Graphene nanomesh promises extremely efficient in vivo photothermal therapy

Tumor Targeting Strategies of Smart Fluorescent Nanoparticles and Their Applications in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Advantages such as strong signal strength, resistance to photobleaching, tunable fluorescence emissions, high sensitivity, and biocompatibility are the driving forces for the application of fluorescent nanoparticles (FNPs) in cancer diagnosis and therapy. In addition, the large surface area and easy modification of FNPs provide a platform for the design of multifunctional nanoparticles (MFNPs) for tumor targeting, diagnosis, and treatment. In order to obtain better targeting and therapeutic effects, it is necessary to understand the properties and targeting mechanisms of FNPs, which are the foundation and play a key role in the targeting design of nanoparticles (NPs). Widely accepted and applied targeting mechanisms such as enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, active targeting, and tumor microenvironment (TME) targeting are summarized here. Additionally, a freshly discovered targeting mechanism is introduced, termed cell membrane permeability targeting (CMPT), which improves the tumor-targeting rate from less than 5% of the EPR effect to more than 50%. A new design strategy is also summarized, which is promising for future clinical targeting NPs/nanomedicines design. The targeting mechanism and design strategy will inspire new insights and thoughts on targeting design and will speed up precision medicine and contribute to cancer therapy and early diagnosis.

Nanoformulations for glioblastoma multiforme: a new hope for treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor in adults, associated with a high mortality rate and a survival of between 12 and 15 months after diagnosis. Due to current treatment limitations involving surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy with temozolamide, there is a high rate of treatment failure and recurrence. To try to overcome these limitations nanotechnology has emerged as a novel alternative. Lipid, polymeric, silica and magnetic nanoparticles, among others, are being developed to improve GBM treatment and diagnosis. These nanoformulations have many advantages, including lower toxicity, biocompatibility and the ability to be directed toward the tumor. This article reviews the progress that have been made and the large variety of nanoparticles currently under study for GBM.

Photoactive properties of supramolecular assembled short peptides

Bioinspired nanostructures can be the ideal functional smart materials to bridge the fundamental biology, biomedicine and nanobiotechnology fields. Among them, short peptides are among the most preferred building blocks as they can self-assemble to form versatile supramolecular architectures displaying unique physical and chemical properties, including intriguing optical features. Herein, we discuss the progress made over the past few decades in the design and characterization of optical short peptide nanomaterials, focusing on their intrinsic photoluminescent and waveguiding performances, along with the diverse modulation strategies. We review the complicated optical properties and the advanced applications of photoactive short peptide self-assemblies, including photocatalysis, as well as photothermal and photodynamic therapy. The diverse advantages of photoactive short peptide self-assemblies, such as eco-friendliness, morphological and functional flexibility, and ease of preparation and modification, endow them with the capability to potentially serve as next-generation, bio-organic optical materials, allowing the bridging of the optics world and the nanobiotechnology field.

In-vitro photothermal therapy using plant extract polyphenols functionalized graphene sheets for treatment of lung cancer

Although the photothermal therapy (PTT) has achieved tremendous progress in the recent times, still it has to improve an extensive way to achieve the efficient targeted photothermal removal of the tumor cells. Owing to this requirement, we demonstrated a novel class of reduced graphene oxide based photothermal therapeutic agent for the ablation of lung cancer cells (A549). A single step bio facile fabrication of graphene nanosheets using Memecylon edule leaf extract intermediated reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO). This process does not include the utilization of any toxic or harmful reducing agents. The relative results of different characterizations of graphene oxide and Memecylon edule leaf extract RGO delivers a potential representation by excluding the groups containing oxygen from GO and consecutive stabilization of the developed RGO. The reduced GO functionalization with the oxidized polyphenols results in their stability by avoiding the aggregation. The poly phenol anchored Reduced Graphene Oxide (RGO) exhibited exceptional near-infrared (NIR) irradiation of the lung cancer cells directed in vitro to deliver cytotoxicity. In an area of restricted success in the treatment of cancer, the results of our translation can provide a path for designing targeted PTT agents and also responds to stimulus environment for the safe ablation of the devastating disease.

Tumor-Microenvironment-Induced All-in-One Nanoplatform for Multimodal Imaging-Guided Chemical and Photothermal Therapy of Cancer

Precisely locating tumor site based on tumor-microenvironment-induced (TMI) multimodal imaging is especially interesting for accurate and efficient cancer therapy. In the present investigation, a novel TMI all-in-one nanoplatform, CuS_NC@DOX@MnO_2-NS, has been successfully fabricated for chemical and photothermal (Chem-PTT) therapy guided by multimodal imaging on tumor site. Here, the CuS nanocages with mesoporous and hollow structure (CuS_NC) acting as nanocarriers provide high capacity for loading the anticancer drug, doxorubicin (DOX). The outer layer of the MnO₂ nanoshell (MnO_2-NS) acts as "gatekeeper" to control the DOX release until the nanoplatform arrives at the tumor site, where abundant glutathione and H⁺ decompose MnO_2-NS into paramagnetic Mn²⁺. The magnetic resonance imaging and fluorescent imaging were then triggered to locate the tumor, which was further improved by photothermal imaging on account of the intrinsic property of CuS_NC. Guided by the multimode imaging, the combination of chemical therapy upon DOX and photothermal therapy upon CuS_NC exhibits eminent efficiency on tumor ablation. The nanoplatform exhibits biocompatibility to avoid unwanted harm to normal tissues during trans-shipment in the body. The investigation thus develops a cost-effective TMI nanoplatform with facile preparations and easy integration of Chem-PTT treatment capabilities guided by multimodal imaging for potential application in precise therapy.

Graphene-Based Nanomaterials: From Production to Integration With Modern Tools in Neuroscience

Graphene, a two-dimensional carbon crystal, has emerged as a promising material for sensing and modulating neuronal activity in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we provide a primer for how manufacturing processes to produce graphene and graphene oxide result in materials properties that may be tailored for a variety of applications. We further discuss how graphene may be composited with other bio-compatible materials of interest to make novel hybrid complexes with desired characteristics for bio-interfacing. We then highlight graphene's ever-widen utility and unique properties that may in the future be multiplexed for cross-modal modulation or interrogation of neuronal network. As the biological effects of graphene are still an area of active investigation, we discuss recent development, with special focus on how surface coatings and surface properties of graphene are relevant to its biological effects. We discuss studies conducted in both non-murine and murine systems, and emphasize the preclinical aspect of graphene's potential without undermining its tangible clinical implementation.

Enhanced photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange by porous graphene/ZnO nanocomposite

Degrading aquatic organic pollutants efficiently is very important but strongly relied on the design of photocatalysts. Porous graphene could increase photocatalytic performance of ZnO nanoparticles by promoting the effective charge separation of electron-hole pairs if they can be composited. Herein, porous graphene, ZnO nanoparticles and porous graphene/ZnO nanocomposite were prepared by fine tuning of partial combustion, which graphene oxide imperfectly covered by the layered Zn salt was combusted under muffle furnace within few minutes. Resulting ZnO nanoparticles (32-72 nm) are dispersed uniformly on the surface of graphene sheets, the pore sizes of porous graphene are in the range from ∼3 to ∼52 nm. The synthesized porous graphene/ZnO nanocomposite was confirmed to show enhanced efficiency under natural sunlight irradiation compared with pure ZnO nanoparticles. Using porous graphene/ZnO nanocomposite, 100% degradation of methyl orange can be achieved within 150 min. The synergetic effect of photocatalysis and adsorption is main reason for excellent MO degradation of PG/ZnO nanocomposite. This work may offer a new route to accurately prepare porous graphene-based nanocomposite and open a door of their applications.

Degradation of Mitochondria and Oxidative Stress as the Main Mechanism of Toxicity of Pristine Graphene on U87 Glioblastoma Cells and Tumors and HS-5 Cells

Due to the development of nanotechnologies, graphene and graphene-based nanomaterials have attracted immense scientific interest owing to their extraordinary properties. Graphene can be used in many fields, including biomedicine. To date, little is known about the impact graphene may have on human health in the case of intentional exposure. The present study was carried out on U87 glioma cells and non-cancer HS-5 cell lines as in vitro model and U87 tumors cultured on chicken embryo chorioallantoic membrane as in vivo model, on which the effects of pristine graphene platelets (GPs) were evaluated. The investigation consisted of structural analysis of GPs using transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transmission infrared measurements, zeta potential measurements, evaluation of cell morphology, assessment of cell viability, investigation of reactive oxygen species production, and investigation of mitochondrial membrane potential. The toxicity of U87 glioma tumors was evaluated by calculating the weight and volume of tumors and performing analyses of the ultrastructure, histology, and protein expression. The in vitro results indicate that GPs have dose-dependent cytotoxicity via ROS overproduction and depletion of the mitochondrial membrane potential. The mass and volume of tumors were reduced in vivo after injection of GPs. Additionally, the level of apoptotic and necrotic markers increased in GPs-treated tumors.

Recent Advances in Carbon Nanomaterials for Cancer Phototherapy

Carbon nanomaterials have received great attention from the scientific community over the past few decades because of their unique physical and chemical properties. In this minireview, we will summarize the recent progress of the use of various carbon nanomaterials in the field of cancer phototherapy. The structural characteristics of each category and the surface functionalization strategies of these nanomaterials will be briefly introduced before focusing on their therapeutic applications. Recent advances on their use in photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and combined phototherapies are presented. Moreover, a few challenges and perspectives on the development of carbon nanomaterials for future theranostics are also discussed.

Graphene oxide down-regulates genes of the oxidative phosphorylation complexes in a glioblastoma

BACKGROUND

Recently different forms of nanographene were proposed as the material with high anticancer potential. However, the mechanism of the suppressive activity of the graphene on cancer development remains unclear. We examined the effect of oxygenated, reduced and pristine graphene on the gene expression in glioblastoma U87 cell line.

RESULTS

Conducting microarrays and RT-qPCR analysis we explored that graphene oxide (rather than reduced graphene oxide and pristine graphene) down-regulates the mRNA expression of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) nuclear genes of complexes I, III, IV and V. The presented results provide first evidence for the hypothesis that the suppressed growth of GBM can be the consequence of down-regulation of OXPHOS protein expression and decreased ATP level.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that changes in the expression of OXPHOS genes identified in our study may mediate the anti-proliferative and anti-migratory effects of graphene oxide in glioblastoma cells. However, further investigations with different cell lines, regarding expression, regulation and activity of OXPHOS genes identified in our study is necessary to elucidate the mechanism mediating the anti-proliferative and anti-migratory effects of graphene oxide in glioblastoma cells.

Physically-triggered nanosystems based on two-dimensional materials for cancer theranostics

There is an increasing demand to develop effective methods for treating malignant diseases to improve healthcare in our society. Stimuli-responsive nanosystems, which can respond to internal or external stimuli are promising in cancer therapy and diagnosis due to their functionality and versatility. As a newly emerging class of nanomaterials, two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have attracted huge interest in many different fields including biomedicine due to their unique physical and chemical properties. In the past decade, stimuli-responsive nanosystems based on 2D nanomaterials have been widely studied, showing promising applications in cancer therapy and diagnosis, including phototherapies, magnetic therapy, drug and gene delivery, and non-invasive imaging. Here, we will focus our attention on the state-of-the-art of physically-triggered nanosystems based on graphene and two-dimensional nanomaterials for cancer therapy and diagnosis. The physical triggers include light, temperature, magnetic and electric fields.

Coral-shaped Au nanostructures for selective apoptosis induction during photothermal therapy

The use of coral-shaped Au nanostructures as a heater to selectively induce apoptosis in photothermal therapy of cancer is reported.

A Systematic Review and Critical Analysis of the Role of Graphene-Based Nanomaterialsin Cancer Theranostics

Many graphene-based materials (GBNs) applied to therapy and diagnostics (theranostics) in cancer have been developed. Most of them are hybrid combinations of graphene with other components (e.g, drugs or other bioactives, polymers, and nanoparticles) aiming toward a synergic theranostic effect. However, the role of graphene in each of these hybrids is sometimes not clear enough and the synergic graphene effect is not proven. The objective of this review is to elaborate on the role of GBNs in the studies evaluated and to compare the nanoformulations in terms of some of their characteristics, such as therapeutic outcomes and toxicity, which are essential features for their potential use as bionanosystems. A systematic review was carried out using the following databases: PubMed, Scopus, and ISI Web of Science (2013⁻2018). Additional studies were identified manually by consulting the references list of relevant reviews. Only English papers presenting at least one strategy for cancer therapy and one strategy for cancer diagnostics, and that clearly show the role of graphene in theranostics, were included. Data extraction and quality assessment was made by reviewer pairings. Fifty-five studies met the inclusion criteria, but they were too heterogeneous to combine in statistical meta-analysis. Critical analysis and discussion of the selected papers are presented.

Three-Dimensional Graphene Foams: Synthesis, Properties, Biocompatibility, Biodegradability, and Applications in Tissue Engineering

Presently, clinical nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology have impressively demanded the generation of new organic/inorganic analogues of graphene (as one of the intriguing biomedical research targets) for stem-cell-based tissue engineering. Among different shapes of graphene, three-dimensional (3D) graphene foams (GFs) are highly promising candidates to provide conditions for mimicking in vivo environments, affording effective cell attachment, proliferation,and differentiation due to their unique properties. These include the highest biocompatibility among nanostructures, high surface-to-volume ratio, 3D porous structure (to provide a homogeneous/isotropic growth of tissues), highly favorable mechanical characteristics, and rapid mass and electron transport kinetics (which are required for chemical/physical stimulation of differentiated cells). This review aims to describe recent and rapid advances in the fabrication of 3D GFs, together with their use in tissue engineering and regenerative nanomedicine applications. Moreover, we have summarized a broad range of recent studies about the behaviors, biocompatibility/toxicity,and biodegradability of these materials, both in vitro and in vivo. Finally, the highlights and challenges of these 3D porous structures, compared to the current polymeric scaffold competitors, are discussed.

Carbon Nanomaterials for Targeted Cancer Therapy Drugs: A Critical Review

Cancer represents one of the main causes of human death in developed countries. Most current therapies, unfortunately, carry a number of side effects, such as toxicity and damage to healthy cells, as well as the risk of resistance and recurrence. Therefore, cancer research is trying to develop therapeutic procedures with minimal negative consequences. The use of nanomaterial-based systems appears to be one of them. In recent years, great progress has been made in the field using nanomaterials with high potential in biomedical applications. Carbon nanomaterials, thanks to their unique physicochemical properties, are gaining more and more popularity in cancer therapy. They are valued especially for their ability to deliver drugs or small therapeutic molecules to these cells. Through surface functionalization, they can specifically target tumor tissues, increasing the therapeutic potential and significantly reducing the adverse effects of therapy. Their potential future use could, therefore, be as vehicles for drug delivery. This review presents the latest findings of research studies using carbon nanomaterials in the treatment of various types of cancer. To carry out this study, different databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE and Google Scholar were employed. The findings of research studies chosen from more than 2000 viewed scientific publications from the last 15 years were compared.

Hierarchical MoSe2 nanoflowers as novel nanocarriers for NIR-light-mediated synergistic photo-thermal/dynamic and chemo-therapy

The construction of nanoplatforms that integrate multiple therapies has attracted much attention in the field of cancer treatment. Herein, selenide molybdenum (MoSe2) nanoflowers were synthesized as nanocarriers capable of delivering NIR-mediated synergetic photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and drug release. All of the MoSe2 nanoflowers (150-180 nm) are made up of many thin nanosheets of about 3-4 layers of MoSe2. With the novel hierarchical nanostructure and small band gap (1.24 eV), the as-synthesized MoSe2 nanoflowers possess strong near-infrared (NIR) absorption and high photothermal conversion efficiency (61.8%). In addition, they also exhibit NIR-stimulated ˙OH generation and this is the first time that MoSe2 nanostructures have been used as a PDT agent. The mechanism was investigated, which revealed that a sufficient number of photo-excited electrons and high O2 and H+ concentrations facilitate ˙OH production. After PEGylation, MoSe2@PEG exhibits high Dox-loading capacity due to electrostatic and π-π stacking interactions. After drug loading, the resulting MoSe2@PEG-Dox system exhibits acid/photothermal-triggered drug release. The synergistic effect of chemotherapy, PTT and PDT further induces superior cancer cell apoptosis and improved antitumor effectiveness.

Noninvasive photothermal cancer therapy nanoplatforms via integrating nanomaterials and functional polymers

In the cutting-edge field of cancer therapy, noninvasive photothermal therapy (PTT) has received great attention because it is considered to overcome the drawbacks of conventional surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy of severe body injuries and side effects on the immune system. The construction of PTT therapeutic and theranostic nanoplatforms is the key issue in achieving tumor targeting, imaging and therapy in a synergetic manner. In this review, we focus on the recent advances in constructing PTT therapeutic and theranostic nanoplatforms by integrating nanomaterials and functional polymers. The noninvasive photothermal cancer therapy mechanism and achievement strategies of PTT therapeutic and theranostic nanoplatforms are presented as well as the innovative construction strategies and perspectives for the future. Owing to their high tumor ablation efficiency, biological availability and low- or non-toxicity, PTT therapeutic and theranostic nanoplatforms are promising and emerging in medicine and clinical applications.

Targeting and sensing of some cancer cells using folate bioreceptor functionalized nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots

In recent years, study of folate receptor (FR) expression related to targeting, drug delivery and counting of tumoral cells have been followed. In this work, a fast and simple strategy was reported to determine the FR expressed cancer cells based on the selective bonding of the folic acid/folate (FA) to the FR-positive tumor cells. The folate decorated Nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs) were utilized as selective targeting of the MKN 45 cells. Fluorescent microscopy imaging investigations revealed that the produced FA conjugated N-GQDs could specifically attach to the target FR-positive tumor cells. Due to the fluorescence emission of N-GQDs, the developed cytosensor is free from attaching any fluorescent ligand i.e. Rhodamine B to capture the florescence microscopy images and also flow cytometry analysis. The fabricated cytosensor possesses a dynamic range from 100 to 7.0 × 10⁴ cell·mL^-1 with high selectivity. Furthermore, the cytosensor also could visualized the MCF 7 and HT 29 cells where the dynamic ranges were 100 to 1.0 × 10⁴ and 500 to 4.0 × 10⁴ cells·mL^-1, respectively. In vitro toxicity tests has shown low toxicity of the synthesized N-GQDs where the minimum viability is 68%. The proposed FA-N-GQDs based cytosensor provides a novel platform for detection of MKN 45, HT 29 and MCF 7 cancer cell lines which could be used in multi-channel cancer diagnosis biodevice.

A novel non-invasive strategy for low-level laser-induced cancer therapy by using new Ag/ZnO and Nd/ZnO functionalized reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites

In the present research, an effective drug-free approach was developed to kill MCF7 breast cancer cells using low-level laser therapy (LLLT) combined with reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-based hybrid nanocomposites (NCs). Here, fruit extract of Rosa canina was used for the first time to obtain the rGO/ZnO, Ag-ZnO/rGO and Nd-ZnO/rGO NCs by green synthesis. Physico/photochemical properties of these NCs were evaluated using FTIR, XRD, Raman, XPS, SEM/EDX, UV-Vis, DLS and AFM. The potential of the as-synthesized NCs on ROS generating and antioxidant activity were assessed by DPPH. After optimizing the proper concentration of the NCs their anti-tumoral efficacy were evaluated by DAPI staining and MTT assay tests for laser therapy on MCF7 breast cancer cells. Interestingly, cell death was increased dramatically by increasing irradiation dose from 8-32 J/cm² and then decreased by enhancing laser dose. The maximum amount of cell death is 50% which was observed in the presence of ZnO/rGO 20% by irradiation dose of 32 J/cm². Furthermore, in comparison with 810 nm, 630 nm lasers were more effective in LLLT of MCF7 cells. The results show the potential of using rGO-based NCs in LLLT, which may be combined with other therapeutic approaches to assist our fight against cancer.

Structurally Controlled Large-Area 10 nm Pitch Graphene Nanomesh by Focused Helium Ion Beam Milling

Graphene nanomesh (GNM) is formed by patterning graphene with nanometer-scale pores separated by narrow necks. GNMs are of interest due to their potential semiconducting characteristics when quantum confinement in the necks leads to an energy gap opening. GNMs also have potential for use in phonon control and water filtration. Furthermore, physical phenomena, such as spin qubit, are predicted at pitches below 10 nm fabricated with precise structural control. Current GNM patterning techniques suffer from either large dimensions or a lack of structural control. This work establishes reliable GNM patterning with a sub-10 nm pitch and an < 4 nm pore diameter by the direct helium ion beam milling of suspended monolayer graphene. Due to the simplicity of the method, no postpatterning processing is required. Electrical transport measurements reveal an effective energy gap opening of up to ∼450 meV. The reported technique combines the highest resolution with structural control and opens a path toward GNM-based, room-temperature semiconducting applications.

Heat: A Highly Efficient Skin Enhancer for Transdermal Drug Delivery

Advances in materials science and bionanotechnology have allowed the refinements of current drug delivery systems, expected to facilitate the development of personalized medicine. While dermatological topical pharmaceutical formulations such as foams, creams, lotions, gels, etc., have been proposed for decades, these systems target mainly skin-based diseases. To treat systemic medical conditions as well as localized problems such as joint or muscle concerns, transdermal delivery systems (TDDSs), which use the skin as the main route of drug delivery, are very appealing. Over the years, these systems have shown to offer important advantages over oral as well as intravenous drug delivery routes. Besides being non-invasive and painless, TDDSs are able to deliver drugs with a short-half-life time more easily and are well adapted to eliminate frequent administrations to maintain constant drug delivery. The possibility of self-administration of a predetermined drug dose at defined time intervals makes it also the most convenient personalized point-of-care approach. The transdermal market still remains limited to a narrow range of drugs. While small and lipophilic drugs have been successfully delivered using TDDSs, this approach fails to deliver therapeutic macromolecules due to size-limited transport across the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the epidermis. The low permeability of the stratum corneum to water-soluble drugs as well as macromolecules poses important challenges to transdermal administration. To widen the scope of drugs for transdermal delivery, new procedures to enhance skin permeation to hydrophilic drugs and macromolecules are under development. Next to iontophoresis and microneedle-based concepts, thermal-based approaches have shown great promise to enhance transdermal drug delivery of different therapeutics. In this inaugural article for the section "Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology," the advances in this field and the handful of examples of thermal technologies for local and systemic transdermal drug delivery will be discussed and put into perspective.

Au-PLGA Hybrid Nanoparticles with Catalase-Mimicking and near-Infrared Photothermal Activities for Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Cancer Therapy

Imaging-guided diagnosis and therapy has been highlighted in the area of nanomedicines. However, integrating multiple functions with high performance in one theranostic ("all-in-one") still presents considerable challenges. Here, "all-in-one" nanoparticles with drug-loading capacity, catalase-mimetic activity, photoacoustic (PA) imaging ability and photothermal properties were prepared by decorating Au nanoparticles on doxorubicin (DOX) encapsulated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) vehicle. The results revealed that the as-prepared Au-PLGA hybrid nanoparticles possessed high photothermal conversion efficiency of up to approximately 69.0%, meanwhile their strong acoustic generation endowed them with efficient PA signal sensing for cancer diagnosis. On an 808 nm laser irradiation, the O₂ generation, DOX release profile and reactive oxygen species (ROS) level were all improved, which were beneficial to relieving tumor hypoxia and enhanced the cancer chemo/PTT combined therapy. Overall, the multifunctional Au-PLGA hybrid nanoparticles with these integrated advantages shows promise in PA imaging-guided diagnosis and synergistic tumor ablation.

Nanographene oxide-methylene blue as phototherapies platform for breast tumor ablation and metastasis prevention in a syngeneic orthotopic murine model

BACKGROUND

In the photodynamic therapy (PDT), the photosensitizer absorbs light and transfers the energy of the excited state to the oxygen in the cell environment producing reactive oxygen species (ROS), that in its turn, may cause cell damage. In the photothermal therapy (PTT), light also is responsible for activating the photothermal agent, which converts the absorbed energy in heat. Graphene oxide is a carbon-based material that presents photothermal activity. Its physical properties allow the association with the photosensitizer methylene blue and consequently the production of ROS when submitted to light irradiation. Therefore, the association between nanographene oxide and methylene blue could represent a strategy to enhance therapeutic actions. In this work, we report the nanographene oxide-methylene blue platform (NanoGO-MB) used to promote tumor ablation in combination with photodynamic and photothermal therapies against a syngeneic orthotopic murine breast cancer model.

RESULTS

In vitro, NanoGO-MB presented 50% of the reactive oxygen species production compared to the free MB after LED light irradiation, and a temperature increase of ~ 40 °C followed by laser irradiation. On cells, the ROS production by the nanoplatform displayed higher values in tumor than normal cells. In vivo assays demonstrated a synergistic effect obtained by the combined PDT/PTT therapies using NanoGO-MB, which promoted complete tumor ablation in 5/5 animals. Up to 30 days after the last treatment, there was no tumor regrowth compared with only PDT or PTT groups, which displayed tumoral bioluminescence 63-fold higher than the combined treatment group. Histological studies confirmed that the combined therapies were able to prevent tumor regrowth and liver, lung and spleen metastasis. In addition, low systemic toxicity was observed in pathologic examinations of liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys.

CONCLUSIONS

The treatment with combined PDT/PTT therapies using NanoGO-MB induced more toxicity on breast carcinoma cells than on normal cells. In vivo, the combined therapies promoted complete tumor ablation and metastasis prevention while only PDT or PTT were unable to stop tumor development. The results show the potential of NanoGO-MB in combination with the phototherapies in the treatment of the breast cancer and metastasis prevention.

Theranostic 2D Tantalum Carbide (MXene)

The large-dimensional and rigid ceramic bulks fabricated by high-temperature solid-phase reaction and sintering have never been considered for possibly entering and circulating within the blood vessels for biomedical applications, especially on combating cancer. Here, it is reported for the first time that MAX ceramic biomaterials exhibit unique functionalities for dual-mode photoacoustic/computed tomography imaging and are highly effective for in vivo photothermal ablation of tumors upon being exfoliated into ultrathin nanosheets within atomic thickness (MXene). As a paradigm, 2D ultrathin tantalum carbide nanosheets (Ta₄ C₃ MXenes) with nanosized lateral sizes are successfully synthesized based on a two-step liquid exfoliation strategy of MAX phase Ta₄ AlC₃ by combined hydrofluoric acid (HF) etching and probe sonication. The structural, electronic, and surface characteristics of the as-exfoliated nanosheets are revealed by various characterizations combined with first-principles calculations via density functional theory. Especially, the superior photothermal-conversion performance (efficiency η of 44.7%) and in vitro/in vivo photothermal ablation of tumor by biocompatible soybean phospholipid-modified Ta₄ C₃ nanosheets are systematically revealed and demonstrated. Based on the large family members of MXenes, this work may offer a paradigm that MXenes can achieve the specific biomedical applications (here, theranostic) providing that their compositions and nanostructures are carefully tuned and optimized to meet the strict requirements of biomedicine.

Magnetofluorescent Carbon Quantum Dot Decorated Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes for Dual-Modal Targeted Imaging in Chemo-Photothermal Synergistic Therapy

Magnetofluorescent nanoparticles with diagnostic and therapeutic functions show great promise in nanomedicine. Here, we report the magnetofluorescent carbon nanotubes (CNTs)/doxorubicin (DOX) nanocomposites and their functions act in synergetic chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy (Chemo/PTT) in cancer excision. Magnetofluorescent CNTs conjugated with a folic acid (FA-GdN@CQDs-MWCNTs) were targets for dual-modal fluorescence (FL)/magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Experiments in vitro and in vivo identified FA-GdN@CQDs-MWCNTs with low toxicity, and good biocompatibility. Moreover, FA-GdN@CQDs-MWCNTs whose release can be fostered by pH and NIR light dual-stimuli had been proved to be available for loading DOX. Following nuclear translocations, FA-GdN@CQDs-MWCNTs were engineered to deliver DOX that targeted the nuclei. In vivo experiment indicates that the Chemo/PTT, as compared with the respective single treatment, can significantly control tumor growth. In addition, Chemo/PTT was not shown to render any appreciable toxicity. These findings suggest that the FA-GdN@CQDs-MWCNTs/DOX could function as a multifunctional platform for simultaneous FL/MR imaging, PTT therapy, and drug delivery.

Antioxidant nanomaterials in advanced diagnoses and treatments of ischemia reperfusion injuries

Organ ischemia with inadequate oxygen supply followed by reperfusion (which initiates a complex of inflammatory responses and oxidative stress) occurs in different clinical conditions and surgical procedures including stroke, myocardial infarction, limb ischemia, renal failure, organ transplantation, free-tissue-transfer, cardiopulmonary bypass, and vascular surgery. Even though pharmacological treatments protect against experimental ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury, there has not been enough success in their application for patient benefits. The main hurdles in the treatment of I/R injury are the lack of diagnosis tools for understanding the complicated chains of I/R-induced signaling events, especially in the acute phase after ischemia, determining the affected regions of the tissue over time, and then, targeting and safe delivery of antioxidants, drugs, peptides, genes and cells to the areas requiring treatment. Besides the innate antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties, some nanoparticles also show higher flexibility in drug delivery and imaging. This review highlights three main approaches in nanoparticle-mediated targeting of I/R injury: nanoparticles (1) as antioxidants for reducing tissue oxidative stress, (2) for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to the ischemic regions or cells, and (3) for imaging I/R injury at the molecular, cellular or tissue level and monitoring its evolution using contrasts induced by nanoparticles. These approaches can also be combined to realize so called theranostics for providing simultaneous diagnosis of ischemic regions and treatments by targeted delivery.

Evaluation of the combined effect of NIR laser and ionizing radiation on cellular damages induced by IUdR-loaded PLGA-coated Nano-graphene oxide

Glioma is one of the most common malignant cancers of the central nervous system (CNS). Radiatherapy and chemotherapy may be used to slow the growth of tumors that cannot be removed with surgery. The current study developed a combination therapy tool using Nanographene oxide (NGO) functionalized with poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) as a carrier of 5-iodo-2-deoxyuridine (IUdR) for glioma cancer treatment. U87MG cells were treated in different groups with IUdR, PLGA-coated Nanographene oxide (PLGA-NGO), IUdR-loaded PLGA-coated Nanographene oxide (IUdR-PLGA-NGO), 2Gy 6MV X-ray radiation, and near-infrared region (NIR) laser radiation. PLGA-NGO showed excellent biocompatibility, high storage capacity for IUdR and high photothermal conversion efficiency. It was effectively employed to create cell damage in the U87MG cell line in the presence of X-ray (6 MV) and NIR laser. Moreover, IUdR-PLGA-NGO+X-ray+NIR laser significantly reduced the plating efficiency of the cells in comparison with IUdR-PLGA-NGO+X-ray and IUdR-PLGA-NGO+NIR laser. Furthermore, Prussian blue staining showed that IUdR-PLGA-NGO-SPIONs were delivered into glioblastoma cells. The PLGA-NGO loaded with IUdR under NIR and X-ray radiation exhibited the highest cytotoxicity toward U87MG cells when compared with other treatment methods, indicating efficient radio-photothermal targeted therapy.

Near-infrared photothermal therapy using anti-EGFR-gold nanorod conjugates for triple negative breast cancer

Current EGFR-targeted therapy for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) has produced disappointing results. A rational therapeutic strategy to improve EGFR-targeted treatment for TNBC is therefore needed. In this study we evaluated the feasibility of treating TNBC using photoacoustic imaging (PAI)-guided near-infrared photothermal therapy (NIR-PTT) with anti-EGFR-conjugated gold nanorods (anti-EGFR-GN). NIR-PTT combined with anti-EGFR-GN exerted synergistic anti-proliferative and apoptotic actions through upregulation of HSP70 and cleaved caspase-3, downregulation of Ki-67 and EGFR, and inhibition of several intracellular signaling molecules (mTOR, AKT, ERK1/2 and FAK). These combined effects give this approach significant efficacy. Our findings suggest PAI-guided NIR-PTT using anti-EGFR-GN represent a novel and effective strategy for EGFR-targeted therapy in TNBC.

Carbon Nanomaterials in Biological Studies and Biomedicine

The "carbon nano-world" has made over the past few decades huge contributions in diverse scientific disciplines and technological advances. While dramatic advances have been widely publicized in using carbon nanomaterials such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene in materials sciences, nano-electronics, and photonics, their contributions to biology and biomedicine have been noteworthy as well. This Review focuses on the use of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and carbon quantum dots [encompassing graphene quantum dots (GQDs) and carbon dots (C-dots)] in biologically oriented materials and applications. Examples of these remarkable nanomaterials in bio-sensing, cell- and tissue-imaging, regenerative medicine, and other applications are presented and discussed, emphasizing the significance of their unique properties and their future potential.

Strategies to Improve Cancer Photothermal Therapy Mediated by Nanomaterials

The deployment of hyperthermia-based treatments for cancer therapy has captured the attention of different researchers worldwide. In particular, the application of light-responsive nanomaterials to mediate hyperthermia has revealed promising results in several pre-clinical assays. Unlike conventional therapies, these nanostructures can display a preferential tumor accumulation and thus mediate, upon irradiation with near-infrared light, a selective hyperthermic effect with temporal resolution. Different types of nanomaterials such as those based on gold, carbon, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, iron, palladium and conjugated polymers have been used for this photothermal modality. This progress report summarizes the different strategies that have been applied so far for increasing the efficacy of the photothermal therapeutic effect mediated by nanomaterials, namely those that improve the accumulation of nanomaterials in tumors (e.g. by changing the corona composition or through the functionalization with targeting ligands), increase nanomaterials' intrinsic capacity to generate photoinduced heat (e.g. by synthesizing new nanomaterials or assembling nanostructures) or by optimizing the parameters related to the laser light used in the irradiation process (e.g. by modulating the radiation wavelength). Overall, the development of new strategies or the optimization and combination of the existing ones will surely give a major contribution for the application of nanomaterials in cancer PTT.

Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials for Cancer Nanotheranostics

Emerging nanotechnologies show unprecedented advantages in accelerating cancer theranostics. Among them, two-dimensional nanomaterials (2DNMs) represent a novel type of material with versatile physicochemical properties that have enabled a new horizon for applications in both cancer diagnosis and therapy. Studies have demonstrated that 2DNMs may be used in diverse aspects, including i) cancer detection due to their high propensity towards tumor markers; ii) molecular imaging for guided tumor therapies, and iii) drug and gene loading, photothermal and photodynamic cancer therapies. However, their biomedical applications raise concerns due to the limited understanding of their in vivo metabolism, transformation and possible toxicities. In this comprehensive review, the state-of-the-art development of 2DNMs and their implications for cancer nanotheranostics are presented. The modification strategies to enhance the biocompatibility of 2DNMs are also reviewed.

Functionalized Graphene Oxide with Chitosan for Protein Nanocarriers to Protect against Enzymatic Cleavage and Retain Collagenase Activity

Proteins have short half-life because of enzymatic cleavage. Here, a new protein nanocarrier made of graphene oxide (GO) + Chitosan (CS) is proposed to successfully prevent proteolysis in protein and simultaneously retain its activity. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and collagenase were loaded on GO and GO-CS to explore the stability and activity of proteins. SEM, AFM, TEM, DSC, UV-Vis, FT-IR, RBS, Raman, SDS-PAGE and zymography were utilized as characterization techniques. The protecting role of GO and GO-CS against enzymatic cleavage was probed by protease digestion analysis on BSA, where the protease solution was introduced to GO-BSA and GO-CS-BSA at 37 °C for 0.5-1-3-6 hours. Characterizations showed the successful synthesis of few layers of GO and the coverage by CS. According to gelatin zymographic analysis, the loaded collagenase on GO and GO-CS lysed the gelatin and created non-staining bands which confirmed the activity of loaded collagenase. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed no significant change in the intact protein in the GO-BSA and GO-CS-BSA solution after 30-minute and 1-hour exposure to protease; however, free BSA was completely digested after 1 hour. After 6 hours, intact proteins were detected in GO-BSA and GO-CS-BSA solutions, while no intact protein was detected in the free BSA solution.

D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate functionalized nanographene oxide for cancer therapy

AIM

To evaluate the therapeutic capacity of D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS)-functionalized nanographene oxide (nGO) in breast cancer cells.

METHODS

TPGS-functionalized nGO-based materials were obtained through two different approaches: a simple sonication method and a one-pot hydrothermal treatment.

RESULTS

TPGS coating successfully improved the stability of the nGO-based materials. The nanomaterials that underwent the hydrothermal procedure generated a 1.4- to 1.6-fold higher temperature variation under near infrared laser irradiation than those prepared only by sonication. In vitro, the TPGS/nGO derivatives reduced breast cancer cells' viability and had an insignificant effect on healthy cells. Furthermore, the combined application of TPGS/nGO derivatives and near infrared light generated an improved therapeutic effect.

CONCLUSION

TPGS/nGO derivatives are promising materials for breast cancer phototherapy.

Evaluation of dosimetric characteristics of graphene oxide/PVC nanocomposite for gamma radiation applications

Graphene oxide-polyvinyl chloride composite was prepared using tetrahydrofuran solvent-assisted dispersion of characterized nano flakes of graphene oxide in polymer matrix. Electrical percolation threshold of GO/PVC nanocomposite was determined via a finite element simulation method with a 2D model and compared with experimental results. A conductive cell with two silver coated walls was designed and fabricated for exploring dosimetric properties of the composite. Some characteristics of the new nanocomposite such as linearity of dose response, repeatability, sensitivity and angular dependence are investigated. According to 2D proposed method, obtained data associated to electrical conductivity of the GO/polymer composite for PVC matrix plotted in different GO weight percentages and had good compatibility (validity) with experimental data. The dose response is linear in the 17–51 mGy dose range and it can be introduced for gamma radiation dosimetry in diagnostic activities.

Laser-Triggered Small Interfering RNA Releasing Gold Nanoshells against Heat Shock Protein for Sensitized Photothermal Therapy

The resistance of cancer cells to photothermal therapy is closely related to the overexpression of heat shock proteins (HSPs), which are abnormally upregulated when cells are under lethal stresses. Common strategies that use small molecule inhibitors against HSPs to enhance hyperthermia effect lack spatial and temporal control of drug release, leading to unavoidable systemic toxicity. Herein, a versatile photothermal platform is developed which is composed of a hollow gold nanoshell core densely packed with small interfering RNAs against heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70). Upon near infrared light irradiation, the small interfering RNAs can detach from gold surface specifically and escape from endosomes for Hsp70 silencing. Meanwhile, the temperature increases for hyperthermia therapy due to the high photothermal efficiency of the nanoshells. Efficient downregulation of Hsp70 after light activation is achieved in vitro and in vivo. Ultimately, the light-controlled dual functional nanosystem, with the effects of Hsp70 silencing and temperature elevation, results in sensitized photothermal therapy in nude mice model under mild temperature. This strategy smartly combines the localized photothermal therapy with controlled Hsp70 silencing, and has great potential for clinical translation with a simple and easily controlled structure.

Advanced Functional Nanomaterials for Theranostics

Nanoscale materials have been explored extensively as agents for therapeutic and diagnostic (i.e. theranostic) applications. Research efforts have shifted from exploring new materials in vitro to designing materials that function in more relevant animal disease models, thereby increasing potential for clinical translation. Current interests include non-invasive imaging of diseases, biomarkers and targeted delivery of therapeutic drugs. Here, we discuss some general design considerations of advanced theranostic materials and challenges of their use, from both diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Common classes of nanoscale biomaterials, including magnetic nanoparticles, quantum dots, upconversion nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles and organic dye-based nanoparticles, have demonstrated potential for both diagnosis and therapy. Variations such as size control and surface modifications can modulate biocompatibility and interactions with target tissues. The needs for improved disease detection and enhanced chemotherapeutic treatments, together with realistic considerations for clinically translatable nanomaterials will be key driving factors for theranostic agent research in the near future.

Mesoporous carbon nanomaterials in drug delivery and biomedical application

Recent development of nano-technology provides highly efficient and versatile treatment methods to achieve better therapeutic efficacy and lower side effects of malignant cancer. The exploration of drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on nano-material shows great promise in translating nano-technology to clinical use to benefit patients. As an emerging inorganic nanomaterial, mesoporous carbon nanomaterials (MCNs) possess both the mesoporous structure and the carbonaceous composition, endowing them with superior nature compared with mesoporous silica nanomaterials and other carbon-based materials, such as carbon nanotube, graphene and fullerene. In this review, we highlighted the cutting-edge progress of carbon nanomaterials as drug delivery systems (DDSs), including immediate/sustained drug delivery systems and controlled/targeted drug delivery systems. In addition, several representative biomedical applications of mesoporous carbon such as (1) photo-chemo synergistic therapy; (2) delivery of therapeutic biomolecule and (3) in vivo bioimaging are discussed and integrated. Finally, potential challenges and outlook for future development of mesoporous carbon in biomedical fields have been discussed in detail.

Improved Anticancer Photothermal Therapy Using the Bystander Effect Enhanced by Antiarrhythmic Peptide Conjugated Dopamine-Modified Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite

Despite tremendous efforts toward developing novel near-infrared (NIR)-absorbing nanomaterials, improvement in therapeutic efficiency remains a formidable challenge in photothermal cancer therapy. This study aims to synthesize a specific peptide conjugated polydopamine-modified reduced graphene oxide (pDA/rGO) nanocomposite that promotes the bystander effect to facilitate cancer treatment using NIR-activated photothermal therapy. To prepare a nanoplatform capable of promoting the bystander effect in cancer cells, we immobilized antiarrhythmic peptide 10 (AAP10) on the surface of dopamine-modified rGO (AAP10-pDA/rGO). Our AAP10-pDA/rGO could promote the bystander effect by increasing the expression of connexin 43 protein in MCF-7 breast-cancer cells. Because of its tremendous ability to absorb NIR absorption, AAP10-pDA/rGO offers a high photothermal effect under NIR irradiation. This leads to a massive death of MCF-7 cells via the bystander effect. Using tumor-bearing mice as the model, it is found that NIR radiation effectively ablates breast tumor in the presence of AAP10-pDA/rGO and inhibits tumor growth by ≈100%. Therefore, this research integrates the bystander and photothermal effects into a single nanoplatform in order to facilitate an efficient photothermal therapy. Furthermore, our AAP10-pDA/rGO, which exhibits both hyperthermia and the bystander effect, can prevent breast-cancer recurrence and, therefore, has great potential for future clinical and research applications.