP3A4/3A7 gene expression ratio, lower alpha-fetoprotein, and higher albumin secretion than in conventional Petri dish controls. Cells in bioreactors formed three-dimensional structures. Viability of cells was higher in bioreactors than in control cultures. In conclusion, the culture model implementing three-dimensionality, constant perfusion, and integral oxygenation in combination with a hyaluronan hydrogel provides superior conditions for liver cell survival and differentiation compared to conventional culture.

Reactive oxygen species and hyaluronidase 2 regulate airway epithelial hyaluronan fragmentation

Hyaluronidase 2 (Hyal2) is a hyaluronan (HA)-degrading enzyme found intracellularly or/and anchored to the plasma membrane through glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI). Normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE) grown at the air-liquid interphase (ALI), treated with PI-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC), exhibited increased Hyal activity in secretions and decreased protein and activity on the apical membrane, confirming that GPI-anchored Hyal2 is expressed in NHBE cells and it remains active in its soluble form. We have reported that HA degradation was mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human airways. Here we show that ROS increase Hyal2 expression and activity in NHBE cells and that the p38MAPK signaling pathway is involved in this effect. Hyal2 induction was confirmed by using small interfering RNA (siRNA) expressing lentivirus. These in vitro findings correlated in vivo with smokers, where increased Hyal2 immunoreactivity in the epithelium was associated with augmented levels of HA and the appearance of low molecular mass HA species in bronchial secretions. In summary, this work provides evidence that ROS induce Hyal2, suggesting that Hyal2 is likely responsible for the sustained HA fragmentation in the airway lumen observed in inflammatory conditions associated with oxidative stress.

Perineuronal net formation and structure in aggrecan knockout mice

Perineuronal nets (PNNs) are specialized substructures of the neural extracellular matrix (ECM) which envelop the cell soma and proximal neurites of particular sets of neurons with apertures at sites of synaptic contact. Previous studies have shown that PNNs are enriched with chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) and hyaluronan, however, a complete understanding of their precise molecular composition has been elusive. In addition, identifying which specific PNN components are critical to the formation of this structure has not been demonstrated. Previous work in our laboratory has demonstrated that the CSPG, aggrecan, is a key activity-dependent component of PNNs in vivo. In order to assess the contribution of aggrecan to PNN formation, we utilized cartilage matrix deficiency (cmd) mice, which lack aggrecan. Herein, we utilized an in vitro model, dissociated cortical culture, and an ex vivo model, organotypic slice culture, to specifically investigate the role aggrecan plays in PNN formation. Our work demonstrates that staining with the lectin, Wisteria floribunda agglutinin (WFA), considered a broad PNN marker, is eliminated in the absence of aggrecan, suggesting the loss of PNNs. However, in contrast, we found that the expression patterns of other PNN markers, including hyaluronan and proteoglycan link protein 1 (HAPLN1), tenascin-R, brevican, and hyaluronan are unaffected by the absence of aggrecan. Lastly, we determined that while all PNN components are bound to the surface in a hyaluronan-dependent manner, only HAPLN1 remains attached to the cell surface when neurons are treated with chondroitinase. These results suggest a different model for the molecular association of PNNs to the cell surface. Together our work has served to assess the contribution of aggrecan to PNN formation while providing key evidence concerning the molecular composition of PNNs in addition to determining how these components ultimately form PNNs.

High-molecular-weight hyaluronan is a novel inhibitor of pulmonary vascular leakiness

Endothelial cell (EC) barrier dysfunction results in increased vascular permeability, a perturbation observed in inflammatory states, tumor angiogenesis, atherosclerosis, and both sepsis and acute lung injury. Therefore, agents that enhance EC barrier integrity have important therapeutic implications. We observed that binding of high-molecular-weight hyaluronan (HMW-HA) to its cognate receptor CD44 within caveolin-enriched microdomains (CEM) enhances human pulmonary EC barrier function. Immunocytochemical analysis indicated that HMW-HA promotes redistribution of a significant population of CEM to areas of cell-cell contact. Quantitative proteomic analysis of CEM isolated from human EC demonstrated HMW-HA-mediated recruitment of cytoskeletal regulatory proteins (annexin A2, protein S100-A10, and filamin A/B). Inhibition of CEM formation [caveolin-1 small interfering RNA (siRNA) and cholesterol depletion] or silencing (siRNA) of CD44, annexin A2, protein S100-A10, or filamin A/B expression abolished HMW-HA-induced actin cytoskeletal reorganization and EC barrier enhancement. To confirm our in vitro results in an in vivo model of inflammatory lung injury with vascular hyperpermeability, we observed that the protective effects of HMW-HA on LPS-induced pulmonary vascular leakiness were blocked in caveolin-1 knockout mice. Furthermore, targeted inhibition of CD44 expression in the mouse pulmonary vasculature significantly reduced HMW-HA-mediated protection from LPS-induced hyperpermeability. These data suggest that HMW-HA, via CD44-mediated CEM signaling events, represents a potentially useful therapeutic agent for syndromes of increased vascular permeability.

Down-regulation of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase affects glycosaminoglycans synthesis and motility in HCT-8 colorectal carcinoma cells

UDP-glucose dehydrogenase (UGDH) catalyzes oxidation of UDP-glucose to yield UDP-glucuronic acid, a precursor of hyaluronic acid (HA) and other glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in extracellular matrix. Although association of extracellular matrix with cell proliferation and migration has been well documented, the importance of UGDH in these behaviors is not clear. Using UGDH-specific small interference RNA to treat HCT-8 colorectal carcinoma cells, a decrease in both mRNA and protein levels of UGDH, as well as the cellular UDP-glucuronic acid and GAG production was observed. Treatment of HCT-8 cells with either UGDH-specific siRNA or HA synthesis inhibitor 4-methylumbelliferone effectively delayed cell aggregation into multicellular spheroids and impaired cell motility in both three-dimensional collagen gel and transwell migration assays. The reduction in cell aggregation and migration rates could be restored by addition of exogenous HA. These results indicate that UGDH can regulate cell motility through the production of GAG. The enzyme may be a potential target for therapeutic intervention of colorectal cancers.

Bacteriophage hyaluronidase effectively inhibits growth, migration and invasion by disrupting hyaluronan-mediated Erk1/2 activation and RhoA expression in human breast carcinoma cells

Aberrant hyaluronan production has been implicated in many types of tumor. In this context, hyaluronidase has been explored as a viable therapeutic approach to reduce tumoral hyaluronan. However, elevated levels of hyaluronan in tumors are often associated with high expression levels of cellular hyaluronidases, which consequently produce various sizes of saturated hyaluronan fragments with divergent pro-tumoral activities. The current study shows that different hyaluronan metabolisms of mammalian and microbial hyaluronidases could elicit distinct alterations in cancer cell behavior. Unlike saturated hyaluronan metabolites, unsaturated hyaluronan oligosaccharides produced by bacteriophage hyaluronidase, HylP, had no biological effect on growth of breast carcinoma cells. More importantly, HylP's metabolic process of hyaluronan into non-detrimental oligosaccharides significantly decreased breast cancer cell proliferation, migration and invasion by disrupting Erk1/2 activation and RhoA expression. Our results suggest that it may be possible to exploit HylP's unique enzymatic activity in suppressing hyaluronan-mediated tumor growth and progression.

Synthesis of oligonucleotide glycoconjugates using sequential click and oximation ligations

Oligodeoxyribonucleotide glycoconjugates bearing two trivalent glycoclusters have been synthesized by two alternative methods based on solid-supported oximation of aminooxy functionalized oligonucleotides with glycoclusters constructed by click chemistry. In more detail, the trivalent glycoclusters (5 and 6) bearing three sugar pendants were first assembled by treating a 4-[tri-O-propargylpentaerythrityloxy]benzaldehyde scaffold with methyl 6-azido-6-deoxyglycopyranoside under the click reaction conditions. Two phosphoramidite reagents containing a phthaloyl protected aminooxy function, viz., 2-cyanoethyl N,N-diisopropylphosphoramidites derived from 3-[3,5-bis(phthalimidoxymethyl)phenoxy]propanol (12) and 5-(4,4'-dimethoxytrityl)-1,2-dideoxy-1-C-(2-phthalimidoxyethyl)-beta-d-erythro-pentofuranose (16), were synthesized and incorporated as branching units in appropriate places of the oligonucleotide chains. On using 12, the phthaloyl protections of the branching unit were removed and two identical glycoclusters were attached via oxime linkage to the 5'-terminus of the support-bound oligonucleotide chain. With branching unit 16, the phosphoramidite coupling and the oximation were carried out alternately, allowing introduction of two dissimilar trivalent glycoclusters close to the 3'-end of the oligonucleotide chain. The products (20, 26) were released and deprotected by ammonolysis and purified by HPLC chromatography.

Modern developments in mass spectrometry of chondroitin and dermatan sulfate glycosaminoglycans

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) and dermatan sulfate (DS) are special types of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) oligosaccharides able to regulate vital biological functions that depend on precise motifs of their constituent hexose sequences and the extent and location of their sulfation. As a result, the need for better understanding of CS/DS biological role called for the elaboration and application of straightforward strategies for their composition and structure elucidation. Due to its high sensitivity, reproducibility, and the possibility to rapidly generate data on fine CS/DS structure determinants, mass spectrometry (MS) based on either electrospray ionization (ESI) or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) brought a major progress in the field. Here, modern developments in MS of CS/DS GAGs are gathered in a critical review covering the past 5 years. The first section is dedicated to protocols for CS/DS extraction from parent proteoglycan, digestion, and purification that are among critical prerequisites of a successful MS experiment. The second part highlights several MALDI MS aspects, the requirements, and applications of this ionization method to CS/DS investigation. An ample chapter is devoted to ESI MS strategies, which employ either capillary- or advanced chip-based sample infusion in combination with multistage MS (MS(n)) using either collision-induced (CID) or electron detachment dissociation (EDD). At last, the potential of two versatile separation techniques, capillary electrophoresis (CE), and liquid chromatography (LC) in off- and/or on-line coupling with ESI MS and MS(n), is discussed, alongside an assessment of particular buffer/solvent conditions and instrumental parameters required for CS/DS mixture separation followed by on-line mass analysis of individual components.

YKL-40-A Protein in the Field of Translational Medicine: A Role as a Biomarker in Cancer Patients?

YKL-40 is a 40 kDa glycoprotein produced by cancer cells, inflammatory cells and stem cells. It probably has a role in cell proliferation and differentiation, inflammation, protection against apoptosis, stimulation of angiogenesis, and regulation of extracellular tissue remodelling. Plasma levels of YKL-40 are often elevated in patients with localized or advanced cancer compared to age-matched healthy subjects. Several studies have demonstrated that high plasma YKL-40 is an independent prognostic biomarker of short survival in patients with different types of cancer. However, there is not yet sufficient data to support determination of plasma YKL-40 outside research projects as a biomarker for screening of gastrointestinal cancer and determination of treatment response and poor prognosis before or during treatment and follow-up. Plasma YKL-40 is also elevated in patients with other diseases than cancer, e.g., severe infections, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic obstructive lung disease, asthma, liver fibrosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Co-morbidity should therefore always be considered in patients with cancer, since other sources than cancer cells can increase plasma YKL-40 levels. Future focused translational research projects combining basic and clinical research are needed in a joint effort to answer questions of the complex function and regulation of YKL-40 and the question if plasma YKL-40 is a clinical useful biomarker in patients with cancer.

[Implication of hyaluronic acid in normal and pathological angiogenesis. Application for cellular engineering]

Angiogenesis is a physiological process that allows the formation of new blood vessels, either from the local vascular structures, or from circulating endothelial progenitor cells, mobilized from the bone marrow, and attracted to the neovascularization site. This mechanism is controlled by pro-angiogenic molecules. It is crucial to supply oxygen and nutrients to tissues during growth, embryonic development or tissue regeneration in response to injuries. Thus, the dermis part of the skin is highly vascularized by a dense network of small and medium arteries and of capillaries and venules. In case of injury, rapid tissue repair is possible through this vascular network. However, once the vascularization is restored in tissue repair, the process of angiogenesis is negatively regulated by anti-angiogenic molecules. Controling the balance between pro-and anti-angiogenic agents is crucial and its deregulation leads to serious disease. The extracellular matrix plays an important role in controlling angiogenesis, allowing at least, the distribution of growth factors and the regulation of endothelial cell migration. Among these matrix components, hyaluronic acid plays a major role in the mechanical properties of connective tissues in ensuring their hydration. This glycosaminoglycan is a large size polymer, whose breakdown products strongly act on angiogenesis, especially in pathological situations (cancer, inflammation). Regarding its biological and mechanical properties, hyaluronic acid is used as matrix in tissue engineering, for improving the revascularization of tissues like skin.

The stem cell code in oral epithelial tumorigenesis: 'the cancer stem cell shift hypothesis'

Tumors of the oral cavity provide an ideal model to study various stages of epithelial tumor progression. A group of cancer cells termed cancer stem cells (CSCs) eludes therapy, persists and initiates recurrence augmenting malignant spread of the disease. Hitherto, accurate identification and separation of such minimal residual cells have proven futile due to lack of identifiable traits to single out these cells from the heterogeneous tumor bulk. In this review we have compiled comprehensive evidence from comparative phenotypic and genotypic studies on normal oral mucosa as well as tumors of different grades to elucidate that differential expression patterns of putative stem cells markers may identify 'minimal residual disease' in oral squamous cell carcinoma. We propose the "cancer stem cell shift hypothesis" to explain the exact identity and switch-over, tumor-promoting mechanisms adapted by putative CSCs with correlation to tumor staging.

Hyaluronan scaffolds: a balance between backbone functionalization and bioactivity

Development of biomaterials that provide mechanical and molecular cues for wound healing and regeneration must meet several design parameters. In addition to high biocompatibility, biomaterials should possess suitable porosity as well as the ability to be chemically tailored to control parameters including biodegradability and bioactivity. These characteristics were studied in hyaluronan (HA), a natural polymer found in the body. HA was modified with thiol cross-linking sites to form a stable hydrogel scaffold to examine effects in in vitro cortical cell growth. HA with 20% and 44% thiolation was used to make gels at 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%, and 1.25% (w/v). Results indicate that the bioactivity of the HA after functionalization, as determined by degree of substitution (HA thiolation), has a greater effect on neurite outgrowth than does gel stiffness. The lower substituted HA (20%) promoted greater neurite growth as compared to the higher substituted HA (44%).

Cytokines and growth factors stimulate hyaluronan production: role of hyaluronan in epithelial to mesenchymal-like transition in non-small cell lung cancer

In this study, we investigated the role of hyaluronan (HA) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) since close association between HA level and malignancy has been reported. HA is an abundant extracellular matrix component and its synthesis is regulated by growth factors and cytokines that include epidermal growth factor (EGF) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). We showed that treatment with recombinant EGF and IL-1β, alone or in combination with TGF-β, was able to stimulate HA production in lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549. TGF-β/IL-1β treatment induced epithelial to mesenchymal-like phenotype transition (EMT), changing cell morphology and expression of vimentin and E-cadherin. We also overexpressed hyaluronan synthase-3 (HAS3) in epithelial lung adenocarcinoma cell line H358, resulting in induced HA expression, EMT phenotype, enhanced MMP9 and MMP2 activities and increased invasion. Furthermore, adding exogenous HA to A549 cells and inducing HA H358 cells resulted in increased resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor, Iressa. Together, these results suggest that elevated HA production is able to induce EMT and increase resistance to Iressa in NSCLC. Therefore, regulation of HA level in NSCLC may be a new target for therapeutic intervention.

Increased hyaluronan synthase-2 mRNA expression and hyaluronan accumulation with choroidal thickening: response during recovery from induced myopia

PURPOSE

Several studies have convincingly shown that in chicks, compensation for imposed focus involves immediate changes in choroid thickness. The molecular events associated with choroidal thickening and the regulation of the choroidal response are largely unknown.

METHODS

Form-deprivation myopia was induced in the right eyes of 2-day-old chicks by the application of translucent occluders for 10 days and was followed by unrestricted vision for an additional 1 to 20 days (recovery). Individual choroids were isolated from treated and control eyes and used for reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, hyaluronan (HA) localization with biotinylated hyaluronic acid binding protein (b-HABP), and analyses of HA size and concentration by size exclusion chromatography-multiangle laser light scattering (SEC-MALLS).

RESULTS

HAS2 gene expression increased significantly after 6 hours of unrestricted vision (>7-fold) and peaked at 24 hours (>9-fold). In untreated eyes, HA was localized to perivascular sheaths of larger choroidal blood vessels; however, after 4 to 15 days of recovery, intense labeling for HA was detected throughout the thickened choroidal stroma. Analyses of choroidal HA by SEC-MALLS indicated that HA concentration was significantly increased in recovering choroids compared with controls after 4 to 8 days of recovery (≈3.5-fold).

CONCLUSIONS

Newly synthesized HA accumulates in the choroidal stroma of recovering eyes and is most likely responsible for the stromal swelling observed during recovery from myopia. This HA accumulation is initiated by a rapid increase in choroidal expression of the HAS2 gene in response to myopic defocus.

The activity of hyaluronan synthase 2 is regulated by dimerization and ubiquitination

Hyaluronan is a component of the extracellular matrix, which affects tissue homeostasis. In this study, we investigated the regulatory mechanisms of one of the hyaluronan-synthesizing enzymes, HAS2. Ectopic expression of Flag- and 6myc-HAS2 in COS-1 cells followed by immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting revealed homodimers; after co-transfection with Flag-HAS3, also heterodimers were seen. Furthermore, the expressed HAS2 was ubiquitinated. We identified one acceptor site for ubiquitin on lysine residue 190. Mutation of this residue led to inactivation of the enzymatic activity of HAS2. Interestingly, K190R-mutated HAS2 formed dimers with wt HAS2 and quenched the activity of wt HAS2, thus demonstrating a functional role of the dimeric configuration.

Methyl-beta-cyclodextrin suppresses hyaluronan synthesis by down-regulation of hyaluronan synthase 2 through inhibition of Akt

Hyaluronan synthases (HAS1-3) are integral plasma membrane proteins that synthesize hyaluronan, a cell surface and extracellular matrix polysaccharide necessary for many biological processes. It has been shown that HAS is partly localized in cholesterol-rich lipid rafts of MCF-7 cells, and cholesterol depletion with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MbetaCD) suppresses hyaluronan secretion in smooth muscle cells. However, the mechanism by which cholesterol depletion inhibits hyaluronan production has remained unknown. We found that cholesterol depletion from MCF-7 cells by MbetaCD inhibits synthesis but does not decrease the molecular mass of hyaluronan, suggesting no major influence on HAS stability in the membrane. The inhibition of hyaluronan synthesis was not due to the availability of HAS substrates UDP-GlcUA and UDP-GlcNAc. Instead, MbetaCD specifically down-regulated the expression of HAS2 but not HAS1 or HAS3. Screening of signaling proteins after MbetaCD treatment revealed that phosphorylation of Akt and its downstream target p70S6 kinase, both members of phosphoinositide 3-kinase-Akt pathway, were inhibited. Inhibitors of this pathway suppressed hyaluronan synthesis and HAS2 expression in MCF-7 cells, suggesting that the reduced hyaluronan synthesis by MbetaCD is due to down-regulation of HAS2, mediated by the phosphoinositide 3-kinase-Akt-mTOR-p70S6K pathway.

Hyaluronan stabilizes focal adhesions, filopodia, and the proliferative phenotype in esophageal squamous carcinoma cells

Hyaluronan (HA) is a polysaccharide component in the parenchyma and stroma of human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Clinically, esophageal cancer represents a highly aggressive tumor type with poor prognosis resulting in a 5-year survival rate of 5%. The aim of the present study was the detailed analysis of the role of HA synthesis for ESCC phenotype in vitro using the ESCC cell line OSC1. In OSC1 cells, pericellular HA-matrix surrounding extended actin-dependent filopodia was detected. The small molecule inhibitor of HA synthesis, 4-methylumbelliferone (4-MU, 0.3 mm) caused loss of these filopodia and focal adhesions and inhibited proliferation and migration. In search of the underlying mechanism cleavage of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) was detected by immunoblotting. In addition, displacing HA by an HA-binding peptide (Pep-1, 500 mug/ml) and digestion of pericellular HA by hyaluronidase resulted in cleavage of focal adhesions. Furthermore, real-time reverse transcription PCR revealed that HA synthase 3 (HAS3) > HAS2 are the predominant HA-synthases in OSC1. Lentiviral transduction with shHAS3, and to a lesser extent with shHAS2, reduced intact FAK protein and filopodia as well as proliferation and migration. Furthermore, down-regulation by lentiviral shRNA of RHAMM (receptor of HA-mediated motility) but not CD44 induced loss of filopodia and caused FAK cleavage. In contrast, knockdown of both HA receptors inhibited proliferation and migration of OSC1. In conclusion, HA synthesis and, in turn, RHAMM and CD44 signaling promoted an activated phenotype of OSC1. Because RHAMM appears to support both filopodia, FAK, and the proliferative and migratory phenotype, it may be promising to explore RHAMM as a potential therapeutic target in esophageal cancer.

Hyaluronidase expression by an oncolytic adenovirus enhances its intratumoral spread and suppresses tumor growth

Successful virotherapy requires efficient virus spread within tumors. We tested whether the expression of hyaluronidase, an enzyme which dissociates the extracellular matrix (ECM), could enhance the intratumoral distribution of an oncolytic adenovirus and improve its therapeutic activity. As a proof of concept, we demonstrated that intratumoral coadministration of hyaluronidase in mice-bearing tumor xenografts improves the antitumor activity of an oncolytic adenovirus. Next, we constructed a replication-competent adenovirus expressing a soluble form of the human sperm hyaluronidase (PH20) under the control of the major late promoter (MLP) (AdwtRGD-PH20). Intratumoral treatment of human melanoma xenografts with AdwtRGD-PH20 resulted in degradation of hyaluronan (HA), enhanced viral distribution, and induced tumor regression in all treated tumors. Finally, the PH20 cDNA was inserted in an oncolytic adenovirus that selectively kills pRb pathway-defective tumor cells. The antitumoral activity of the novel oncolytic adenovirus expressing PH20 (ICOVIR17) was compared to that of the parental virus ICOVIR15. ICOVIR17 showed more antitumor efficacy following intratumoral and systemic administration in mice with prestablished tumors, along with an improved spread of the virus within the tumor. Importantly, a single intravenous dose of ICOVIR17 induced tumor regression in 60% of treated tumors. These results indicate that ICOVIR17 is a promising candidate for clinical testing.

Atomic force microscopy imaging of supramolecular organization of hyaluronan and its receptor CD44

Hyaluronan is a major component of extracellular matrix and involved in a variety of important biological processes such as cell motility, proliferation, differentiation, and survival. However, the structure of hyaluronan and the mode of interaction between hyaluronan and its receptor remain to be fully elucidated. Here, we visualized directly the structure of hyaluronan by nanoscale imaging using atomic force microscopy (AFM), and analyzed the pattern of interaction with its cell surface receptor CD44. We observed by AFM that hyaluronan formed honeycomb-like network structures, to which the recombinant protein of CD44 extracellular domain intensively adhered. The pattern of the meshwork varied with the concentration of hyaluronan and also with its molecular weight. These observations suggest that the network structure might account for the properties of hyaluronan of being like an elastic gel at high concentration, and that the structure varying in relation to the molecular weight may cause the difference in the biological activities of the hyaluronan.