Analysis of the toxic mode of action of silver nanoparticles using stress-specific bioluminescent bacteria

Silver Sink Effect of Humic Acid on Bacterial Surface Colonization in the Presence of Silver Ions and Nanoparticles

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) released from consumer products may enter the environment and possibly harm microbial communities. Prior research showed that surface-adherent AgNPs inhibit bacterial surface colonization, a precursor to biofilm formation, only when planktonic bacterial inoculum concentrations are less than a threshold level ( Wirth and co-workers, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2016 , 467 , 17 - 27 ). This inoculum effect is due to a decrease in free silver ion concentration associated with sublethal binding to bacteria. Natural organic matter can be an additional silver sink in environmental systems. Using Pseudomonas fluorescens as a model biofilm-forming bacterium, we find significant increases in minimum bactericidal concentrations for AgNP suspensions and Ag⁺ in solution when adding humic acid (HA) to bacterial suspensions. When HA is present, planktonic bacteria survive and colonize AgNP-laden glass surfaces at lower bacterial inoculum concentrations than were needed for survival and colonization in its absence. This occurs despite the observed tendency of HA to inhibit colonization on bare glass surfaces when silver is absent. Results are interpreted through equilibrium Ag⁺ binding isotherms to HA and suspended bacteria. These results indicate that silver ion sinks may lessen AgNP impacts on natural microbial ecology relative to the disruption observed in pristine laboratory conditions.

Uptake, Accumulation and Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticle in Autotrophic Plants, and Heterotrophic Microbes: A Concentric Review

Nanotechnology is a cutting-edge field of science with the potential to revolutionize today's technological advances including industrial applications. It is being utilized for the welfare of mankind; but at the same time, the unprecedented use and uncontrolled release of nanomaterials into the environment poses enormous threat to living organisms. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used in several industries and its continuous release may hamper many physiological and biochemical processes in the living organisms including autotrophs and heterotrophs. The present review gives a concentric know-how of the effects of AgNPs on the lower and higher autotrophic plants as well as on heterotrophic microbes so as to have better understanding of the differences in effects among these two groups. It also focuses on the mechanism of uptake, translocation, accumulation in the plants and microbes, and resulting toxicity as well as tolerance mechanisms by which these microorganisms are able to survive and reduce the effects of AgNPs. This review differentiates the impact of silver nanoparticles at various levels between autotrophs and heterotrophs and signifies the prevailing tolerance mechanisms. With this background, a comprehensive idea can be made with respect to the influence of AgNPs on lower and higher autotrophic plants together with heterotrophic microbes and new insights can be generated for the researchers to understand the toxicity and tolerance mechanisms of AgNPs in plants and microbes.

Plasmonic Schirmer Strip for Human Tear-Based Gouty Arthritis Diagnosis Using Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

Biomarkers in tear fluid have attracted much interest in daily healthcare sensing and monitoring. Recently, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) has enabled highly sensitive label-free detection of small molecules. However, a highly stable straightforward tear assay with superior sensitivity is still under development in tear collection and analysis. Here we report a plasmonic Schirmer strip for on-demand, rapid, and simple identification of biomarkers in human tears. The diagnostic strip features gold nanoislands directly and evenly formed on the top surface of cellulose fibers, which maintain a hygroscopic nature for an efficient collection of tear production as well as provide plasmonic enhancement in SERS signals for identification of tear molecules. The uric acid in human tears was quantitatively detected at physiological levels (25-150 μM) by using SERS. The experimental results also clearly reveal a strong linear correlation between uric acid level in both human tears and blood for gouty arthritis diagnosis. This functional paper strip enables noninvasive diagnosis of disease-related biomarkers and healthcare monitoring using human tears.

An experiment-based model quantifying antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles onEscherichia coli

We developed a quantitative model that agrees with, and provides simple parameters to quantify, experimental measurements of AgNPs' antimicrobial activity.

Sublethal concentrations of silver nanoparticles affect the mechanical stability of biofilms

Bacterial biofilms are most likely confronted with silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) as a pollutant stressor in aquatic systems. In this study, biofilms of Aquabacterium citratiphilum were exposed for 20 h to 30 and 70 nm citrate stabilized Ag NPs in low-dose concentrations ranging from 600 to 2400 μg l^-1, and the Ag NP-mediated effects on descriptive, structural, and functional biofilm characteristics, including viability, protein content, architecture, and mechanical stability, were investigated. Viability, based on the bacterial cell membrane integrity of A. citratiphilum, as determined by epifluorescence microscopy, remained unaffected after Ag NP exposure. Moreover, in contrast to information in the current literature, protein contents of cells and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and biofilm architecture, including dry mass, thickness, and density, were not significantly impacted by exposure to Ag NPs. However, the biofilms themselves served as effective sinks for Ag NPs, exhibiting enrichment factors from 5 to 8. Biofilms showed a greater capacity to accumulate 30 nm sized Ag NPs than 70 nm Ag NPs. Furthermore, Ag NPs significantly threatened the mechanical stability of biofilms, as determined by a newly developed assay. For 30 nm Ag NPs, the mechanical stability of biofilms decreased as the Ag NP concentrations applied to them increased. In contrast, 70 nm Ag NPs produced a similar decrease in mechanical stability for each applied concentration. Overall, this finding demonstrates that exposure to Ag NPs triggers remarkable changes in biofilm adhesion and/or cohesiveness. Because of biofilm-mediated ecological services, this response raises environmental concerns regarding Ag NP release into freshwater systems, even in sublethal concentrations.

Influence of Silver nanoparticles on nutrient removal and microbial communities in SBR process after long-term exposure

The widespread utilization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in industrial and commercial products inevitably raises the release into wastewater that might cause potential negative impacts on sewage treatment system. In this paper, long-term exposure experiments at four levels were conducted to determine whether AgNPs caused adverse impacts on nutrient removals in sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) and changes of microbial community structure. Compared with the control reactor (without AgNPs), carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus removal in presence of 0.1mg/L AgNPs was no difference. However, presence of 1.0 and 10mg/L AgNPs decreased the average removal efficiencies of COD from 95.4% to 85.2% and 68.3%, ammonia nitrogen from 98.8% to 71.2% and 49%, SOP from 97.6% to 75.5% and 54.1%, respectively. It was found that AgNPs could accumulate in sludge with the distribution coefficients of 39.2-114L/g, inhibit the protein and polysaccharide production in EPS, reduce the SOUR of sludge, and greatly increase LDH release from microbial cells. The illumina high-throughput sequencing results indicated that AgNPs concentration changed the structures of bacterial communities, associating with the effects of AgNPs on reactor performance. Sequence analyses showed that Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Acidobacteria were the dominant phyla. It was notable that AgNPs addition reduced the contents of several nitrifying bacteria at genera level in sludge, leading to the lower removal of nitrogen.

Attenuation of Microbial Stress Due to Nano-Ag and Nano-TiO2 Interactions under Dark Conditions

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are incorporated into thousands of commercial products, and their release into environmental systems creates complex mixtures with unknown toxicological outcomes. To explore this scenario, we probe the chemical and toxicological interactions of nanosilver (n-Ag) and nanotitania (n-TiO₂) in Lake Michigan water, a natural aqueous medium, under dark conditions. We find that the presence of n-Ag induces a stress response in Escherichia coli, as indicated by a decrease in ATP production observed at low concentrations (in the μg L^-1 range), with levels that are environmentally relevant. However, when n-Ag and n-TiO₂ are present together in a mixture, n-TiO₂ attenuates the toxicity of n-Ag at and below 20 μg L^-1 by adsorbing Ag⁺_(aq). We observe, however, that toxic stress cannot be explained by dissolved silver concentrations alone and, therefore, must also depend on silver associated with the nanoscale fraction. Although the attenuating effect of n-TiO₂ on n-Ag's toxicity is limited, this study emphasizes the importance of probing the toxicity of ENM mixtures under environmental conditions to assess how chemical interactions between nanoparticles change the toxicological effects of single ENMs in unexpected ways.

Effects of solution chemistry on antimicrobial activities of silver nanoparticles against Gordonia sp

Silver nanoparticles (NPs) are the largest and fastest growing category of nanotechnology-based medicines and consumer products. Silver can have great toxicity to some aquatic organisms and, as a biocidal agent, may also damage or alter the most abundant and vulnerable beneficial microorganisms in the environment, such as Gordonia sp. However, considering the complex chemical background of natural waters, silver NPs can have complicated interactions with background chemicals such as chloride, surfactants, and dissolved natural organic matters (NOM). The results of this study show that the average particle size and dispersivity of silver NPs and the surface characteristics play an important role in the toxicity of silver NPs. Aggregation was enhanced for silver NPs in 10mM NaNO3, but not much in 10mM NaCl due to reactions with chloride. However, the presence of 3mM sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) or 8mgC/L Suwannee River (SR) NOM appeared to reduce the aggregation of silver NPs. Regarding the bactericidal effect of silver NPs, solubility analysis suggests silver NPs inactivate Gordonia sp. differently from Ag(+) and/or a slow release of Ag(+) from silver NPs. When the silver NP concentration was raised from 7.3 to 29.2mg/L in DI water, the log inactivation rate of Gordonia sp. increased from 0.16±0.04 to 0.45±0.13. However, with 29.2mg/L silver NPs the log inactivation rate reached 1.40±0.26 in 3mM SDS. The presence of SRNOM mitigated the bactericidal efficacy of silver NPs due to surface coating/adsorption. On the other hand, 10mM NaCl reduced the log inactivation rate to 0.07±0.07 due to the formation of likely less toxic silver chloride species, such as AgCl, AgCl2(-), AgCl3(2-), and AgCl4(3-).

Sulfur and sulfur nanoparticles as potential antimicrobials: from traditional medicine to nanomedicine

INTRODUCTION

The alarming rate of infections caused by various pathogens and development of their resistance towards a large number of antimicrobial agents has generated an essential need to search for novel and effective antimicrobial agents. Metal nanoparticles such as silver have been widely used and accepted as strong antimicrobial agents, but considering the cost effectiveness and significant bioactivities, researchers are looking to utilize sulfur nanoparticles as an effective alternative to silver nanoparticles.

AREAS COVERED

This review has been focused on different approaches for the synthesis of sulfur nanoparticles, their broad spectrum bioactivities and possible mechanisms involved in their bioactivities. Expert commentary: Sulfur nanoparticles are reported to possess broad spectrum antimicrobial activity, and hence can be used to treat microbial infections and potentially tackle the problem of antibiotic resistance. Thus, in the future, sulfur nanoparticles can be used as an effective, non-toxic and economically viable alternative to other precious metal nanoparticles.

Particulate Respirators Functionalized with Silver Nanoparticles Showed Excellent Real-Time Antimicrobial Effects against Pathogens

Particulate respirators designed to filtrate fine particulate matters usually do not possess antimicrobial functions. The current study aimed to functionalize particulate respirators with silver nanoparticles (nanosilver or AgNPs), which have excellent antimicrobial activities, utilizing a straightforward and effective method. We first enhanced the nanosilver-coating ability of nonwoven fabrics from a particulate respirator through surface modification by sodium oleate. The surfactant treatment significantly improved the fabrics' water wet preference where the static water contact angles reduced from 122° to 56°. Both macroscopic agar-plate tests and microscopic scanning electron microscope (SEM) characterization revealed that nanosilver functionalized fabrics could effectively inhibit the growth of two model bacterial strains (i.e., Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). The coating of silver nanoparticles would not affect the main function of particulate respirators (i.e., filtration of fine air-borne particles). Nanosilver coated particulate respirators with excellent antimicrobial activities can provide real-time protection to people in regions with severe air pollution against air-borne pathogens.

Pd@Ag Nanosheets in Combination with Amphotericin B Exert a Potent Anti-Cryptococcal Fungicidal Effect

Silver nanoparticles have received considerable interest as new "nanoantibiotics" with the potential to kill drug-resistant microorganisms. Recently, a class of new core-shell nanostructures, Pd@Ag nanosheets (Pd@Ag NSs), were created using deposition techniques and demonstrated excellent inhibitory effects on various bacteria in vitro. In this study, we evaluated the antifungal activity of Pd@Ag NSs against common invasive fungal pathogens. Among these organisms, Cryptococcus neoformans complex species was most susceptible to Pd@Ag NSs, which exhibited potent antifungal activity against various molecular types or sources of cryptococcal strains including fluconazole-resistant isolates. The anticryptococcal activity of Pd@Ag NSs was significantly greater than fluconazole and similar to that of amphotericin B (AmB). At relatively high concentrations, Pd@Ag NSs exhibited fungicidal activity against Cryptococcus spp., which can likely be attributed to the disruption of cell integrity, intracellular protein synthesis, and energy metabolism. Intriguingly, Pd@Ag NSs also exhibited strong synergistic anti-cryptococcal fungicidal effects at low concentrations in combination with AmB but exhibited much better safety in erythrocytes than AmB, even at the minimal fungicidal concentration. Therefore, Pd@Ag NSs may be a promising adjunctive agent for treating cryptococcosis, and further investigation for clinical applications is required.

Uptake and effect of highly fluorescent silver nanoclusters on Scenedesmus obliquus

The release of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in aquatic environment has caused wide public concern about their effects on living organisms (e.g., algae). However, how these small NPs exert cytotoxicity in the living organisms has always been under heated debate. In this study, the uptake and toxicity effects of strongly red-emitting fluorescent silver nanoclusters (r-Ag NCs) exposed to the green algae Scenedesmus obliquus was investigated. Upon exposure to pure r-Ag NCs and r-Ag NCs containing l-cysteine, the algae growth inhibition test showed that Ag(+) ions released from r-Ag NCs played an important role in the toxicity of r-Ag NCs along with the toxicity of intact r-Ag NCs. Furthermore, no signals of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were observed indicating that r-Ag NCs or released Ag(+) ions - mediated growth inhibition of algae cells was independent of ROS production. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) were employed to study cellular uptake and cytotoxicity. Furthermore, analysis of differential expressed gene demonstrated that r-Ag NCs as well as the released Ag(+) ions can simultaneously exist inside the algae cells, and inhibit the transcriptomic process of genes by their "joint-toxicity" mechanism. Taken together, our study provides a new insight into the molecular mechanisms of r-Ag NCs and Ag(+) ions exposure to the aquatic organism and can be applied to early diagnosis of ecologic risk mediated by others metal-based NPs.

Sonochemically-Produced Metal-Containing Polydopamine Nanoparticles and Their Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity

A facile one-pot sonochemical synthesis of Cu-, Ag-, and hybrid Cu/Ag-based polydopamine nanoparticles (Cu-, Ag-, and Cu/Ag-PDA-NPs) and the mechanisms by which they exert antibacterial and antibiofilm activities are reported. We showed that the nanoparticles are spherical with a core-shell structure. Whereas Cu is chelated to the shell of Cu-PDA-NPs in oxidation states of +1/+2, the core of Ag-PDA-NPs is filled with elemental Ag°. Sonochemical irradiation of dopamine in the presence of both Cu(2+) and Ag(+) generates hybrid Cu/Ag-PDA-NPs, whose shells are composed of Cu-chelated PDA with Ag° in the core. The redox potential of the metals was found to be the main determinant of the location and oxidation state of the metals. Leaching studies under physiological conditions reveal a relatively fast release of Cu ions from the shell, whereas Ag leaches very slowly from the core. The metal-containing PDA-NPs are highly microbicidal and exhibit potent antibiofilm activity. The combination of both metals in Cu/Ag-PDA-NPs is especially effective against bacteria and robust biofilms, owing to the dual bactericidal mechanisms of the metals. Most importantly, both Ag- and Cu/Ag-PDA-NPs proved to be significantly more antibacterial than commercial Ag-NPs while exhibiting lower toxicity toward NIH 3T3 mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Mechanistically, the metal-containing PDA-NPs generate stable PDA-semiquinone and reactive oxygen species under physiological conditions, which contribute at least partly to the antimicrobial activity. We also demonstrated that simple treatment of surfaces with Ag-PDA-NPs converts them to antibacterial, the activity of which was preserved even after prolonged storage under ambient conditions.

Effect of sulfidation and dissolved organic matters on toxicity of silver nanoparticles in sediment dwelling organism, Chironomus riparius

The properties, fate, and toxicity of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are readily modified in the environment. Thus, in order to predict the environmental impact of AgNPs, the toxicity test should be conducted to assess the interactions of AgNPs with environmental matrices. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is known to mitigate AgNPs toxicity in natural systems, and it is also known that silver binds strongly to sulfur. Little is known, however, about the effect of sulfidation and to what extent it could compete with DOM in the sediment. We therefore investigated the effect of sulfide on a sediment dwelling organism, Chironomus riparius using ecotoxicity endpoints. We then investigated how sulfide and a combination of sulfide and DOM affect the toxicity of AgNPs in C. riparius. We also monitored the concentrations of silver in the water and sediment compartments, as well as in C. riparius tissue, in the presence and absence of sulfide. Finally, in order to investigate how sulfide and DOM affect the release of ions from AgNPs, we also monitored released Ag(+) in each treatment. In the presence of sulfide, AgNPs were found to be less toxic to C. riparius in acute and chronic endpoints than AgNPs alone, whereas DOM treatment did not modulate the toxicity of AgNPs. Sulfide treatment reduced the release of Ag(+) from AgNPs. Water-spiked AgNPs with sulfide were found to be more slowly incorporated into both sediment and larvae as compared to the AgNP alone. Overall, the results suggest that the presence of sulfide in sediment mitigates the ecotoxicity of AgNPs in C. riparius.

Influence of Different Nanomaterials on Growth and Mycotoxin Production of Penicillium verrucosum

Nanoparticles are ubiquitous in the environment. They originate from anthropogenic or natural sources or they are intentionally produced for different purposes. There exist manifold applications of nanoparticles in modern life leading unavoidably to a confrontation and interaction between nanomaterial and living organisms. Based on their wide distribution tending to increase steadily, the influence of particles based on silica and silver, exhibiting nominal sizes between 0.65 nm and 200 nm, on the physiology of the mycotoxigenic filamentous fungus Penicillium verrucosum was analyzed. The applied concentration and time-point, the size and the chemical composition of the particles was shown to have a strong influence on growth and mycotoxin biosynthesis. On microscopic scale it could be shown that silver nanoparticles attach to the mycelial surface. Moreover, silver nanoparticles with 0.65 nm and 5 nm in size were shown to internalize within the cell, form agglomerates in the cytoplasm and associate to cell organelles.

Antimicrobial activity of silver loaded MnO2 nanomaterials with different crystal phases against Escherichia coli

Silver-loaded MnO2 nanomaterials (Ag/MnO2), including Ag/α-MnO2, Ag/β-MnO2, Ag/γ-MnO2 and Ag/δ-MnO2 nanorods, were prepared with hydrothermal and impregnation methods. The bactericidal activities of four types of Ag/MnO2 nanomaterials against Escherichia coli were investigated and an inactivation mechanism involving Ag(+) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) was also proposed. The bactericidal activities of Ag/MnO2 depended on the MnO2 crystal phase. Among these nanomaterials, Ag/β-MnO2 showed the highest bactericidal activity. There was a 6-log decrease in E. coli survival number after treatment with Ag/β-MnO2 for 120min. The results of 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide spin-trapping measurements by electron spin resonance indicate OH and O2‾ formation with addition of Ag/β-MnO2, Ag/γ-MnO2 or Ag/δ-MnO2. The strongest peak of OH appeared for Ag/β-MnO2, while no OH or O2‾ signal was found over Ag/α-MnO2. Through analysis of electron spin resonance (ESR) and Ag(+) elution results, it could be deduced that the toxicity of Ag(+) eluted from Ag/MnO2 nanomaterials and ROS played the main roles during the bactericidal process. Silver showed the highest dispersion on the surface of β-MnO2, which promoted ROS formation and the increase of bactericidal activity. Experimental results also indicated that Ag/MnO2 induced the production of intracellular ROS and disruption of the cell wall and cell membrane.

Activity Variation of Phanerochaete chrysosporium under Nanosilver Exposure by Controlling of Different Sulfide Sources

Due to the particular activation and inhibition behavior of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on microbes at various concentrations, it’s crucial to exploit the special concentration effect in environment. Here, we studied the viability variation of Phanerochaete chrysosporium (P. chrysosporium) under exposure to citrate-coated AgNPs (Citrate-AgNPs) in the presence of different sulfide sources (an inorganic sulfide, NaHS and an organic sulfide, thioacetamide (TAA)). The results indicated that both NaHS and TAA can promote activation of P. chrysosporium by Citrate-AgNPs at a higher concentration, which was initial at toxic level. Treatment with various concentrations of Citrate-AgNPs (0–9 mg/L) demonstrated a maximum activation concentration (MAC) at 3 mg/L. With the increase in sulfide concentration, MAC transferred to higher concentration significantly, indicating the obvious “toxicity to activation” transformation at a higher concentration. Ag⁺ testing exhibited that variations in sulfide-induced Ag⁺ concentration (3−7 μg/L Ag⁺) accounted for the “toxicity to activation” transformation. In addition, the similar results were observed on antibacterial application using Escherichia coli as the model species. Based on the research results, the application of this transformation in improving antibacterial activity was proposed. Therefore, the antibacterial activity of AgNPs can be controlled, even at concentration, via adjusting for the sulfide concentration.

Antimicrobial Activity of Silver Ions Released from Zeolites Immobilized on Cellulose Nanofiber Mats

In this study, we exploit the high silver ion exchange capability of Linde Type A (LTA) zeolites and present, for the first time, electrospun nanofiber mats decorated with in-house synthesized silver (Ag(+)) ion exchanged zeolites that function as molecular delivery vehicles. LTA-Large zeolites with a particle size of 6.0 μm were grown on the surface of the cellulose nanofiber mats, whereas LTA-Small zeolites (0.2 μm) and three-dimensionally ordered mesoporous-imprinted (LTA-Meso) zeolites (0.5 μm) were attached to the surface of the cellulose nanofiber mats postsynthesis. After the three zeolite/nanofiber mat assemblies were ion-exchanged with Ag(+) ions, their ion release profiles and ability to inactivate Escherichia coli (E. coli) K12 were evaluated as a function of time. LTA-Large zeolites immobilized on the nanofiber mats displayed more than an 11 times greater E. coli K12 inactivation than the Ag-LTA-Large zeolites that were not immobilized on the nanofiber mats. This study demonstrates that by decorating nanometer to micrometer scale Ag(+) ion-exchanged zeolites on the surface of high porosity, hydrophilic cellulose nanofiber mats, we can achieve a tunable release of Ag(+) ions that inactivate bacteria faster and are more practical to use in applications over powder zeolites.

Zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles induce oxidative stress, inhibit growth, and attenuate biofilm formation activity of Streptococcus mitis

Streptococcus mitis from the oral cavity causes endocarditis and other systemic infections. Rising resistance against traditional antibiotics amongst oral bacteria further aggravates the problem. Therefore, antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities of zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (NPs) synthesized and characterized during this study against S. mitis ATCC 6249 and Ora-20 were evaluated in search of alternative antimicrobial agents. ZnO and TiO2-NPs exhibited an average size of 35 and 13 nm, respectively. The IC50 values of ZnO and TiO2-NPs against S. mitis ATCC 6249 were 37 and 77 µg ml(-1), respectively, while the IC50 values against S. mitis Ora-20 isolate were 31 and 53 µg ml(-1), respectively. Live and dead staining, biofilm formation on the surface of polystyrene plates, and extracellular polysaccharide production show the same pattern. Exposure to these nanoparticles also shows an increase (26-83 %) in super oxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Three genes, namely bapA1, sodA, and gtfB like genes from these bacteria were identified and sequenced for quantitative real-time PCR analysis. An increase in sodA gene (1.4- to 2.4-folds) levels and a decrease in gtfB gene (0.5- to 0.9-folds) levels in both bacteria following exposure to ZnO and TiO2-NPs were observed. Results presented in this study verify that ZnO-NPs and TiO2-NPs can control the growth and biofilm formation activities of these strains at very low concentration and hence can be used as alternative antimicrobial agents for oral hygiene.

Fabrication of innovative ZnO nanoflowers showing drastic biological activity

The present article highlights a facile approach towards the synthesis of ZnO nanoflowers using designed single molecular precursors (1 and 2) at room temperature. The relative biological activities of 1, 2 and ZnO nanoflowers have also been demonstrated.

Synthesis, characterization, antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity of hollow TiO2-coated CeO2nanocontainers encapsulating silver nanoparticles for controlled silver release

This novel type of nanocontainers offers the concept of potentially controlling silver delivery for the prevention of implant-associated infections.

Polyurethane foams doped with stable silver nanoparticles as bactericidal and catalytic materials for the effective treatment of water

Reusable dual-purpose nanocomposite foams with AgNPs showed high stability even after 2 years of storage.

Synthesis of copper–silver bimetallic nanopowders for a biomedical approach; study of their antibacterial properties

Copper–silver nanopowders (NPs) are synthesized using a combination of sonoelectrodeposition for the inner core and galvanic replacement reaction for the outer shell.

Silver nanoparticles in aquatic environments: Physiochemical behavior and antimicrobial mechanisms

Nanosilver (silver nanoparticles or AgNPs) has unique physiochemical properties and strong antimicrobial activities. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the physicochemical behavior (e.g., dissolution and aggregation) and antimicrobial mechanisms of nanosilver in aquatic environments. The inconsistency in calculating the Gibbs free energy of formation of nanosilver [ΔGf(AgNPs)] in aquatic environments highlights the research needed to carefully determine the thermodynamic stability of nanosilver. The dissolutive release of silver ion (Ag(+)) in the literature is often described using a pseudo-first-order kinetics, but the fit is generally poor. This paper proposes a two-stage model that could better predict silver ion release kinetics. The theoretical analysis suggests that nanosilver dissolution could occur under anoxic conditions and that nanosilver may be sulfidized to form silver sulfide (Ag2S) under strict anaerobic conditions, but more investigation with carefully-designed experiments is required to confirm the analysis. Although silver ion release is likely the main antimicrobial mechanism of nanosilver, the contributions of (ion-free) AgNPs and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation to the overall toxicity of nanosilver must not be neglected. Several research directions are proposed to better understand the dissolution kinetics of nanosilver and its antimicrobial mechanisms under various aquatic environmental conditions.

Understanding the fate and biological effects of Ag- and TiO₂-nanoparticles in the environment: The quest for advanced analytics and interdisciplinary concepts

Engineered inorganic nanoparticles (EINP) from consumers' products and industrial applications, especially silver and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (NP), are emitted into the aquatic and terrestrial environments in increasing amounts. However, the current knowledge on their environmental fate and biological effects is diverse and renders reliable predictions complicated. This review critically evaluates existing knowledge on colloidal aging mechanisms, biological functioning and transport of Ag NP and TiO2 NP in water and soil and it discusses challenges for concepts, experimental approaches and analytical methods in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the processes linking NP fate and effects. Ag NP undergo dissolution and oxidation with Ag2S as a thermodynamically determined endpoint. Nonetheless, Ag NP also undergo colloidal transformations in the nanoparticulate state and may act as carriers for other substances. Ag NP and TiO2 NP can have adverse biological effects on organisms. Whereas Ag NP reveal higher colloidal stability and mobility, the efficiency of NOM as a stabilizing agent is greater towards TiO2 NP than towards Ag NP, and multivalent cations can dominate the colloidal behavior over NOM. Many of the past analytical obstacles have been overcome just recently. Single particle ICP-MS based methods in combination with field flow fractionation techniques and hydrodynamic chromatography have the potential to fill the gaps currently hampering a comprehensive understanding of fate and effects also at a low field relevant concentrations. These analytical developments will allow for mechanistically orientated research and transfer to a larger set of EINP. This includes separating processes driven by NP specific properties and bulk chemical properties, categorization of effect-triggering pathways directing the EINP effects towards specific recipients, and identification of dominant environmental parameters triggering fate and effect of EINP in specific ecosystems (e.g. soil, lake, or riverine systems).

Removal of Protein Capping Enhances the Antibacterial Efficiency of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles

The present study demonstrates an economical and environmental affable approach for the synthesis of “protein-capped” silver nanoparticles in aqueous solvent system. A variety of standard techniques viz. UV-visible spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were employed to characterize the shape, size and composition of nanoparticles. The synthesized nanoparticles were found to be homogenous, spherical, mono-dispersed and covered with multi-layered protein shell. In order to prepare bare silver nanoparticles, the protein shell was removed from biogenic nanoparticles as confirmed by UV-visible spectroscopy, FTIR and photoluminescence analysis. Subsequently, the antibacterial efficacy of protein-capped and bare silver nanoparticles was compared by bacterial growth rate and minimum inhibitory concentration assay. The results revealed that bare nanoparticles were more effective as compared to the protein-capped silver nanoparticles with varying antibacterial potential against the tested Gram positive and negative bacterial species. Mechanistic studies based on ROS generation and membrane damage suggested that protein-capped and bare silver nanoparticles demonstrate distinct mode of action. These findings were strengthened by the TEM imaging along with silver ion release measurements using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). In conclusion, our results illustrate that presence of protein shell on silver nanoparticles can decrease their bactericidal effects. These findings open new avenues for surface modifications of nanoparticles to modulate and enhance their functional properties.

Chronic Effects of Coated Silver Nanoparticles on Marine Invertebrate Larvae: A Proof of Concept Study

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), owing to their unique physical and chemical properties, have become increasingly popular in consumer products. However, data on their potential biological effects on marine organisms, especially invertebrates, remain very limited. This proof of principle study reports the chronic sub-lethal toxicity of two coated AgNPs (oleic acid coated AgNPs and polyvinylpyrrolidone coated AgNPs) on marine benthic invertebrate larvae across three phyla (i.e., the barnacle Balanus Amphitrite, the slipper-limpet Crepidula onyx, and the polychaete Hydroides elegans) in terms of growth, development, and metamorphosis. Bioaccumulation and biodistribution of silver were also investigated. Larvae were also exposed to silver nitrate (AgNO₃) in parallel to distinguish the toxic effects derived from nano-silver and the aqueous form of silver. The sub-lethal effect of chronic exposure to coated AgNPs resulted in a significant retardation in growth and development, and reduction of larval settlement rate. The larval settlement rate of H. elegans was significantly lower in the coated AgNP treatment than the AgNO₃ treatment, suggesting that the toxicity of coated AgNPs might not be solely evoked by the release of silver ions (Ag⁺) in the test medium. The three species accumulated silver effectively from coated AgNPs as well as AgNO₃, and coated AgNPs were observed in the vacuoles of epithelial cell in the digestive tract of C. onyx. Types of surface coatings did not affect the sub-lethal toxicity of AgNPs. This study demonstrated that coated AgNPs exerted toxic effects in a species-specific manner, and their exposure might allow bioaccumulation of silver, and affect growth, development, and settlement of marine invertebrate larvae. This study also highlighted the possibility that coated AgNPs could be taken up through diet and the toxicity of coated AgNPs might be mediated through toxic Ag⁺ as well as the novel modalities of coated AgNPs.

Effects of Humic and Fulvic Acids on Silver Nanoparticle Stability, Dissolution, and Toxicity

The colloidal stability of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in natural aquatic environments influences their transport and environmental persistence, while their dissolution to Ag(+) influences their toxicity to organisms. Here, we characterize the colloidal stability, dissolution behavior, and toxicity of two industrially relevant classes of AgNPs (i.e., AgNPs stabilized by citrate or polyvinylpyrrolidone) after exposure to natural organic matter (NOM, i.e., Suwannee River Humic and Fulvic Acid Standards and Pony Lake Fulvic Acid Reference). We show that NOM interaction with the nanoparticle surface depends on (i) the NOM's chemical composition, where sulfur- and nitrogen-rich NOM more significantly increases colloidal stability, and (ii) the affinity of the capping agent for the AgNP surface, where nanoparticles with loosely bound capping agents are more effectively stabilized by NOM. Adsorption of NOM is shown to have little effect on AgNP dissolution under most experimental conditions, the exception being when the NOM is rich in sulfur and nitrogen. Similarly, the toxicity of AgNPs to a bacterial model (Shewanella oneidensis MR-1) decreases most significantly in the presence of sulfur- and nitrogen-rich NOM. Our data suggest that the rate of AgNP aggregation and dissolution in aquatic environments containing NOM will depend on the chemical composition of the NOM, and that the toxicity of AgNPs to aquatic microorganisms is controlled primarily by the extent of nanoparticle dissolution.

Perturbation of cellular mechanistic system by silver nanoparticle toxicity: Cytotoxic, genotoxic and epigenetic potentials

Currently the applications of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are gaining overwhelming response due to the advancement of nanotechnology. However, only limited information is available with regard to their toxicity mechanism in different species. It is very essential to understand the complete molecular mechanism to explore the functional and long term applications of Ag NPs. Ag NPs could be toxic at cellular, subcellular, biomolecular, and epigenetic levels. Toxicity effects induced by Ag NPs have been evaluated using numerous in vitro and in vivo models, but still there are contradictions in interpretations due to disparity in methodology, test endpoints and several other model parameters which needs to be considered. Thus, this review article focuses on the progressive elucidation of molecular mechanism of toxicity induced by Ag NPs in various in vitro and in vivo models. Apart from these, this review also highlights the various ignored factors which are to be considered during toxicity studies.

Silver nanoparticles impact phototrophic biofilm communities to a considerably higher degree than ionic silver

Due to the significant increase in nanoparticle production and especially that of silver nanoparticles over the past decade, the toxicity of silver in both ionic (Ag(+)) and nanoparticulate (AgNPs) form must be studied in detail in order to understand their impact on natural ecosystems. A comparative study of the effect of AgNPs and ionic silver on two independent phototrophic biofilms was conducted in a rotating annular bioreactor (RAB) operating under constant conditions. The concentration of dissolved silver in the inlet solution was progressively increased every 4 days of exposure, from 0.1 to 100 μg L(-1). In the course of the 40-day experiment, biofilm samples were collected to determine the evolution of biomass, chlorophyll-a, as well as photosynthetic and heterotrophic enzymatic activities in response to silver addition. Analysis of both dissolved and particulate silver allowed quantification of the distribution coefficient and uptake rate constants. The presence of both AgNPs and Ag(+) produced significant changes in the biofilm structure, decreasing the relative percentage of Diatomophyceae and Cyanophyceae and increasing the relative percentage of Chlorophyceae. The accumulation capacity of the phototrophic biofilm with respect to ionic silver and the corresponding distribution coefficients were an order of magnitude higher than those of the phototrophic biofilm with respect to AgNPs. Higher levels of AgNPs decreased the biomass from 8.6 ± 0.2 mg cm(-2) for 0-10 μg L(-1) AgNPs to 6.0 ± 0.1 mg cm(-2) for 100 μg L(-1) added AgNPs, whereas ionic silver did not have any toxic effect on the biofilm growth up to 100 μg L(-1) of added Ag(+). At the same time, AgNPs did not significantly affect the photosynthetic activity of the biofilm surface communities compared to Ag(+). It can thus be hypothesized that negatively charged AgNPs may travel through the biofilm water channels, thereby affecting the whole biofilm structure. In contrast, positively charged Ag(+) is bound at the cell surfaces and EPS, thus blocking its further flux within the biofilm layers. On the whole, the phototrophic biofilm demonstrated significant capacities to accumulate silver within the surface layers. The main mechanism to avoid the toxic effects is metal complexation with exopolysaccharides and accumulation within cell walls, especially pronounced under Ag(+) stress. The significant AgNPs and Ag(+) uptake capacities of phototrophic biofilm make it a highly resistant ecosystem in silver-polluted river waters.

Synthesis and Antibacterial Evaluation of Calcinated Ag-Doped Nano-Hydroxyapatite with Dispersibility

Purpose

Dispersible hydroxyapatite (HAp) nanoparticles are very useful for applying a monolayer to implantable medical devices using the nano-coating technique. To improve tolerance to infection on implanted medical devices, silver-doped HAp (Ag-HAp) nanoparticles with dispersiblity and crystallinity were synthesized, avoiding calcination-induced sintering, and evaluated for antibacterial activity.

Methods

The Ca10-xAgx(PO4)6(OH)2 with x = 0 and 0.2 were prepared by wet chemical processing at 100°C. Before calcination at 700°C for 2 h, two kinds of anti-sintering agents, namely a Ca(NO3)2 (Ca salt) and a poly-acrylic acid/Ca salt mixture (PAA-Ca), were used. Escherichia coli was used to evaluate the antibacterial activity of the nanopowder.

Results

When PAA-Ca was used as an anti-sintering agent in calcination to prepare the dispersible nanoparticles, strong metallic Ag peaks were observed at 38.1° and 44.3° ( 20 ) in the X-ray diffraction (XRD) profile. However, the Ag peak was barely observed when Ca salt was used alone as the anti-sintering agent. Thus, using Ca salt alone was more effective for preparation of dispersible Ag-HAp than PAA-Ca. The particle average size of Ag-HAp with 0.5 mol% of Ag content was found to be 325 ± 70 nm when the formation of large particle-aggregations was prevented, as determined by dynamic light scattering instrument. The antibacterial activity of the Ag-HAp nanoparticles possessing 0.5 mol% against E. coli was greater than 90.0%.

Conclusions

Dispersible and crystalline nano Ag-HAp can be obtained by using Ca salt alone as an anti-sintering agent. The nanoparticles showed antibacterial activity.

Use of bioreporters and deletion mutants reveals ionic silver and ROS to be equally important in silver nanotoxicity

The mechanism of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles (AgNp) was investigated by employing a combination of microbiology and geochemical approaches to contribute to the realistic assessment of nanotoxicity. Our studies showed that suspending AgNp in media with different levels of chloride relevant to environmental conditions produced low levels of ionic silver thereby suggesting that dissolution of silver ions from nanoparticulate surface could not be the sole mechanism of toxicity. An Escherichia coli based bioreporter strain responsive to silver ions together with mutant strains of E. coli lacking specific protective systems were tested against AgNp. Deletion mutants lacking silver ion efflux systems and resistance mechanisms against oxidative stress showed an increased sensitivity to AgNp. However, the bioreporter did not respond to silver nanoparticles. Our results suggest that oxidative stress is a major toxicity mechanism and that this is at least partially associated with ionic silver, but that bulk dissolution of silver into the medium is not sufficient to account for the observed effects. Chloride ions do not appear to offer significant protection, indicating that chloride in receiving waters will not necessarily protect environmental bacteria from the toxic effects of nanoparticles in effluents.

Analytical approaches to support current understanding of exposure, uptake and distributions of engineered nanoparticles by aquatic and terrestrial organisms

Initiatives to support the sustainable development of the nanotechnology sector have led to rapid growth in research on the environmental fate, hazards and risk of engineered nanoparticles (ENP). As the field has matured over the last 10 years, a detailed picture of the best methods to track potential forms of exposure, their uptake routes and best methods to identify and track internal fate and distributions following assimilation into organisms has begun to emerge. Here we summarise the current state of the field, focussing particularly on metal and metal oxide ENPs. Studies to date have shown that ENPs undergo a range of physical and chemical transformations in the environment to the extent that exposures to pristine well dispersed materials will occur only rarely in nature. Methods to track assimilation and internal distributions must, therefore, be capable of detecting these modified forms. The uptake mechanisms involved in ENP assimilation may include a range of trans-cellular trafficking and distribution pathways, which can be followed by passage to intracellular compartments. To trace toxicokinetics and distributions, analytical and imaging approaches are available to determine rates, states and forms. When used hierarchically, these tools can map ENP distributions to specific target organs, cell types and organelles, such as endosomes, caveolae and lysosomes and assess speciation states. The first decade of ENP ecotoxicology research, thus, points to an emerging paradigm where exposure is to transformed materials transported into tissues and cells via passive and active pathways within which they can be assimilated and therein identified using a tiered analytical and imaging approach.

Silver nanoparticles in dental biomaterials

Silver has been used in medicine for centuries because of its antimicrobial properties. More recently, silver nanoparticles have been synthesized and incorporated into several biomaterials, since their small size provides great antimicrobial effect, at low filler level. Hence, these nanoparticles have been applied in dentistry, in order to prevent or reduce biofilm formation over dental materials surfaces. This review aims to discuss the current progress in this field, highlighting aspects regarding silver nanoparticles incorporation, such as antimicrobial potential, mechanical properties, cytotoxicity, and long-term effectiveness. We also emphasize the need for more studies to determine the optimal concentration of silver nanoparticle and its release over time.

Hemocompatible, antioxidative and antibacterial polypropylene prepared by attaching silver nanoparticles capped with TPGS

Synthesis of Ag NPs by TPGS and the excellent hemocompatibility, anti-oxidative and antibacterial properties of the deposition of Ag NPs onto PP grafted with NIPAAm and APMA.

Nitroxide-coated silver nanoparticles: synthesis, surface physicochemistry and antibacterial activity

We report the synthesis of well-defined silver nanoparticles with high antibacterial activity. Nitroxides on their surface may be oxidized under the influence of ROS to oxoammonium ions which are capable of interacting with bacterial membrane.

Silver, zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticle ecotoxicity to bioluminescent Pseudomonas putida in laboratory medium and artificial wastewater

Bacteria based ecotoxicology assessment of manufactured nanoparticles is largely restricted to Escherichia coli bioreporters in laboratory media. Here, toxicity effects of model OECD nanoparticles (Ag NM-300K, ZnO NM-110 and TiO2 NM-104) were assessed using the switch-off luminescent Pseudomonas putida BS566::luxCDABE bioreporter in Luria Bertani (LB) medium and artificial wastewater (AW). IC50 values ∼4 mg L(-1), 100 mg L(-1) and >200 mg L(-1) at 1 h were observed in LB for Ag NM-300K, ZnO NM-110 and TiO2 NM-104, respectively. Similar results were obtained in AW for Ag NM-300K (IC50∼5 mg L(-1)) and TiO2 NM-104 (IC50>200 mg L(-1)) whereas ZnO NM-110 was significantly higher (IC50>200 mg L(-1)). Lower ZnO NM-110 toxicity in AW compared to LB was associated with differences in agglomeration status and dissolution rate. This work demonstrates the importance of nanoecotoxicological studies in environmentally relevant matrices.

Dynamics of silver nanoparticle release from wound dressings revealed via in situ nanoscale imaging

The use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in textiles for enhanced anti-microbial properties has led to concern about their release and impact on both human and environmental health. Here a novel method for in situ visualization of AgNP release from silver-impregnated wound dressings is introduced. By combining an environmental scanning electron microscope, a gaseous analytical detector and a peltier cooling stage, this technique provides near-instantaneous nanoscale characterization of interactions between individual water droplets and AgNPs. We show that dressings with different silver application methods have very distinct AgNP release dynamics. Specifically, water condensation on dressings with AgNP deposited directly on the fiber surface resulted in substantial and rapid AgNP release. By comparison, AgNP release from wound dressing with nanoparticles grown, not deposited, from the fiber surface was either much slower or negligible. Our methodology complements standard bulk techniques for studying of silver release from fabrics by providing dynamic nanoscale information about mechanisms governing AgNP release from individual fibers. Thus coupling these nano and macro-scale methods can provide insight into how the wound dressing fabrication could be engineered to optimize AgNP release for different applications.

Predicting the environmental impact of nanosilver

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are incorporated into many consumer and medical products due to their antimicrobial properties; however, the potential environmental risks of AgNPs are yet to be fully understood. This mini-review aims to predict the environmental impact of AgNPs, thus supplementing previous reviews on this topic. To this end, the AgNP production, environmental release and fate, predicted environmental concentrations in surface water, sediment, and sludge-activated soil, as well as reported toxicity and proposed toxic mechanisms are discussed, focusing primarily on fish. Furthermore, knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research are addressed.