Conversion of cellulose to HMF in ionic liquid catalyzed by bifunctional ionic liquids

A new kind of bifunctional ionic liquid catalysts was synthesized to degrade microcrystalline cellulose in [BMIM]Cl at atmospheric pressure. The effects of reaction temperature, amount of catalysts, reaction time, ionic liquid purity and cellulose concentration on conversion were investigated. At low temperature cellulose can be degraded with being heated in [BMIM]Cl by oil bath. Among the as-synthesized catalysts, Cr([PSMIM]HSO4)3 exhibited the best performance. The HMF yield of 53% and TRS yield of 94% can be achieved at 120 °C in [BMIM]Cl for 5 h over 0.05 g Cr([PSMIM]HSO4)3/2.0 g [BMIM]Cl with 95% cellulose conversion.

Process optimization and performance evaluation on sequential ionic liquid dissolution-solid acid saccharification of sago waste

The production of reducing sugars from sago waste via sequential ionic liquid dissolution-solid acid saccharification was optimized in this study. Ionic liquid dissolution of sago waste with 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM]Cl) was conducted prior to the solid acid saccharification with Amberlyst 15 (A15). The effect of time, temperature and substrate loading during dissolution reaction; and the effect of time, temperature and catalyst loading during saccharification reaction were examined by applying central composite design (CCD) separately. Both dissolution and saccharification reactions were respectively modeled into quadratic polynomial equations with good predictive accuracies. A high reducing sugars yield of 98.3% was obtained under the optimized conditions, i.e. dissolution at 1.75h, 160°C, 1.5% substrate loading, and saccharification at 0.5h, 130°C, 4% catalyst loading. From comparison studies of different saccharification schemes, the sequential ionic liquid dissolution-solid acid saccharification has proven to be a potential method in reducing sugars production from the lignocellulosic biomass.

Pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse by acid-catalysed process in aqueous ionic liquid solutions

A biomass pretreatment process was developed using acidified ionic liquid (IL) solutions containing 10-30% water. Pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse at 130°C for 30 min by aqueous 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMIMCl) solution containing 1.2% HCl resulted in a glucan digestibility of 94-100% after 72 h of enzymatic hydrolysis. HCl was found to be a more effective catalyst than H(2)SO(4) or FeCl(3). Increasing acid concentration (from 0.4% to 1.2%) and reaction temperature (from 90 to 130°C) increased glucan digestibility. The glucan digestibility of solid residue obtained with the acidified BMIMCl solution that was re-used for three times was >97%. The addition of water to ILs for pretreatment could significantly reduce IL solvent costs and allow for increased biomass loadings, making the pretreatment by ILs a more economic proposition.

Solvent-free catalytic depolymerization of cellulose to water-soluble oligosaccharides

The use of cellulose is hampered by difficulties with breaking up the biopolymer into soluble products. Herein, we show that the impregnation of cellulosic substrates with catalytic amounts of a strong acid (e.g., H(2)SO(4), HCl) is a highly effective strategy for minimizing the contact problem commonly experienced in mechanically assisted, solid-state reactions. Milling the acid-impregnated cellulose fully converts the substrate into water-soluble oligosaccharides within 2 h. In aqueous solution, soluble products are easily hydrolyzed at 130 °C in 1 h, leading to 91 % conversion of the glucan fraction of α-cellulose into glucose, and 96 % of the xylans into xylose. Minor products are glucose dimers (8 %), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (1 %) and furfural (4 %). Milling practical feedstocks (e.g., wood, sugarcane bagasse, and switchgrass) also results to water-soluble products (oligosaccharides and lignin fragments). The integrated approach (solid-state depolymerization in combination with liquid-phase hydrolysis) could well hold the key to a highly efficient "entry process" in biorefinery schemes.

Brown algae hydrolysis in 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride with mineral acid catalyst system

The amenability of three brown algal species, Sargassum fulvellum, Laminaria japonica and Undaria pinnatifida, to hydrolysis were investigated using the ionic liquid (IL), 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM]Cl). Compositional analyses of the brown algae reveal that sufficient amounts of sugars (15.5-29.4 wt.%) can be recovered. Results from hydrolysis experiments show that careful selection of the type of mineral acid as catalyst and control of acid loading could maximize the recovery of sugars. Optimal reaction time and temperature were determined from the kinetic studies on the sequential reducing sugar (TRS) formation and degradation. Optimal reaction times were determined based on the extent of furfurals formation as TRS degradation products. X-ray diffraction and environmental scanning electron microscopy confirmed the suitability of [BMIM]Cl as solvent for the hydrolysis of the three brown algae. Overall results show the potential of brown algae as renewable energy resources for the production of valuable chemicals and biofuels.

Hydrolysis of cellulose over functionalized glucose-derived carbon catalyst in ionic liquid

A sulfonated carbon material was prepared by incomplete hydrothermal carbonization of glucose followed by sulfonation. The carbon material contained -SO(3)H, -COOH, and phenolic -OH groups, and exhibited high catalytic performance for the hydrolysis of cellulose. A total reducing sugar (TRS) yield of 72.7% was obtained in ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium chloride at 110 °C in 240 min reaction time. The effect of water on the hydrolysis of cellulose in the catalytic system was studied. A water content of less than 2% in the ionic liquid promoted the formation of TRS, whereas a water content of greater than 2% lead to a decrease in TRS. The sulfonated carbon material catalyst was demonstrated to be stable for five cycles with minimal loss in catalytic activity. The use of an ionic liquid with functionalized carbon catalyst derived from glucose provides a green and efficient process for cellulose conversion.

Kinetic study of acid-catalyzed cellulose hydrolysis in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride

In this paper, the kinetics of acid-catalyzed cellulose hydrolysis in ionic liquids (ILs) was investigated by using 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([Bmim]Cl) as the model IL. General kinetic equations for the formation of glucose as well as cellooligomers were constructed at a molecular level, assuming that cellulose is fully dissolved to form a homogenous solution and that the scission of the glycosidic bond occurs randomly within the cellulose chain. Experimental data were well fitted according to these equations. Variations of kinetic parameters in the presence of different water content indicated that water behaved also as a base to decrease the acidity of the reaction medium. More importantly, it offered a profile of the evolution of cellooligomers. These results provided insights into the detailed mechanisms of cellulose hydrolysis in a non-aqueous, homogenous environment and should be valuable for developing strategies to depolymerize lignocellulosic biomass.

Brönsted Acidic Ionic Liquid 1-(1-Propylsulfonic)-3-methylimidazolium-Chloride Catalyzed Hydrolysisof D-Cellobiose in Aqueous Medium

Brönsted acidic ionic liquid 1-(1-propylsulfonic)-3-methylimidazolium chloride (PSMIMCl) shows a higher catalytic activity than sulfuric acid in the hydrolysis of D-cellobiose to D-glucose in water at 90–120°C. This catalytic activity enhancement is more significant at higher temperatures, and at 120°C, PSMIMCl produced 64.5% glucose yield, whereas H2SO4 produced only 42.2% after 40 min. reaction, and this is a 52.8% enhancement of catalytic activity due to the alkylimidazolium group attached to the sulfonic acid group. 1H NMR monitoring of the D-cellobiose hydrolysis in PSMIMCl and sulfuric acid mediums failed to reveal intermediates in the hydrolysis reaction, and this is probably due to rapid conversion of the intermediate(s) to a mixture of D-glucose anomers with α:β≈1:1.6.

Activation of lignocellulosic biomass by ionic liquid for biorefinery fractionation

Fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass is an attractive solution to develop an economically viable biorefinery by providing a saccharide fraction to produce fuels and a lignin stream that can be converted into high value products such as carbon fibers. In this study, the analysis of ionic liquid-activated biomass demonstrates that in addition of decreasing crystallinity, the selected ILs (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate) deacetylate Yellow poplar under mild conditions (dissolution at 60-80 °C), and lower the degradation temperature of each biomass polymeric component, thereby reducing the recalcitrance of biomass. Among the three tested ILs, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate performed the best, providing a strong linear relationship between the level of deacetylation and the rate of enzymatic saccharification for Yellow poplar.

Biohydrogen production from lignocellulosic feedstock

Due to the recent energy crisis and rising concern over climate change, the development of clean alternative energy sources is of significant interest. Biohydrogen produced from cellulosic feedstock, such as second generation feedstock (lignocellulosic biomass) and third generation feedstock (carbohydrate-rich microalgae), is a promising candidate as a clean, CO2-neutral, non-polluting and high efficiency energy carrier to meet the future needs. This article reviews state-of-the-art technology on lignocellulosic biohydrogen production in terms of feedstock pretreatment, saccharification strategy, and fermentation technology. Future developments of integrated biohydrogen processes leading to efficient waste reduction, low CO2 emission and high overall hydrogen yield is discussed.

A study of the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of cellulose dissolved in ionic liquids and the factors influencing the dehydration of glucose and the formation of humins

An investigation was carried out into the hydrolysis of cellulose dissolved in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([Emim][Cl]) and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([Bmim][Cl]) catalyzed by mineral acids. Glucose, cellobiose, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) were observed as the primary reaction products. The initial rate of glucose formation was determined to be of first order in the concentrations of dissolved glucan and protons and of zero order in the concentration of water. The absence of a dependence on water concentration suggests that cleavage of the β-1,4-glycosidic linkages near chain ends is irreversible. The apparent activation energy for glucose formation is 96 kJ mol(-1). The absence of oligosaccharides longer than cellobiose suggests that cleavage of interior glycosidic bonds is reversible due to the slow diffusional separation of cleaved chains in the highly viscous glucan/ionic liquid solution. Progressive addition of water during the course of glucan hydrolysis inhibited the rate of glucose dehydration to 5-HMF and the formation of humins. The inhibition of glucose dehydration is attributed to stronger interaction of protons with water than the 2-OH atom of the pyranose ring of glucose, the critical step in the proposed mechanism for the formation of 5-HMF. The reduction in humin formation associated with water addition is ascribed to the lowered concentration of 5-HMF, since the formation of humins is suggested to proceed through the condensation polymerization of 5-HMF with glucose.

Biomass deconstruction to sugars

The production of biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass relies on the depolymerization of its polysaccharide content into fermentable sugars. Accomplishing this requires pretreatment of the biomass to reduce its size, and chemical or physical alteration of the biomass polymers to enhance the susceptibility of their glycosidic linkages to enzymatic or acid catalyzed cleavage. Well-studied approaches include dilute and concentrated acid pretreatment and catalysis, and the dissolution of biomass in organic solvents. These and recently developed approaches, such as solubilization in ionic liquids, are reviewed in terms of the chemical and physical changes occurring in biomass pretreatment. As pretreatment represents one of the major costs in converting biomass to fuels, the factors that contribute to pretreatments costs, and their impact on overall process economics, are described.

Saccharification of natural lignocellulose biomass and polysaccharides by highly negatively charged heteropolyacids in concentrated aqueous solution

Highly negatively charged heteropolyacids (HPAs), in particular H(5) BW(12) O(40) , efficiently promoted saccharification of crystalline cellulose into water-soluble saccharides in concentrated aqueous solutions (e.g., 82 % total yield and 77 % glucose yield, based on cellulose with a 0.7 M H(5) BW(12) O(40) solution); the performance was much better than those of previously reported systems with commonly utilized mineral acids (e.g., H(2) SO(4) and HCl) and HPAs (e.g., H(3) PW(12) O(40) and H(4) SiW(12) O(40)). Besides crystalline cellulose, the present system was applicable to the selective transformation of cellobiose, starch, and xylan to the corresponding monosaccharides such as glucose and xylose. In addition, one-pot synthesis of levulinic acid and sorbitol directly from cellulose was realized by using concentrated HPA solutions. The present system, concentrated aqueous solutions of highly negatively charged HPAs, was further applicable to saccharification of natural (non-purified) lignocellulose biomass, such as "rice plant straw", "oil palm empty fruit bunch (palm EFB) fiber", and "Japanese cedar sawdust", giving a mixture of the corresponding water-soluble saccharides, such as glucose (main product), galactose, mannose, xylose, arabinose, and cellobiose, in high yields (≥77 % total yields of saccharides based on holocellulose). Separation of the saccharides and H(5) BW(12) O(40) was easy, and the retrieved H(5) BW(12) O(40) could repeatedly be used without appreciable loss of the high performance.

Synthesis of 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural in ionic liquids: paving the way to renewable chemicals

The synthesis of 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF) in ionic liquids is a field that has grown rapidly in recent years. Unique dissolving properties for crude biomass in combination with a high selectivity for HMF formation from hexose sugars make ionic liquids attractive reaction media for the production of chemicals from renewable resources. A wide range of new catalytic systems that are unique for the transformation of glucose and fructose to HMF in ionic liquids has been found. However, literature examples of scale-up and process development are still scarce, and future research needs to complement the new chemistry with studies on larger scales in order to find economically and environmentally feasible processes for HMF production in ionic liquids. This Minireview surveys important progress made in catalyst development for the synthesis of HMF in ionic liquids, and proposes future research directions in process technology.

Catalytic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in ionic liquid

Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) from cellulose catalyzed by solid acids and metal chlorides was studied in the 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM]Cl) under microwave irradiation. Among the applied catalysts, the use of CrCl(3)/LiCl resulted in the highest yield of HMF. The effects of catalyst dosage (mole ratio of catalyst to glucose units in the feedstock) and reaction temperature on HMF yields were investigated to obtain optimal process conditions. With the 1:1 mol ratio of catalyst to glucose unit, the HMF yield reached 62.3% at 160°C for 10 min. Untreated wheat straw was also investigated as feedstock to produce HMF for the practical use of raw biomass, in which the HMF yield was comparable to that from pure cellulose. After the extraction of HMF, [BMIM]Cl and CrCl(3)/LiCl could be reused and exhibited no activity loss after three successive runs.

High performance "ionic liquid" chromatography

We firstly developed high performance liquid chromatography methods with "ionic liquids" as eluents (HPILC) and successfully demonstrated the analysis of various biopolymers including scarcely soluble highly polymerized cellulose by means of HPILC with highly polar ionic liquid.