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Bosker WM, Karschner EL, Lee D, Goodwin RS, Hirvonen J, Innis RB, Theunissen EL, Kuypers KPC, Huestis MA, Ramaekers JG. Psychomotor function in chronic daily Cannabis smokers during sustained abstinence. PLoS One 2013; 8:e53127. [PMID: 23301031 PMCID: PMC3534640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The present study assessed psychomotor function in chronic, daily cannabis smokers during 3 weeks continuously monitored abstinence on a secure research unit. We hypothesized that psychomotor performance would improve during abstinence of chronic, daily cannabis smokers. Methodology/Principal Findings Performance on the critical tracking (CTT) and divided attention (DAT) tasks was assessed in 19 male chronic, daily cannabis smokers at baseline and after 8, 14–16 and 21–23 days of continuously monitored abstinence. Psychomotor performance was compared to a control group of non-intoxicated occasional drug users. Critical frequency (λc) of the CTT and tracking error and control losses of the DAT were the primary outcome measures. Results showed that chronic cannabis smokers’ performance on the CTT (p<0.001) and the DAT (p<0.001) was impaired during baseline relative to the comparison group. Psychomotor performance in the chronic cannabis smokers improved over 3 weeks of abstinence, but did not recover to equivalent control group performance. Conclusions/Significance Sustained cannabis abstinence moderately improved critical tracking and divided attention performance in chronic, daily cannabis smokers, but impairment was still observable compared to controls after 3 weeks of abstinence. Between group differences, however, need to be interpreted with caution as chronic smokers and controls were not matched for education, social economic status, life style and race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M. Bosker
- Departments of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Erin L. Karschner
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Dayong Lee
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert S. Goodwin
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jussi Hirvonen
- Molecular Imaging Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert B. Innis
- Molecular Imaging Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eef L. Theunissen
- Departments of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Kim P. C. Kuypers
- Departments of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute of Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- Departments of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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102
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Downey LA, King R, Papafotiou K, Swann P, Ogden E, Boorman M, Stough C. The effects of cannabis and alcohol on simulated driving: Influences of dose and experience. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2013; 50:879-886. [PMID: 22871272 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2012.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabis and alcohol are the most popular drugs amongst recreational users, and most prevalent in injured and deceased drivers. Clarification of the interactive effects of these drugs upon driving behaviour is critical for reducing drug-related road deaths. OBJECTIVES The current study had two objectives, to examine the effects of cannabis and alcohol on driving performance, and identify if any differences between the effects of cannabis and alcohol on driving performance exist between regular cannabis users and non-regular cannabis users. METHODS The project involved 80 participants (49 male, 31 female) who were abstinent recreational users of alcohol and marijuana. They participated in six experimental sessions that involved the consumption of cannabis cigarettes containing no THC, 1.8% THC or 3% THC together with the consumption of alcohol to obtain either 0% BAC, 0.03% BAC or 0.05% BAC. The six sessions were double-blind, counter-balanced, placebo-controlled and medically supervised. Forty participants were allocated to the cannabis with low alcohol (0.03% BAC) group, and 40 participants were allocated to the cannabis with high alcohol (0.05% BAC) group. Driving simulator performance was assessed at 20min post-drug administration and blood samples were taken before and after driving. RESULTS Driving simulator performance was more impaired in the THC and alcohol combined conditions. Consistent with past research, the level of THC detected in blood is higher when THC is consumed with alcohol, than when cannabis is consumed alone, and regular cannabis users returned higher levels of THC in plasma than non-regular users. Generally, regular cannabis users displayed more driving errors than non-regular cannabis users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke A Downey
- Centre for Human Psychopharmacology, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia.
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103
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Effect of co-injection of arachydonilcyclopropylamide and ethanol on conditioned place preference in rats. Physiol Behav 2012; 107:301-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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104
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Bosker WM, Theunissen EL, Conen S, Kuypers KPC, Jeffery WK, Walls HC, Kauert GF, Toennes SW, Moeller MR, Ramaekers JG. A placebo-controlled study to assess Standardized Field Sobriety Tests performance during alcohol and cannabis intoxication in heavy cannabis users and accuracy of point of collection testing devices for detecting THC in oral fluid. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 223:439-46. [PMID: 22581391 PMCID: PMC3456923 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2732-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2011] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Standardized Field Sobriety Tests (SFST) and oral fluid devices are used to screen for driving impairment and roadside drug detection, respectively. SFST have been validated for alcohol, but their sensitivity to impairment induced by other drugs is relatively unknown. The sensitivity and specificity for Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) of most oral fluid devices have been low. OBJECTIVE This study assessed the effects of smoking cannabis with and without alcohol on SFST performance. Presence of THC in oral fluid was examined with two devices (Dräger Drug Test® 5000 and Securetec Drugwipe® 5). METHODS Twenty heavy cannabis users (15 males and 5 females; mean age, 24.3 years) participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study assessing percentage of impaired individuals on the SFST and the sensitivity of two oral fluid devices. Participants received alcohol doses or alcohol placebo in combination with 400 μg/kg body weight THC. We aimed to reach peak blood alcohol concentration values of 0.5 and 0.7 mg/mL. RESULTS Cannabis was significantly related to performance on the one-leg stand (p = 0.037). Alcohol in combination with cannabis was significantly related to impairment on horizontal gaze nystagmus (p = 0.029). The Dräger Drug Test® 5000 demonstrated a high sensitivity for THC, whereas the sensitivity of the Securetec Drugwipe® 5 was low. CONCLUSIONS SFST were mildly sensitive to impairment from cannabis in heavy users. Lack of sensitivity might be attributed to tolerance and time of testing. SFST were sensitive to both doses of alcohol. The Dräger Drug Test® 5000 appears to be a promising tool for detecting THC in oral fluid as far as correct THC detection is concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- W M Bosker
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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105
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Bosker WM, Kuypers KPC, Theunissen EL, Surinx A, Blankespoor RJ, Skopp G, Jeffery WK, Walls HC, van Leeuwen CJ, Ramaekers JG. Medicinal Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (dronabinol) impairs on-the-road driving performance of occasional and heavy cannabis users but is not detected in Standard Field Sobriety Tests. Addiction 2012; 107:1837-44. [PMID: 22553980 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03928.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The acute and chronic effects of dronabinol [medicinal Δ(9) -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)] on actual driving performance and the Standard Field Sobriety Test (SFST) were assessed. It was hypothesized that occasional users would be impaired on these tests and that heavy users would show less impairment due to tolerance. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, three-way cross-over study. Twelve occasional and 12 heavy cannabis users (14 males/10 females) received single doses of placebo, 10 and 20 mg dronabinol. MEASUREMENTS Standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP; i.e. weaving) is the primary measure of road-tracking control. Time to speed adaptation (TSA) is the primary reaction-time measure in the car-following test. Percentage of impaired individuals on the SFST and subjective high on a visual analogue scale were secondary measures. FINDINGS Superiority tests showed that SDLP (P = 0.008) and TSA (P = 0.011) increased after dronabinol in occasional users. Equivalence tests demonstrated that dronabinol-induced increments in SDLP were bigger than impairment associated with BAC of 0.5 mg/ml in occasional and heavy users, although the magnitude of driving impairment was generally less in heavy users. The SFST did not discriminate between conditions. Levels of subjective high were comparable in occasional and heavy users. CONCLUSIONS Dronabinol (medicinal tetrahydrocannabinol) impairs driving performance in occasional and heavy users in a dose-dependent way, but to a lesser degree in heavy users due possibly to tolerance. The Standard Field Sobriety Test is not sensitive to clinically relevant driving impairment caused by oral tetrahydrocannabinol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy M Bosker
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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106
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Armentano P. Cannabis and psychomotor performance: a rational review of the evidence and implications for public policy. Drug Test Anal 2012; 5:52-6. [PMID: 22972702 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Revised: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Armentano
- National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws-NORML, 1600 K Street, NW, Mezzanine Level, Washington, DC 20006-2832, USA.
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107
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Montgomery C, Seddon AL, Fisk JE, Murphy PN, Jansari A. Cannabis-related deficits in real-world memory. Hum Psychopharmacol 2012; 27:217-25. [PMID: 22389086 DOI: 10.1002/hup.1273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research shows that cannabis users exhibit deficits in prospective memory (PM) and executive function, which persist beyond acute intoxication. However, many studies rely on self-reports of memory failures or use laboratory-based measures that may not mimic functional deficits in the real world. The present study aimed to assess real-world memory functioning. METHOD Twenty cannabis-only users and 20 non-illicit drug users were recruited. Participants completed a substance use inventory and a mood scale, followed by a non-immersive virtual reality task assessing PM and executive functioning. The task involved the participant playing the role of an office worker for the day and performing routine office duties. A number of subscales were used to assess facets of executive function (planning, adaptive thinking, creative thinking, selection, prioritisation) and PM (time-based, event-based and action-based PM). RESULTS Multivariate analysis of variance revealed cannabis users performed worse overall on the task, with poor performance on the planning, time-based PM and event-based PM subscales. In addition, indices of cannabis (length, dose, frequency, total use) were correlated with performance on these three subscales. CONCLUSIONS The present study expands on previously established research, providing support for the cannabis-related deficits in PM and executive functioning, and the role of different aspects of cannabis use in these deficits.
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108
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Linssen AMW, Vuurman EFPM, Sambeth A, Riedel WJ. Methylphenidate produces selective enhancement of declarative memory consolidation in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 221:611-9. [PMID: 22169884 PMCID: PMC3360847 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2605-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Methylphenidate inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and noradrenaline and is used to treat children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Besides reducing behavioral symptoms, it improves their cognitive function. There are also observations of methylphenidate-induced cognition enhancement in healthy adults, although studies in this area are relatively sparse. We assessed the possible memory-enhancing properties of methylphenidate. OBJECTIVE In the current study, the possible enhancing effects of three doses of methylphenidate on declarative and working memory, attention, response inhibition and planning were investigated in healthy volunteers. METHODS In a double blind placebo-controlled crossover study, 19 healthy young male volunteers were tested after a single dose of placebo or 10, 20 or 40 mg of methylphenidate. Cognitive performance testing included a word learning test as a measure of declarative memory, a spatial working memory test, a set-shifting test, a stop signal test and a computerized version of the Tower of London planning test. RESULTS Declarative memory consolidation was significantly improved relative to placebo after 20 and 40 mg of methylphenidate. Methylphenidate also improved set shifting and stopped signal task performance but did not affect spatial working memory or planning. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting enhanced declarative memory consolidation after methylphenidate in a dose-related fashion over a dose range that is presumed to reflect a wide range of dopamine reuptake inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. M. W. Linssen
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - E. F. P. M. Vuurman
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - A. Sambeth
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - W. J. Riedel
- Department of Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands ,F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
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Toennes SW, Schneider K, Kauert GF, Wunder C, Moeller MR, Theunissen EL, Ramaekers JG. Influence of ethanol on cannabinoid pharmacokinetic parameters in chronic users. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 400:145-52. [PMID: 21116612 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4449-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 11/12/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis is not only the most widely used illicit drug worldwide but is also regularly consumed along with ethanol. In previous studies, it was assumed that cannabis users develop cross-tolerance to ethanol effects. The present study was designed to compare the effects of ethanol in comparison to and in combination with a cannabis joint and investigate changes in pharmacokinetics. In this study, 19 heavy cannabis users participated and received three alcohol dosing conditions that were calculated to achieve steady blood alcohol concentrations (BAC) of about 0, 0.5 and 0.7 g/l during a 5-h time window. Subjects smoked a Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) cigarette (400 μg/kg) 3 h post-onset of alcohol dosing. Blood samples were taken between 0 and 4 h after smoking. During the first hour, samples were collected every 15 min and every 30 min thereafter. Mean steady-state BACs reached 0, 0.36 and 0.5 g/l. The apparent elimination half-life of THC was slightly prolonged (1.59 vs. 1.93 h, p < 0.05) and the concentration 1 h after smoking was slightly lower (24 vs. 17 ng/ml, p < 0.05) with the higher ethanol dose. The prolonged THC elimination might be explained by a small ethanol-mediated change in distribution to and from deep compartments. Concentrations and pharmacokinetics of 11-hydroxy-THC and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCA) were not significantly influenced by ethanol. However, THCA concentrations appeared lower in both ethanol conditions, which might also be attributable to changes in distribution. Though not significant in the present study, this might be relevant in the interpretation of cannabinoid concentrations in blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan W Toennes
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Forensic Toxicology Department, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Kennedyallee 104, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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