101
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Wang J, Liang Q, Mendes P, Sarkar M. Is 24h nicotine equivalents a surrogate for smoke exposure based on its relationship with other biomarkers of exposure? Biomarkers 2011; 16:144-54. [PMID: 21323604 DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2010.536257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Nicotine and its 5 major metabolites (Nicotine equivalents, NE) may serve as a surrogate biomarker for smoke exposure. OBJECTIVE To investigate the relationship between nicotine equivalents (NE) and biomarkers of exposure (BOE) to cigarette smoke. METHODS Data from nine controlled studies in 916 adult smokers were used. BOEs to nicotine, NNK, pyrene, acrolein, benzene, 1,3-butadiene and CO were used. RESULTS Among all the factors investigated (NE, cigarette type, age, gender, BMI and study), NE was the most statistically significant factor for all biomarker relationships. Weak to moderate relationships (0.32 ≤ R(2) ≤ 0.65) were found between NE and the BOEs. CONCLUSIONS Based on the relationships with BOEs, NE may be considered as a surrogate biomarker of total cigarette smoke exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhu Wang
- Altria Client Services, Center for Research and Technology, 601 E. Jackson Street, Richmond, VA 23219, USA
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102
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Veilleux JC, Kassel JD, Heinz AJ, Braun A, Wardle MC, Greenstein J, Evatt DP, Conrad M. Predictors and sequelae of smoking topography over the course of a single cigarette in adolescent light smokers. J Adolesc Health 2011; 48:176-81. [PMID: 21257117 PMCID: PMC3044318 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Revised: 06/20/2010] [Accepted: 06/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The objective of this study was to determine whether adolescent smokers, who varied in their smoking histories and symptoms of nicotine dependence, exhibit any decrease in puff volume and duration similar to that typically seen in dependent adolescent and adult smokers. Moreover, we examined whether puffing trajectories were moderated by individual difference factors, as well as whether puffing topography over the course of smoking a single cigarette was predictive of an escalation in dependence symptoms. METHODS We assessed smoking topography (puff number, duration, volume, maximum flow rate [velocity], and inter-puff interval) over the course of smoking a single cigarette in a sample of 78 adolescent light smokers, using hierarchical linear modeling. We examined moderators (anxiety, depression, nicotine dependence) of the topographic trajectories, as well as whether smoking topography predicted any change in dependence over a 2-year period. RESULTS Puff volume and puff duration decreased over the course of smoking the cigarette, whereas puff velocity and inter-puff interval increased. Slopes for puff volume and duration were moderated by anxiety and depressive symptoms. Moreover, individuals with a less "typical" topography pattern (exhibited stable or increasing volume and duration over the course of smoking the cigarette) demonstrated a heightened dependence escalation in the subsequent 2 years. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that adolescent light smokers self-regulate nicotine during the course of smoking a single cigarette, similar to that reported in dependent adolescent and adult smokers. However, single cigarette self-regulation was influenced by certain affective factors. Implications of these findings and future directions for adolescent smoking research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jon D. Kassel
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
- Address correspondence to: Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1007 W. Harrison St., Chicago, IL 60607.
| | - Adrienne J. Heinz
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Ashley Braun
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | | | - Justin Greenstein
- Psychology Department, Edward J. Hines VA Medical Center, Hines, Illinois
| | - Daniel P. Evatt
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Megan Conrad
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
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103
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Purkis SW, Troude V, Duputié G, Tessier C. Limitations in the characterisation of cigarette products using different machine smoking regimes. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2010; 58:501-15. [PMID: 20807558 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2010.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 08/23/2010] [Accepted: 08/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It is recognised that no single machine smoking regime can represent the different behaviours of individual human smokers. It has been argued that the current ISO standard regime provides machine yields that are somewhat low for certain cigarette designs compared to human intake. Various cigarette machine smoking regimes have been proposed as options for regulatory use to provide data that reflect "average" or "maximum" yields as related to human intake. Some public health representatives have proposed that the intense regime mandated for testing in Canada with 100% of the ventilation holes in the cigarette filter blocked, should be used for product characterisation and that it is not necessary that it should reflect general human smoking behaviour. We believe that this is a flawed approach because our studies and those of other workers demonstrate that the conditions generated in the cigarette when using this intense machine smoking regime are extreme in comparison to the conditions found for regimes based more realistically on human smoking. In this paper, we provide data to show that smokers modify their smoking intensity over the course of smoking in response to changes in draw resistance, smoke concentrations and smoke temperatures. We compare changes in and interactions between these parameters during puffing when smoking cigarettes of different designs. Cigarettes were smoked using various machine smoking regimes previously proposed for smoke testing as well as a regime based on human smoking data from an 'in-house' study. Puffing parameters were derived from this study to represent the 'average smoker' under laboratory conditions and equivalent to the 90th percentile when the studied smokers smoked under natural conditions. Biomarker data from human uptake studies have shown that ventilation is an effective cigarette design tool to reduce total smoke constituent uptake in humans so demonstrating that any blocking of filter ventilation is far from 100%. Likewise, this current work also shows how smokers modify their smoking behaviour in ways not well reflected by the 100% ventilation blocking regime. It seems logical that any machine smoking regime chosen for future product regulation should reflect these findings for it to have valid public health relevance. In addition, it seems misguided to discourage product design features, such as ventilation, which clearly can provide products with reduced human smoke exposure, just to maintain the dogma, counter to the scientific evidence, that there must be a regulatory regime with 100% ventilation blocking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen W Purkis
- Imperial Tobacco Limited, P.O. Box 244, Southville, Bristol BS99 7UJ, United Kingdom.
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104
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Li D, Wang Y, Han K, Zhan CG. Fundamental reaction pathways for cytochrome P450-catalyzed 5'-hydroxylation and N-demethylation of nicotine. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:9023-30. [PMID: 20572647 DOI: 10.1021/jp102225e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The reaction pathways for 5'-hydroxylation and N-demethylation of nicotine catalyzed by cytochrome P450 were investigated by performing a series of first-principle electronic structure calculations on a catalytic reaction model system. The computational results indicate that 5'-hydroxylation of nicotine occurs through a two-state stepwise process, that is, an initial hydrogen atom transfer from nicotine to Cpd I (i.e., the HAT step) followed by a recombination of the nicotine moiety with the iron-bound hydroxyl group (i.e., the rebound step) on both the high-spin (HS) quartet and low-spin (LS) doublet states. The HAT step is the rate-determining one. This finding represents the first case that exhibits genuine rebound transition state species on both the HS and the LS states for C(alpha)-H hydroxylation of amines. N-Demethylation of nicotine involves a N-methylhydroxylation to form N-(hydroxymethyl)nornicotine, followed by N-(hydroxymethyl)nornicotine decomposition to nornicotine and formaldehyde. The N-methylhydroxylation step is similar to 5'-hydroxylation, namely, a rate-determining HAT step followed by a rebound step. The decomposition process occurs on the deprotonated state of N-(hydroxymethyl)nornicotine assisted by a water molecule, and the energy barrier is significantly lower than that of the N-methylhydroxylation process. Comparison of the rate-determining free energy barriers for the two reaction pathways predicts a preponderance of 5'-hydroxylation over the N-demethylation by roughly a factor of 18:1, which is in excellent agreement with the factor of 19:1 derived from available experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongmei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Reaction Dynamics, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
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105
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Hu CW, Chang YZ, Wang HW, Chao MR. High-throughput simultaneous analysis of five urinary metabolites of areca nut and tobacco alkaloids by isotope-dilution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with on-line solid-phase extraction. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010; 19:2570-81. [PMID: 20713654 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-10-0483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Areca nut and tobacco are commonly used drugs worldwide and have been frequently used in combination. We describe the use of on-line solid-phase extraction and isotope-dilution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the simultaneous measurement of five major urinary metabolites of both areca nut and tobacco alkaloids, namely, arecoline, arecaidine, N-methylnipecotic acid, nicotine, and cotinine. METHODS Automated purification of urine was accomplished with a column-switching device. After the addition of deuterium-labeled internal standards, urine samples were directly analyzed within 13 minutes. This method was applied to measure urinary metabolites in 90 healthy subjects to assess areca nut/tobacco exposure. Urinary time course of arecoline, arecaidine, and N-methylnipecotic acid was investigated in five healthy nonchewers after oral administration of areca nut water extracts. RESULTS The limits of detection were 0.016 to 0.553 ng/mL. Interday and intraday imprecision were <10%. Mean recoveries of five metabolites in urine were 97% to 114%. Mean urinary concentrations of arecoline, arecaidine, N-methylnipecotic acid, nicotine, and cotinine in regular areca nut chewers also smokers were 23.9, 5,816, 1,298, 2,635, and 1,406 ng/mg creatinine, respectively. Time course study revealed that after administration of areca nuts extracts, the major urinary metabolite was arecaidine with a half-life of 4.3 hours, followed by N-methylnipecotic acid with a half-life of 7.9 hours, and very low levels of arecoline with a half-life of 0.97 hour. CONCLUSIONS This on-line solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method firstly provides high-throughput direct analysis of five urinary metabolites of areca nut/tobacco alkaloids. IMPACT This method may facilitate the research into the oncogenic effects of areca nut/tobacco exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiung-Wen Hu
- Department of Public Health, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
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106
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Xiong W, Hou H, Jiang X, Tang G, Hu Q. Simultaneous determination of four tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines in mainstream smoke for Chinese Virginia cigarettes by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and validation under ISO and "Canadian intense" machine smoking regimes. Anal Chim Acta 2010; 674:71-8. [PMID: 20638502 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2010.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2010] [Revised: 06/09/2010] [Accepted: 06/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for determining four tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines (TSNAs) in mainstream smoke from Chinese Virginia cigarettes was developed. Mainstream cigarette smoke particulate matter was collected on a Cambridge filter pad, further extracted using 100 mM ammonium acetate after 100 microL internal standard addition, and subsequently analyzed with LC-MS/MS. The limit of detection for NNN, NNK, NAT and NAB were 0.006, 0.013, 0.003 and 0.021 ng mL(-1) respectively, with a linear calibration range spanning 1-200 ng mL(-1). Intra- and inter-day precision for four TSNAs ranged from 3.3% to 8.5% and 2.3% to 10.1%; recovery was between 89.1% and 104.9% for Chinese Virginia cigarettes. The proposed method was applied to evaluate TSNAs yields for 39 commercially available cigarettes in Chinese market under ISO and "Canadian intense" machine smoking regimes, on the ground that it comes closest to representing smoke deliveries from human smoking. Total TSNAs emissions are more than double under the Canadian regime. TSNAs:nicotine ratios were used in our assay to show any differences in yield from different brands. TSNAs:nicotine levels show more than a 10-fold difference across brands and types (Chinese Virginia cigarettes and blended cigarettes) in the Chinese market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xiong
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, No. 2 Fengyang Street, Zhengzhou High & New Technology Industries Development Zone, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
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107
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Muscat JE, Stellman SD, Caraballo RS, Richie JP. Time to first cigarette after waking predicts cotinine levels. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010; 18:3415-20. [PMID: 19959690 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-0737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
There is wide variability in cotinine levels per cigarette smoked. We hypothesized that in addition to smoking frequency, other behavioral measures of nicotine dependence, such as the time to first cigarette after waking, are associated with cotinine levels. To test this hypothesis, we measured plasma and urinary cotinine in a community-based study of 252 black and white daily cigarette smokers. Among one pack per day smokers, plasma cotinine levels varied from 16 to 1,180 ng/mL, a 74-fold difference. Two nicotine dependence phenotypes were discerned by time after waking. Subjects in the "low" dependent phenotype smoked >30 minutes after waking and nearly all smoked < or =20 cigarettes per day. Cotinine levels increased linearly with cigarette consumption in this group. Subjects in the "high" dependent phenotype smoked < or =30 minutes after waking but had a wide range in the frequency of daily cigarettes (6-70). Compared with the low dependent phenotype, there were relatively small differences in cotinine by cigarette frequency with evidence of a plateau effect in heavy smokers ( approximately 30). After adjusting for cigarette frequency, the levels of cotinine by time to first cigarette were as follows: < or =5 minutes, 437 [95% confidence limits (CL), 380-494]; 6 to 30 minutes, 352 (95% CL, 291-413), 31 to 60 minutes, 229 (95% CL, 140-317), and >60 minutes, 215 (95% CL, 110-321). Similar findings were observed for urinary cotinine. These findings suggest that the time to first cigarette is a strong predictor of nicotine uptake and should be considered in the design of smoking interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua E Muscat
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
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108
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Escobar-Chávez JJ, Merino V, Díez-Sales O, Nácher-Alonso A, Ganem-Quintanar A, Herráez M, Merino-Sanjuán M. Transdermal nortriptyline hydrocloride patch formulated within a chitosan matrix intended to be used for smoking cessation. Pharm Dev Technol 2010; 16:162-9. [DOI: 10.3109/10837450903584902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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109
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Collins CC, Epstein DH, Parzynski CS, Zimmerman D, Moolchan ET, Heishman SJ. Puffing behavior during the smoking of a single cigarette in tobacco-dependent adolescents. Nicotine Tob Res 2010; 12:164-7. [PMID: 19969556 PMCID: PMC2816192 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntp176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2009] [Accepted: 10/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Adult and adolescent smokers regulate their nicotine and smoke intake by smoking low-yield cigarettes more intensely than high-yield cigarettes. One likely mechanism of nicotine regulation is altered puffing topography, which has been demonstrated in adult smokers. The purpose of this study was to examine the pattern of puffing behavior during the smoking of a single cigarette in adolescents. METHODS Tobacco-dependent adolescents (n = 89) were enrolled in a treatment trial testing the efficacy of nicotine replacement therapy. About 1 week before their quit date, participants smoked ad libitum one of their usual brand of cigarettes during a laboratory session. Smoking topography measures included puff volume, puff duration, puff velocity, and interpuff interval. RESULTS Controlling for sex, race, and number of puffs, puff volume and puff duration decreased 12.8% and 24.5%, respectively, from the first 3 to the last 3 puffs. Puff velocity and interpuff interval increased 14.8% and 13.5%, respectively. Puff volume was positively correlated with puff duration and puff velocity, whereas puff duration and puff velocity were negatively correlated. However, none of the topography measures were correlated with smoking history variables. DISCUSSION These results suggest that adolescent smokers, like adults, are able to regulate smoke and nicotine intake on a puff-by-puff basis, therefore indicating that this aspect of smoking control is acquired early in the tobacco-dependence process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles C Collins
- Nicotine Psychopharmacology Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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110
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St Charles FK, Kabbani AA, Borgerding MF. Estimating tar and nicotine exposure: human smoking versus machine generated smoke yields. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2010; 56:100-10. [PMID: 19723554 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2009] [Revised: 07/15/2009] [Accepted: 08/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Determine human smoked (HS) cigarette yields of tar and nicotine for smokers using their own brand in their everyday environment. METHOD A robust, filter analysis method was used to estimate the tar and nicotine yields for 784 subjects. Seventeen brands were chosen to represent a wide range of styles: 85 and 100 mm lengths; menthol and non-menthol; 17, 23, and 25 mm circumference; with tar yields [Federal Trade Commission (FTC) method] ranging from 1 to 18 mg. Tar bands chosen corresponded to yields of 1-3 mg, 4-6 mg, 7-12 mg, and 13+ mg. RESULTS A significant difference (p<0.0001) in HS yields of tar and nicotine between tar bands was found. Machine-smoked yields were reasonable predictors of the HS yields for groups of subjects, but the relationship was neither exact nor linear. Neither the FTC, the Massachusetts (MA) nor the Canadian Intensive (CI) machine-smoking methods accurately reflect the HS yields across all brands. The FTC method was closest for the 7-12 mg and 13+ mg products and the MA method was closest for the 1-3mg products. The HS yields for the 4-6 mg products were approximately midway between the FTC and the MA yields. HS nicotine yields corresponded well with published urinary and plasma nicotine biomarker studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- F K St Charles
- Formerly of Brown and Williamson Tobacco Company, Macon, GA 31202, USA.
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111
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Marian C, O'Connor RJ, Djordjevic M, Rees VW, Hatsukami DK, Shields PG. Reconciling human smoking behavior and machine smoking patterns: implications for understanding smoking behavior and the impact on laboratory studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009; 18:3305-20. [PMID: 19959678 PMCID: PMC2789355 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent Food and Drug Administration legislation enables the mandating of product performance standards for cigarette smoke and the evaluation of manufacturers' health claims for modified tobacco products. Laboratory studies used for these evaluations and also for understanding tobacco smoke toxicology use machines to generate smoke. The goal of this review is to critically evaluate methods to assess human smoking behavior and replicate this in the laboratory. METHODS Smoking behavior and smoking machine studies were identified using PubMed and publicly available databases for internal tobacco company documents. RESULTS The smoking machine was developed to generate smoke to allow for comparing cigarette tar and nicotine yields. The intent was to infer relative human disease risk, but this concept was flawed because humans tailor their smoking to the product, and chemical yields and toxicologic effects change with different smoking profiles. Although smoking machines also allow for mechanistic assessments of smoking-related diseases, the interpretations also are limited. However, available methods to assess how humans puff could be used to provide better laboratory assessments, but these need to be validated. Separately, the contribution of smoke mouth-holding and inhalation to dose need to be assessed, because these parts of smoking are not captured by the smoking machine. Better comparisons of cigarettes might be done by tailoring human puff profiles to the product based on human studies and comparing results across regimens. CONCLUSIONS There are major research gaps that limit the use of smoking machine studies for informing tobacco control regulation and mechanistic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalin Marian
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Cancer, Washington, DC 20057
| | - Richard J. O'Connor
- Department of Health Behavior, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY 14263
| | - Mirjana Djordjevic
- Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Vaughan W. Rees
- Division of Public Health Practice, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Dorothy K. Hatsukami
- University of Minnesota Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Center, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA
| | - Peter G. Shields
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University Medical Cancer, Washington, DC 20057
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112
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Baris D, Karagas MR, Verrill C, Johnson A, Andrew AS, Marsit CJ, Schwenn M, Colt JS, Cherala S, Samanic C, Waddell R, Cantor KP, Schned A, Rothman N, Lubin J, Fraumeni JF, Hoover RN, Kelsey KT, Silverman DT. A case-control study of smoking and bladder cancer risk: emergent patterns over time. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009; 101:1553-61. [PMID: 19917915 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/djp361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cigarette smoking is a well-established risk factor for bladder cancer. The effects of smoking duration, intensity (cigarettes per day), and total exposure (pack-years); smoking cessation; exposure to environmental tobacco smoke; and changes in the composition of tobacco and cigarette design over time on risk of bladder cancer are unclear. METHODS We examined bladder cancer risk in relation to smoking practices based on interview data from a large, population-based case-control study conducted in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont from 2001 to 2004 (N = 1170 urothelial carcinoma case patients and 1413 control subjects). We calculated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using unconditional logistic regression. To examine changes in smoking-induced bladder cancer risk over time, we compared odds ratios from New Hampshire residents in this study (305 case patients and 335 control subjects) with those from two case-control studies conducted in New Hampshire in 1994-1998 and in 1998-2001 (843 case patients and 1183 control subjects). RESULTS Regular and current cigarette smokers had higher risks of bladder cancer than never-smokers (for regular smokers, OR = 3.0, 95% CI = 2.4 to 3.6; for current smokers, OR = 5.2, 95% CI = 4.0 to 6.6). In New Hampshire, there was a statistically significant increasing trend in smoking-related bladder cancer risk over three consecutive periods (1994-1998, 1998-2001, and 2002-2004) among former smokers (OR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.0 to 2.0; OR = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.4 to 2.9; and OR = 2.6, 95% CI = 1.7 to 4.0, respectively) and current smokers (OR = 2.9, 95% CI = 2.0 to 4.2; OR = 4.2, 95% CI = 2.8 to 6.3; OR = 5.5, 95% CI = 3.5 to 8.9, respectively) (P for homogeneity of trends over time periods = .04). We also observed that within categories of intensity, odds ratios increased approximately linearly with increasing pack-years smoked, but the slope of the increasing trend declined with increasing intensity. CONCLUSIONS Smoking-related risks of bladder cancer appear to have increased in New Hampshire since the mid-1990s. Based on our modeling of pack-years and intensity, smoking fewer cigarettes over a long time appears more harmful than smoking more cigarettes over a shorter time, for equal total pack-years of cigarettes smoked.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalsu Baris
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA.
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113
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Mendes P, Liang Q, Frost-Pineda K, Munjal S, Walk RA, Roethig HJ. The relationship between smoking machine derived tar yields and biomarkers of exposure in adult cigarette smokers in the US. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 55:17-27. [PMID: 19481578 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2008] [Revised: 04/29/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Comprehensive data on human exposure to smoke constituents from different machine-measured tar yield cigarettes is limited. METHODS This study used a stratified, cross-sectional, multi-center design to estimate biomarkers of exposure (BOE) from nicotine, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), pyrene, CO, acrolein, and 1,3-butadiene and their relationship to tar yield categories of cigarette in adult smokers in the U.S. 3625 adults smokers were enrolled into four tar categories < or =2.9 mg (T1), 3.0-6.9 mg (T2), 7.0-12.9 mg (T3), and > or =13.0mg (T4). Biomarkers were measured in blood (carboxyhemoglobin, 4-aminobiphenyl-hemoglobin (4-ABP-Hb)-adducts, serum cotinine) and 24h urine (nicotine and five metabolites, calculated as nicotine equivalents (NE), NNAL, 1-OH-pyrene, 3-HPMA, MHBMA and DHBMA). Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). RESULTS Tar was a significant factor for most biomarkers in the ANCOVA models. The largest least square mean differences between tar categories was 35% for NE per day, 28% for NE per cigarette, 36% for serum cotinine, 42% for NNAL per day, 29% for NNAL per cigarette, 26% for 1-OHP, 24% for COHb, 14% for 3-HPMA and 40% for 4-ABP-Hb. Variability in BOE ranged from 41% to 154% CV. CONCLUSIONS There was a statistically significant effect of machine-measured tar yield on most BOE, which were generally lower with lower tar yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Mendes
- Altria Client Services, 601 East Jackson Street, Richmond, VA 23219, USA.
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114
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Shepperd CJ, Eldridge AC, Mariner DC, McEwan M, Errington G, Dixon M. A study to estimate and correlate cigarette smoke exposure in smokers in Germany as determined by filter analysis and biomarkers of exposure. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 55:97-109. [PMID: 19539004 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2009] [Revised: 06/10/2009] [Accepted: 06/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A clinical study, conducted in Germany, compared two methods of estimating exposure to cigarette smoke. Estimates of mouth level exposure (MLE) to nicotine, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), pyrene and acrolein were obtained by chemical analysis of spent cigarette filters for nicotine content. Estimates of smoke constituent uptake were achieved by analysis of corresponding urinary biomarkers: for nicotine; total nicotine equivalents (nicotine, cotinine, trans-3'-hydroxycotinine plus their glucuronide conjugates), for NNK; (4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) plus glucuronide, for pyrene; 1-hydroxy pyrene (1-OHP) plus glucuronide and for acrolein; 3-hydroxylpropyl-mercapturic acid (3-HPMA) plus the nicotine metabolite cotinine in plasma and saliva. Two hundred healthy volunteer subjects were recruited; 50 smokers of each of 1-2 mg, 4-6 mg and 9-10 mg ISO tar yield cigarettes and 50 non-smokers (NS). Smokers underwent two periods of home smoking, each followed by residence in a clinic. Smoking was permitted ad libitum, and spent cigarette filters, cigarette consumption data, 24h urine, as well as plasma and saliva samples were collected. Significant correlations (p<0.001) were found between MLE and the relevant biomarker for each smoke constituent. The Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were 0.83 (nicotine), 0.76 (NNK), 0.82 (acrolein) and 0.63 (pyrene). Mean MLE estimates for nicotine, NNK and pyrene showed a dose response in line with ISO tar yield smoked, with 10 mg > 4 mg >1 mg, and for acrolein 10 mg> 4 mg > *1mg (where * indicates not significant at 95% confidence level). The mean exposure estimates from biomarkers for nicotine, NNK and acrolein also showed a dose response in line with ISO tar yield with 10 mg > 4 mg > 1 mg > NS, and for pyrene 10 mg > *4 mg> 1 mg> NS. This study shows that estimates of exposure obtained by filter analysis and biomarkers of exposure correlate significantly over a wide range of smoke exposures and that filter analysis may provide a simple and effective alternative to biomarkers for estimating smokers' exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Shepperd
- British American Tobacco, Group Research and Development, Regents Park Road, Millbrook, Southampton, Hampshire SO15 8TL, UK.
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115
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Walker N, Bullen C, McRobbie H. Reduced-nicotine content cigarettes: Is there potential to aid smoking cessation? Nicotine Tob Res 2009; 11:1274-9. [PMID: 19793786 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntp147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Current smoking cessation treatments largely address pharmacological dependence on nicotine. New approaches are needed that address both nicotine dependence and psychological dependence on cigarettes as the source of nicotine. One such approach is the use of cigarettes with reduced nicotine content. METHODS We reviewed the available literature on the use of reduced-nicotine content cigarettes as a cessation aid. RESULTS One case series study and trial data indicate that reduction in the level of nicotine in cigarette tobacco can reduce the level of nicotine dependence in smokers and do so without adverse effects on cardiovascular biomarkers or significant compensatory smoking. We identified three clinical trials (total n = 489) that suggest that smokers can dissociate nicotine delivery from the act of smoking if they use reduced-nicotine content cigarettes in combination with nicotine replacement therapy. DISCUSSION The identified studies point to a benefit but involved only a small number of participants and provide only limited data on long-term abstinence. More definitive evidence from larger trials with longer follow-up is needed to clarify the role of reduced nicotine cigarettes as an aid to smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Walker
- Clinical Trials Research Unit, School of Population Health, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1072, New Zealand.
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116
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Harris AC, Pentel PR, LeSage MG. Correlates of individual differences in compensatory nicotine self-administration in rats following a decrease in nicotine unit dose. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 205:599-611. [PMID: 19475400 PMCID: PMC3601673 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1567-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 05/05/2009] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The ability of tobacco harm reduction strategies to produce significant reductions in toxin exposure is limited by compensatory increases in smoking behavior. Characterizing factors contributing to the marked individual variability in compensation may be useful for understanding this phenomenon and assessing the feasibility of harm reduction interventions. OBJECTIVE The objective of the study was to use an animal model of human compensatory smoking that involves a decrease in unit dose supporting nicotine self-administration (NSA) to examine potential contributors to individual differences in compensation. METHODS Rats were trained for NSA during daily 23-h sessions at a unit dose of 0.06 mg/kg/inf until responding was stable. The unit dose was then reduced to 0.03 mg/kg/inf for at least 10 sessions. Following reacquisition of NSA at the training dose and extinction, single-dose nicotine pharmacokinetic parameters were determined. RESULTS Decreases in nicotine intake following dose reduction were proportionally less than the decrease in unit dose, indicating partial compensation. Compensatory increases in infusion rates were observed across the course of the 23-h sessions. The magnitude of compensation differed considerably between rats. Rats exhibiting the highest baseline infusion rates exhibited the lowest levels of compensation. Nicotine pharmacokinetic parameters were not significantly correlated with compensation. Infusion rates immediately returned to pre-reduction levels when baseline conditions were restored. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide initial insights into correlates of individual differences in compensation following a reduction in nicotine unit dose. The present assay may be useful for characterizing mechanisms and potential consequences of the marked individual differences in compensatory smoking observed in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Harris
- Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, Minneapolis, MN 55404, USA.
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117
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Roemer E, Ottmueller TH, Zenzen V, Wittke S, Radtke F, Blanco I, Carchman RA. Cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, and tumorigenicity of mainstream smoke from three reference cigarettes machine-smoked to the same yields of total particulate matter per cigarette. Food Chem Toxicol 2009; 47:1810-8. [PMID: 19447158 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2009.04.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2008] [Revised: 04/16/2009] [Accepted: 04/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The particle phase of mainstream smoke from three types of cigarettes was investigated in vitro in the Neutral Red cytotoxicity assay and the Salmonella typhimurium Reverse Mutation Assay (Ames Assay) and in vivo in the two-stage dermal tumorigenicity assay (Skin Painting Assay) in SENCAR mice. The cigarettes used were the Reference Cigarettes 1R5F, 2R4F, and 2R1F from the University of Kentucky, USA, which, when smoked according to the smoking regimen defined by the International Standards Organization (ISO), produce a yield of approximately 2, 12, and 26 mg total particulate matter (TPM)/cigarette, respectively. All cigarettes were machine smoked according to ISO and then again in such a way that the TPM yields per cigarette equaled the ISO TPM yields of the other two cigarette types. The TPM from cigarettes with inherently different smoke yields showed similar in vitro toxicity and in vivo toxicity when, with different smoking regimens, these cigarettes were smoked to the same TPM yield. More intensive smoking conditions were associated with lower in vitro and in vivo activity per gram of TPM. The strongest decrease, and the tightest correlation, in this regard was observed for dermal tumorigenicity (tumor incidence).
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Affiliation(s)
- E Roemer
- PHILIP MORRIS International R&D, Quai Jeanrenaud 5, 2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
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118
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St Charles FK, Krautter GR, Mariner DC. Post-puff respiration measures on smokers of different tar yield cigarettes. Inhal Toxicol 2009; 21:712-8. [PMID: 19225967 PMCID: PMC2657324 DOI: 10.1080/08958370802353443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2008] [Revised: 07/16/2008] [Accepted: 07/18/2008] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of different tar yield cigarette brands on the post-puff inhalation/exhalation depth and duration for established smokers of the brands. The study was conducted with 74 established smokers of 1-17 mg Federal Trade Commission (FTC) tar products. The subjects were participating in a five-day inpatient clinical biomarker study during which time they were allowed to smoke their own brand of cigarette whenever they wished. On two separate days, the subjects' breathing pattern was measured using respiratory inductive plethysmography while they smoked one cigarette. This enabled the measurement of the post-puff inhalation volume, exhalation volume, inhalation duration, and exhalation duration for each subject after each puff on two of their own brand of cigarettes. The subjects were grouped according to the FTC tar yield of their product: 1-3 mg; 4-6 mg; 7-13 mg; 14 + mg. The post-puff inhalation volume for the 4-6 mg group was significantly lower than both the 7-13 mg and 14+ mg groups, and the 4-6 mg group exhalation volume was significantly lower than the 14+ mg group (p < 0.05). No other differences were found at the 95% confidence level. When volumes were normalized to resting tidal volume (tidal ratio), there were no differences between the groups for any of the respiratory measures. No significant slope was found for correlations with FTC tar yield for inhalation volume (p = 0.11, mean = 833 mL, R = 0.19), inhalation tidal ratio (p = 0.93, mean = 1.73, R = -0.01) or lung exposure time (p = 0.92, mean = 4.1 s, R = -0.01).
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119
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Ho MK, Mwenifumbo JC, Koudsi NA, Okuyemi KS, Ahluwalia JS, Benowitz NL, Tyndale RF. Association of nicotine metabolite ratio and CYP2A6 genotype with smoking cessation treatment in African-American light smokers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2009; 85:635-43. [PMID: 19279561 PMCID: PMC3698861 DOI: 10.1038/clpt.2009.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 2A6 (CYP2A6) is the main nicotine (NIC)-metabolizing enzyme in humans. We investigated the relationships between CYP2A6 genotype, baseline plasma trans- 3'-hydroxycotinine/cotinine (3HC/COT) (a phenotypic marker of CYP2A6 activity), and smoking behavior in African-American light smokers. Cigarette consumption, age of initiation, and dependence scores did not differ among 3HC/COT quartiles or CYP2A6 genotype groups. Slow metabolizers (SMs; both genetic and phenotypic) had significantly higher plasma NIC levels, suggesting that cigarette consumption was not reduced to adjust for slower rates of NIC metabolism. Individuals in the slowest 3HC/COT quartile had higher quitting rates with both placebo and NIC gum treatments (odds ratio 1.85, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.08-3.16, P = 0.03). Similarly, the slowest CYP2A6 genotype group had higher quitting rates, although this trend did not reach significance (odds ratio 1.61, 95% CI 0.95-2.72, P = 0.08). The determination of the 3HC/COT ratio, and possibly CYP2A6 genotype, may be useful in the future for personalizing the choice of smoking cessation treatment in African-American light smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Ki Ho
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON
| | - Jill C. Mwenifumbo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON
| | - Nael Al Koudsi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON
| | | | | | - Neal L. Benowitz
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Departments of Medicine and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | - Rachel F. Tyndale
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON
- Centre for Addiction & Mental Health, Toronto, ON
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120
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Knackstedt LA, LaRowe S, Mardikian P, Malcolm R, Upadhyaya H, Hedden S, Markou A, Kalivas PW. The role of cystine-glutamate exchange in nicotine dependence in rats and humans. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 65:841-5. [PMID: 19103434 PMCID: PMC2756612 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2008] [Revised: 10/15/2008] [Accepted: 10/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present study determined if, akin to cocaine, nicotine self-administration in rats induces adaptations in the expression of glutamate transporters and cystine-glutamate exchangers in brain nuclei implicated in reinforcement and if treating cigarette smokers with a drug that restores cystine-glutamate exchange affects the number of cigarettes smoked. METHODS Rats self-administered nicotine intravenously for 12 hours/day or received nicotine through osmotic minipumps for 21 days. Somatic signs of withdrawal were measured and immunoblotting was performed 12 hours after the last nicotine exposure to determine if the catalytic subunit of the cystine-glutamate exchanger, xCT, or the glial glutamate transporter, GLT-1, were altered in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, or amygdala. For the smoking reduction study in humans, nicotine-dependent smokers were treated for 4 weeks with N-acetylcysteine (2400 mg daily) to promote cystine-glutamate exchange or placebo. Participants provided weekly ratings of withdrawal symptoms, craving, and carbon monoxide (CO) measurements and logged daily cigarette and alcohol use. RESULTS Rats receiving nicotine via self-administration or minipumps displayed somatic signs of withdrawal, but only nicotine self-administering rats showed decreased xCT expression in the nucleus accumbens and VTA and decreased GLT-1 expression in the nucleus accumbens. Human smokers treated with N-acetylcysteine reported a reduction in cigarettes smoked, and there was no effect of N-acetylcysteine on estimates of CO levels, craving, or withdrawal. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that the cystine-glutamate exchanger and the glial glutamate transporter are downregulated after nicotine self-administration, and augmenting exchanger activity with N-acetylcysteine reduced the number of cigarettes smoked in nicotine-dependent individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori A. Knackstedt
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
| | - Steven LaRowe
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
| | - Pascale Mardikian
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
| | - Robert Malcolm
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
| | - Himanshu Upadhyaya
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
| | - Sarra Hedden
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
| | - Athina Markou
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0603
| | - Peter W Kalivas
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston
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121
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Lindsey KP, Lukas SE, MacLean RR, Ryan ET, Reed KR, Frederick BD. Design and validation of an improved nonferrous smoking device for self-administration of smoked drugs with concurrent fMRI neuroimaging. Clin EEG Neurosci 2009; 40:21-30. [PMID: 19278129 PMCID: PMC5751740 DOI: 10.1177/155005940904000109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Several popularly abused drugs, such as nicotine (tobacco) and THC (delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol) (marihuana) are commonly self-administered by the smoked route. Although the neuronal substrates mediating the effect of smoked drugs are of interest, studies of their acute actions in living human brain has been difficult due to the unique constraints imposed by neuroimaging equipment and scanning environments. We have previously reported a device for the self-administration of smoked drugs with concurrent blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) fMRI imaging. Here we report improvements to the device which result in improved drug delivery to the smoker. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis of nicotine recovered from filter extracts revealed that the amount of nicotine delivered to subjects smoking with our original device was reduced by approximately 44% compared to nicotine delivered by cigarettes smoked normally. Improvements were made to the smoke delivery component of our apparatus in an attempt to improve drug delivery, while not interfering with collection of MRI data. Nicotine plasma levels in 9 subjects smoking both with and without the improved smoking device in the laboratory were not significantly different. Similarly, the device produced no significant difference in either ratings of the subjective effects of nicotine, or changes in cardiovascular parameters in this experiment. The improved device does not interfere with typical drug effects produced by normal smoking. Phantom scans revealed that BOLD signal was not found to be altered by the (in-bore) installation and operation of the improved device. Preliminary data analysis of smoking induced changes in the BOLD response to visual stimulation suggest that this response is not affected by the improved device, the act of smoking, air puffing, nicotine, or other components of cigarette smoke. The improved device does not interfere with the collection of MRI neuroimaging data. Use of this device will facilitate investigations of the acute neuronal effects of smoked drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- K P Lindsey
- McLean Hospital Behavioral Pharmacology, Research Laboratory, 115 Mill St., Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
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122
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Rees VW, Wayne GF, Connolly GN. Puffing style and human exposure minimally altered by switching to a carbon-filtered cigarette. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008; 17:2995-3003. [PMID: 18990741 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-07-2533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Potential Reduced Exposure tobacco Products (PREP) are intended to lower human exposure to toxic constituents of tobacco smoke, but rigorous clinical evaluations are required to assess such claims. The present study assessed human smoking behavior and short-term exposure to a new carbon-filtered PREP, Marlboro UltraSmooth (MUS). Two MUS prototypes with filter carbon loads of 120 and 180 mg were compared with low and ultralow-yield conventional cigarettes. METHODS After a 48-hour baseline period, 32 adult Marlboro Lights smokers were switched in a counterbalanced order, to MUS and Marlboro Ultra Lights for 48 hours each. Measures of smoking topography, subjective response, change in cardiac response, and carbon monoxide boost were obtained under supervised test conditions on separate days. After each test, topography measures were obtained via a 48-hour free smoking phase for each brand. Salivary cotinine was measured at the end of each 48-hour period. RESULTS Although MUS was generally smoked in a style similar to conventional cigarettes, compensatory smoking was observed with 1 MUS prototype (P = 0.003). Carbon monoxide boost was lower for MUS compared with Marlboro Lights, but salivary cotinine and cardiac function measures after smoking of MUS did not vary from conventional brands. CONCLUSIONS Smoking MUS produced few differences in smoking topography and exposure compared with conventional low and ultralow-yield cigarettes. Results suggest that the manner in which MUS is smoked by humans is unlikely in the short term to reduce exposure among smokers who switch from a conventional brand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaughan W Rees
- Division of Public Health Practice, Harvard School of Public Health, Landmark Building, Level 3 East, 677 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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123
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Al-Delaimy WK, Willett WC. Measurement of tobacco smoke exposure: comparison of toenail nicotine biomarkers and self-reports. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008; 17:1255-61. [PMID: 18483348 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-07-2695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accurate measurement tools of exposure for use in large epidemiologic studies are lacking. Biomarkers of tobacco exposure provide additional advantages to self-reports and there is a need to further develop and validate them. The objective is to compare toenail nicotine levels, a novel biomarker of tobacco exposure, with self-reports of tobacco exposure from a large cohort study. METHODS In this cross-sectional analysis, toenail samples were collected from 2,485 women participating in the Nurses' Health Study in 1982. Detailed self-reports of smoking habits and reported exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) were collected from these women near the time of toenail collection. The toenail samples were analyzed by a high-performance liquid chromatography method for measuring nicotine. RESULTS The 5 to 95 percentile range of toenail nicotine was from 0.06 to 4.06 ng/mg toenail and the median level was 0.21 ng/mg. There was a significant difference in toenail nicotine levels according to reported smoking status (the median level for nonsmokers with no SHS was 0.10 ng/mg, the median level for nonsmokers with SHS was 0.14 ng/mg, and the median level for active smokers was 1.77 ng/mg). However there was considerable overlap in nicotine levels according to reported smoking status. Toenail nicotine level was strongly associated with reported smoking level (Spearman r = 0.63), but there was no complete concordance, suggesting that the two methods are measuring different aspects of the same exposure. CONCLUSION Our findings show that toenail nicotine levels capture the overall burden of tobacco smoke exposure and provide additional information on exposure not captured by reported history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wael K Al-Delaimy
- Moores UCSD Cancer Center, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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124
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Antidepressant-like effects of nicotine and transcranial magnetic stimulation in the olfactory bulbectomy rat model of depression. Brain Res Bull 2008; 77:13-8. [PMID: 18582540 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2008.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2007] [Revised: 05/21/2008] [Accepted: 05/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we compared the depression-like symptoms induced by olfactory bulbectomy (OBX) in the two inbred Wistar and Long Evans rat strains. We also analyzed the self-regulated oral intake of nicotine in these strains and the effect of nicotine on the depression-like symptoms of olfactory bulbectomy. Furthermore, we compared the antidepressant-like effects of nicotine on Wistar rats to those of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), which has emerged as a therapeutic alternative for depression management. Our results show that Wistar rats develop depression-like symptoms, demonstrated by the forced swim test (FST), 4 weeks after OBX. However, in bulbectomized Long Evans rats these symptoms cannot be assessed due to a higher degree of variability of the swimming behavior of this strain. These results suggest that there are some innate differences in susceptibility to stress between these two rat strains. In Wistar rats, voluntary oral nicotine intake (1.2 mg/(kg day) for 14 days) as well as nicotine administered as a single daily i.p. injection (1.5 mg/(kg day) for 14 days) decrease the depression-like symptoms of OBX. Daily transcranial magnetic stimulation (60 Hz and 0.7 mT for 2h/day for 14 days) also decreases depression-like symptoms but is less effective than nicotine. In conclusion, our results support the idea that there are possible innate differences for depression susceptibility and that nicotine and TMS may be useful in the treatment of this syndrome.
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125
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Higgs S, Stafford LD, Attwood AS, Walker SC, Terry P. Cues that signal the alcohol content of a beverage and their effectiveness at altering drinking rates in young social drinkers. Alcohol Alcohol 2008; 43:630-5. [PMID: 18583545 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agn053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The aim of this study was to assess the impact of cues that signal the alcoholic strength of a beverage on drinking rate in young social drinkers. METHODS In Experiment 1, two groups of young social drinkers (n=20 per group) consumed a lager-based drink containing either 3% or 7% alcohol-by-volume. The pattern of drinking behaviour was observed, and drinking time was recorded. Self-reported mood was measured across the session, and participants also provided ratings of the drinks' sensory and hedonic properties. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1, but used a within-subjects design (n=12). RESULTS In both experiments, participants took significantly longer to consume the 7% drink compared with the 3% drink, and the total inter-sip interval was longer for the 7% drink. These effects were most closely related to the participants' changing estimates of alcohol strength across the test session, alongside concomitant changes in various aspects of self-reported mood. Sensory and hedonic evaluations of the drinks did not affect drinking behaviour in either experiment. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that the consumption rate of an alcoholic beverage can be modulated by its alcohol content, and that the perceived pharmacological effect of the alcohol serves as an effective signal to alter drinking behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Higgs
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
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126
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Hatsukami DK, Ebbert JO, Edmonds A, Li C, Lin H, Le C, Hecht SS. Smokeless tobacco reduction: preliminary study of tobacco-free snuff versus no snuff. Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 10:77-85. [PMID: 18188748 DOI: 10.1080/14622200701704897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This preliminary study examined the effects of tobacco-free snuff (intervention, n = 52) compared with no snuff (control, n = 54) for reducing tobacco use among smokeless tobacco (ST) users not interested in quitting. Both groups received behavioral instructions, and intervention subjects received tobacco-free snuff for 8 weeks. Participants were required to reduce their intake by 50% during the first 4 weeks and by 75% during the subsequent 4 weeks. Follow-up occurred at 12 weeks. Significant reductions were observed from baseline to week 8 (end of treatment) for both treatment groups in the amount of ST use (tins/week and dips/day, p<.001); mean urinary cotinine (p<.001); and mean urinary total NNAL, a carcinogen biomarker (p<.001). At week 8 the intervention resulted in a lower mean total NNAL (p = .048). Compared with the control condition, the intervention resulted in a higher percentage of subjects achieving at least a 50% reduction in cotinine (p = .046) and total NNAL (p = .002) at the end of treatment, more quit attempts (p = .030), and a longer mean duration of abstinence (p = .013) through follow-up. An ST reduction intervention incorporating tobacco-free snuff could potentially reduce risk for ST-related disease beyond that achieved with no snuff by increasing the number of patients who achieve significant reductions in carcinogen exposure and, more important, by facilitating tobacco abstinence by increasing quit attempts and abstinence duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothy K Hatsukami
- University of Minnesota, Tobacco Use Research Center, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA.
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127
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Seeman JI, Carchman RA. The possible role of ammonia toxicity on the exposure, deposition, retention, and the bioavailability of nicotine during smoking. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:1863-81. [PMID: 18450355 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2007] [Revised: 02/18/2008] [Accepted: 02/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A complete and rigorous review is presented of the possible effect(s) of ammonia on the exposure, deposition and retention of nicotine during smoking and the bioavailability of nicotine to the smoker. There are no toxicological data in humans regarding ammonia exposure within the context of tobacco smoke. Extrapolation from occupational exposure of ammonia to smoking in humans suggests minimal, non-toxicological effects, if any. No direct study has examined the effect of the ammonia on the total rate or amount of nicotine reaching the arterial bloodstream or brains of smokers. Machine-smoking methods have been reported which accurately quantify >99% of the nicotine in mainstream (MS) smoke for a wide variety of commercial and test cigarettes, including a series of experimental cigarettes having a range in MS smoke ammonia yields using the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) protocol. However, the actual exposure of nicotine to smokers depends on their own smoking behavior. The nicotine ring system is relatively thermally stable. Protonated nicotine forms nicotine which evaporates before the nicotine ring system decomposes. The experimental data indicate that neither nicotine transfer from tobacco to MS smoke nor nicotine bioavailability to the smoker increases with an increase in any of the following properties: tobacco soluble ammonia, MS smoke ammonia, "tobacco pH" or "smoke pH" at levels found in commercial cigarettes. Gas phase nicotine deposits primarily in the mouth and upper respiratory tract. To the extent that ammonia increases the deposition of nicotine in the buccal cavity and upper respiratory tract during smoking, the total rate and amount of nicotine into the arterial bloodstream and to the central nervous system will decrease. Charged nicotine analogues are actively transported in a number of tissues. This active transport system appears to be insensitive to pH and the form of nicotine in the biological milieu, suggesting that protonated nicotine may be a substrate for active transport. Neither "smoke pH" of commercial cigarettes nor "smoke pHeff" nor the fraction of non-protonated nicotine in tobacco smoke particulate matter are useful, practical smoke parameters for providing understanding or predictability of nicotine bioavailability to smokers. Greater than 95% of both ammonia and nicotine are in the gas phase of environmental tobacco, and both are likely to deposit in the buccal cavity and upper respiratory tract following exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey I Seeman
- SaddlePoint Frontiers, 12001 Bollingbrook Place, Richmond, VA 23236-3218, United States.
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128
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Thielen A, Klus H, Müller L. Tobacco smoke: unraveling a controversial subject. EXPERIMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGIC PATHOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE GESELLSCHAFT FUR TOXIKOLOGISCHE PATHOLOGIE 2008; 60:141-56. [PMID: 18485684 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2008.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2007] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cigarettes are a modern and industrial form of tobacco use and obviously involve more than just tobacco. A multitude of physical processes and chemical reactions occur inside the burning zone of a cigarette. Cigarette smoke is an aerosol of liquid droplets (the particulate phase) suspended within a mixture of gases and semi-volatile compounds. Two kinds of smoke with different composition and properties are produced during smoking: mainstream smoke inhaled by the smoker and sidestream smoke, which is released into the environment between puffs from the lit end of the cigarette. Several techniques and modifications have altered the design of the cigarette during the last 50 years and changed smoke composition, with the effect of lower tar and nicotine smoke yields. An enormous amount of research has been done since the 1950s on smoke composition. With regard to the numerous toxic or carcinogenic constituents identified in tobacco smoke, there is a strong focus in the industry and with the authorities on the over 40 compounds, called "Hoffmann analytes". The yields of tar and nicotine in mainstream smoke of a cigarette brand as printed on the pack are measured with smoking machines under highly standardized conditions. Yields must comply with regulatory limits set in a number of countries. Smoking by machine is different from the smoking behavior of humans. There is a growing movement to develop more "realistic" methods to estimate smoke yields. But it is unclear whether alternative smoking regimens are more representative of human smoking behavior and provide better predictions of human exposure. Tobacco smoke has strong biological and toxicological effects in vitro and in vivo. There is an obvious need for developing a unified and validated testing approach particularly for the assessment of additives and the evaluation of new potentially reduced exposure products (PREPs). This paper gives a comprehensive overview of cigarette design, the composition and toxicity testing of smoke, and the way machines and people smoke - with links to the more detailed literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Thielen
- Tabak und Rauchen GmbH, Neustädtische Kirchstrasse 8, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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129
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Mendes P, Kapur S, Wang J, Feng S, Roethig H. A randomized, controlled exposure study in adult smokers of full flavor Marlboro cigarettes switching to Marlboro Lights or Marlboro Ultra Lights cigarettes. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2008; 51:295-305. [PMID: 18565634 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2008] [Revised: 04/22/2008] [Accepted: 04/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Rationale. To date no state-of-the-art clinical study has been conducted to address the question as to whether switching to lower tar cigarettes reduces exposure to smoke constituents in humans. Methods. Randomized, controlled, forced switching study in 225 adult smokers of full flavor Marlboro (MFF) cigarettes for 8 days with a 24-week follow-up. Subjects smoked MFF (a 15-mg Federal Trade Commission (FTC) tar cigarette) at baseline and were randomized to smoke 11-mg Marlboro Lights (ML) or 6-mg Marlboro Ultra Lights (MUL) cigarettes. Biomarkers of exposure to nicotine, 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), pyrene, CO, benzene, acrolein, and mutagenic substances were measured. Results. In the short-term phase, switching from MFF to ML showed statistically significant decreases in nicotine exposure (-13%) and non-significant increases in CO exposure (+6%), while switching from MFF to MUL showed statistically significant decreases in nicotine (-27%) and CO (-13%) exposure. Both nicotine and CO biomarkers trended similarly in the 24-week follow-up as in the short-term phase. The other biomarkers of cigarette smoke constituents followed the same trend as nicotine at the end of the 24-week follow-up. Conclusions. Switching smokers to lower FTC tar yield cigarettes, on average, reduces nicotine and other biomarkers considered surrogates of tar exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Mendes
- Philip Morris USA Research Center, Clinical Evaluation, 4201 Commerce Road, Richmond, VA 23234, USA.
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130
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Hatsukami D, Cahill K, Stead LF. Nicotine vaccines for smoking cessation. THE COCHRANE DATABASE OF SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd007072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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131
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Neergaard J, Singh P, Job J, Montgomery S. Waterpipe smoking and nicotine exposure: a review of the current evidence. Nicotine Tob Res 2008; 9:987-94. [PMID: 17943617 DOI: 10.1080/14622200701591591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The waterpipe, also known as shisha, hookah, narghile, goza, and hubble bubble, has long been used for tobacco consumption in the Middle East, India, and parts of Asia, and more recently has been introduced into the smokeless tobacco market in western nations. We reviewed the published literature on waterpipe use to estimate daily nicotine exposure among adult waterpipe smokers. We identified six recent studies that measured the nicotine or cotinine levels associated with waterpipe smoking in four countries (Lebanon, Jordan, Kuwait, and India). Four of these studies directly measured nicotine or cotinine levels in human subjects. The remaining two studies used smoking machines to measure the nicotine yield in smoking condensate produced by the waterpipe. Meta-analysis of the human data indicated that daily use of the waterpipe produced a 24-hr urinary cotinine level of 0.785 microg/ml (95% CI = 0.578-0.991 microg/ml), a nicotine absorption rate equivalent to smoking 10 cigarettes/day (95% CI = 7-13 cigarettes/day). Even among subjects who were not daily waterpipe smokers, a single session of waterpipe use produced a urinary cotinine level that was equivalent to smoking two cigarettes in one day. Estimates of the nicotine produced by waterpipe use can vary because of burn temperature, type of tobacco, waterpipe design, individual smoking pattern, and duration of the waterpipe smoking habit. Our quantitative synthesis of the limited human data from four nations indicates that daily use of waterpipes produces nicotine absorption of a magnitude similar to that produced by daily cigarette use.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Neergaard
- School of Public Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
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132
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Gower S, Hammond D. CSP deposition to the alveolar region of the lung: implications of cigarette design. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2007; 27:1519-33. [PMID: 18093050 DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2007.00986.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Ventilated cigarettes were designed to reduce the levels of smoke under machine testing conditions; however, smokers alter their smoking pattern to compensate for the reduction in yields. A relative shift in incidence of lung cancer from the more central lung airways to the alveolar region has also been associated with ventilated cigarette use. Validated mathematical models indicate that particle deposition patterns in the lung depend on particle size and inhalation behavior, including inhalation volume, flow rate, and breath-hold time. This article finds that most mathematical models underpredict total cigarette smoke particulate (CSP) deposition in the lung, likely because they do not account for coagulation, hygroscopicity, and cloud dynamics, which may increase the effective particle diameter of CSP reaching the lung tissue. The models that include these processes indicate that puff volume would be unlikely to affect particle deposition in the lung, but puff time, inhalation depth, breath-hold time, and exhalation time may affect total deposition. Most compensation appears to occur through a combination of increased puff volume and puff flow, with possible increases in inhalation depth and breath-hold time. The complex interaction between the extent of cigarette ventilation, which can affect puffing/inhalation behavior, CSP concentration, and CSP size with CSP dose to the alveolar versus more central lung airways is described. Deposition efficiency in the alveoli could plausibly be increased through compensation, but it is still unclear whether compensation could sufficiently alter patterns of CSP deposition in the lung to elicit a shift in lung cancer sites.
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133
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Vesper HW, Bernert JT, Ospina M, Meyers T, Ingham L, Smith A, Myers GL. Assessment of the Relation between Biomarkers for Smoking and Biomarkers for Acrylamide Exposure in Humans. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16:2471-8. [DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-06-1058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To estimate the relative contributions of trends in smoking prevalence and trends in smoking intensity (average number of cigarettes smoked per day) to the observed decline in per capita tobacco consumption in New Zealand from 1984 to 2004. METHOD Tobacco consumption and smoking prevalence time series data were sourced from Statistics New Zealand and the ACNielsen Omnibus Survey respectively and checked for accuracy against other sources. The contribution of changes in smoking prevalence to the observed decline in tobacco consumption was estimated by counterfactual modelling. The corresponding contribution of trends in smoking intensity was then calculated by difference. RESULTS Changes in smoking prevalence accounted for 48% of the decline in per capita tobacco consumption from 1984-89 and for 39% thereafter. Correspondingly, changes in smoking intensity accounted for 52% of the consumption decline during the first five years of the study period and 61% thereafter (i.e. from 1990 to 2004). DISCUSSION Understanding the relative contributions of trends in smoking prevalence and smoking intensity to the observed decline in per capita tobacco consumption is important, because the relationship between smoking intensity and health effects is non-linear. Our results indicate that the dramatic fall in tobacco consumption in New Zealand over the past 30 years will not be accompanied by an equivalent reduction in tobacco-attributable morbidity and mortality. Furthermore, our findings raise doubts as to how much longer tobacco consumption will continue to decline, given that smoking intensity is already low. The key message for the tobacco control program is to re-focus on helping smokers to quit and stay quit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Tobias
- Public Health Intelligence, Ministry of Health, New Zealand.
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135
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Feng S, Kapur S, Sarkar M, Muhammad R, Mendes P, Newland K, Roethig HJ. Respiratory retention of nicotine and urinary excretion of nicotine and its five major metabolites in adult male smokers. Toxicol Lett 2007; 173:101-6. [PMID: 17716838 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2007] [Revised: 06/27/2007] [Accepted: 06/28/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Urinary excretion of nicotine and its five major metabolites (nicotine-N-glucuronide, cotinine, cotinine-N-glucuronide, trans-3'-hydroxycotinine, and trans-3'-hydroxycotinine-O-glucuronide), expressed as nicotine equivalents (NE), has been used as a biomarker of smoking-related nicotine exposure. In this open-label, single center study, we investigated the relationship between nicotine retention from smoking and urinary excretion of NE in adult smokers. After a 4-day washout period, 16 adult male smokers smoked 6 cigarettes per day for four consecutive days according to three predefined smoking patterns: no inhalation (Pattern A), normal inhalation (Pattern B), and deep inhalation (Pattern C). The amount of nicotine retained in the respiratory tract during smoking was estimated from the difference between the amounts of nicotine delivered and exhaled. The daily excretion of urinary NE was measured in 24h urine samples by LC-MS/MS. The mean (+/-S.D.) amount of nicotine retained was 0.126+/-0.167, 0.960+/-0.214, and 1.070+/-0.223mg/cig for Patterns A, B, and C, respectively. The mean (+/-S.D.) relative retention (the amount retained relative to the amount delivered) was 11.2+/-14.7%, 98.0+/-1.6%, and 99.6+/-0.3% for Patterns A, B, and C, respectively. On the fourth day of smoking, an average of 86+/-20% of the total daily amount of retained nicotine was recovered as NE in 24h urine. Nicotine equivalents was treated as a single component and the data was described by a first-order elimination pharmacokinetic model which assumed instantaneous input and distribution. Based on this model, the elimination half-life of NE was 19.4+/-2.6h, and the NE excretion had reached approximately 96% of the steady state levels by Day 4. Our results suggest that most of the nicotine inhaled from a cigarette is retained (> or =98%) in the lung, and at steady state, daily urine NE excretion reflects approximately 90% of the retained nicotine dose from cigarette smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shixia Feng
- Philip Morris USA, Research Center, 4201 Commerce Road, Richmond, VA 23234, USA.
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136
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Hatsukami DK, Le CT, Zhang Y, Joseph AM, Mooney ME, Carmella SG, Hecht SS. Toxicant exposure in cigarette reducers versus light smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 15:2355-8. [PMID: 17164356 PMCID: PMC6512339 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-06-0240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The extent of exposure to tobacco toxicants in smokers who have reduced their cigarette intake compared with smokers who are light smokers is relatively unknown. The goal of this study is to investigate the occurrence of compensatory smoking in reducers compared with light smokers by measuring toxicant exposure. METHODS Participants in two smoking reduction intervention studies (N = 64) were selected for comparison with a group of light smokers (N = 62) who smoked the same number of cigarettes as the reducers. A compensatory smoking score was defined (biomarker level for reducer/biomarker level for light smoker) and calculated for urinary 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) and its glucuronides (total NNAL), metabolites of the tobacco-specific lung carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-I-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone, to measure the degree of smoking compensation in reducers when compared with the light smokers. RESULTS The mean level of creatinine-adjusted total NNAL for reducers was over twice that of light smokers even when they smoked about the same number of cigarettes per day. The difference of the mean total NNAL concentrations between light smokers and reducers was highly significant (P < 0.0001). Wide variability in total NNAL concentrations was also observed in reducers, with the extent of this variability between light smokers and reducers being significantly different (P = 0.0005). The level of individual reduction was shown to be a consistent predictor of compensatory smoking (r = 0.50; adjusted Ps = 0.002), with greater cigarette reduction associated with more compensation. CONCLUSIONS Compensatory smoking limits the harm reduction value of decreased smoking of cigarettes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothy K Hatsukami
- Tobacco Use Research Center, University of Minnesota, 2701 University Avenue Southeast, #201, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA.
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137
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Al-Delaimy WK, Pierce JP, Messer K, White MM, Trinidad DR, Gilpin EA. The California Tobacco Control Program's effect on adult smokers: (2) Daily cigarette consumption levels. Tob Control 2007; 16:91-5. [PMID: 17400945 PMCID: PMC2598465 DOI: 10.1136/tc.2006.017061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2006] [Accepted: 09/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the association of the California Comprehensive Tobacco Control Program with self-reported population trends of cigarette consumption during 1992-2002. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Participants were non-Hispanic white daily smokers (aged 20-64 years, n = 24 317) from the Tobacco Use Supplements to the Current Population Survey (1992-2002). We compared age-specific trends in consumption among daily smokers in three groups of states with differing tobacco control initiatives: California (CA; high cigarette price/comprehensive programme), New York and New Jersey (high cigarette price/no comprehensive programme), and tobacco-growing states (TGS; low cigarette price/no comprehensive programme). RESULTS There was a general decline in cigarette consumption across all age groups in each category of states between 1992 and 2002, except the oldest age group in the TGS. The largest annual decline in the average number of cigarettes per day was observed among daily smokers in CA who were aged > or = 35 years (-0.41 cigarettes/day/year (95% CI -0.52 to -0.3)). This rate was significantly higher than the -0.22 cigarettes/day/year (95% CI -0.3 to -0.16; p<0.02) observed in same-age daily smokers from New York and New Jersey, and significantly higher than the rate in same-age daily smokers from the TGS (-0.15 cigarettes/day/year (95% CI -0.22 to -0.08; p<0.002)). There were no significant differences across state groups in the decline observed in daily smokers aged 20-34 years. In 2002, only 12% of daily smokers in CA smoked more than a pack per day, which was significantly lower than the 17% in New York and New Jersey, which again was significantly lower than the 25% in the TGS. CONCLUSIONS The California Tobacco Control Program was associated with significant declines in cigarette consumption among daily smokers aged > or = 35 years of age, which in turn should lead to declines in tobacco-related health effects. The decline in consumption among young adult smokers was a national trend.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wael K Al-Delaimy
- Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Moores UCSD Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0901, California, USA.
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138
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Gilpin EA, Messer K, White MM, Pierce JP. What contributed to the major decline in per capita cigarette consumption during California's comprehensive tobacco control programme? Tob Control 2007; 15:308-16. [PMID: 16885580 PMCID: PMC2563607 DOI: 10.1136/tc.2005.015370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES California experienced a notable decline in per capita cigarette consumption during its comprehensive tobacco control programme. This study examines what proportion of the decline occurred from: (1) fewer ever smokers in the population, (2) more ever smokers quitting, and (3) current smokers smoking less. DESIGN, SUBJECTS Per capita cigarette consumption computed from cigarette sales and from adult respondents to the large, cross-sectional, population-based California Tobacco Surveys of 1990 (n = 24,296), 1996 (n = 18,616) and 2002 (n = 20,525) were examined for similar trends. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Changes (period 1: 1990-1996; period 2: 1996-2002) in per capita cigarette consumption from self-reported survey data were partitioned for the entire population and for demographic subgroups into the three components mentioned above. RESULTS In periods 1 and 2, most of the decline in per capita cigarette consumption for the population as a whole was from current smokers smoking less followed by a reduction in ever smokers. The decline from smokers smoking less was particularly evident among young adults (18-29 years) in period 1. While the portion of the decline due to quitting in the entire population in period 1 was negligible, in period 2 it accounted for 22% of the total per capita decline. The decline from quitting in period 2 was mostly observed among women. CONCLUSIONS Rather than near-term benefits from smokers quitting, population health benefits from reduced per capita cigarette consumption will likely occur over the longer term from fewer people becoming ever smokers, and more less-addicted smokers eventually quitting successfully.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Gilpin
- Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Moores UCSD Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0901, USA
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139
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Hatsukami DK, Ebbert JO, Anderson A, Lin H, Le C, Hecht SS. Smokeless tobacco brand switching: a means to reduce toxicant exposure? Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 87:217-24. [PMID: 16996230 PMCID: PMC1987377 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2006] [Revised: 08/22/2006] [Accepted: 08/22/2006] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of smokeless tobacco (ST) brand switching on biomarkers of ST exposure and on ST use. Subjects seeking treatment to reduce their use were randomized to ST brand switching with controlled ST topography, brand switching with ad libitum ST use, or a waitlist control with subsequent randomization to one of these two conditions. The waitlist control group was included to assess whether changes were a consequence of time effect. During the intervention, Copenhagen or Kodiak ST users were asked to switch to products that were sequentially lower in nicotine content: Skoal Long Cut Straight or Wintergreen for 4 weeks and then Skoal Bandits for the subsequent 4 weeks. Measures were obtained during the course of treatment and at 12-week follow-up. Significant reductions in total urinary cotinine and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-L-(3-pyridyl)-L-butanol (NNAL) plus its glucuronides (total NNAL) were observed with no significant differences between the controlled topography and ad libitum conditions. Significant reductions were also observed in the amount and duration of dips with a significant intervention effect for durational measures. At 12 weeks, the 7-day biochemically-verified tobacco abstinent rate was 26% in the ad libitum group. ST brand switching may be a feasible alternative intervention for ST users interested in quitting but unwilling to stop ST use completely.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Hatsukami
- University of Minnesota, Tobacco Use Research Center, 2701 University Avenue SE, Suite 201, Minneapolis, MN 55414, USA.
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140
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Seeman JI. Possible role of ammonia on the deposition, retention, and absorption of nicotine in humans while smoking. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:326-43. [PMID: 17316028 DOI: 10.1021/tx600290v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This perspective presents an overview of the properties of tobacco smoke aerosol and the possible effect of ammonia on the deposition location, retention and the amount and rate of nicotine absorption during cigarette smoking. Three main mechanisms describe the absorption of smoke constituents: (A) gas-phase constituents deposit directly; (B) particles deposit and the constituents then diffuse through the particle into the biological buffer and then into the tissue; and (C) particulate phase constituents evaporate from the particles and then deposit from the gas phase. Nicotine from smoking deposits and is absorbed predominately in the lungs. When particles deposit on the lung-blood interfaces, nicotine is absorbed rapidly, regardless of the acid-base nature of the particles. This is due to the buffering capacity of the lung-blood interfaces and the small mass of nicotine per puff distributed over a large number of particles depositing onto a huge lung surface. The composition of both tobacco smoke aerosol particles and the gas phase are time dependent. Ammonia in mainstream smoke evaporates faster from particles than nicotine. It is, therefore, unlikely that ammonia can significantly affect the volatility of MS smoke nicotine from particles in the smoke aerosol. It is certain that no single measurement of tobacco or of smoke, especially one made under equilibrium conditions, can adequately characterize the time-dependent properties of mainstream smoke aerosol. Thus, the fraction of nonprotonated freebase nicotine in trapped, aged smoke particulate matter has not been shown to be a useful predictor of the amount or total rate of nicotine uptake in human smokers. Similarly, "smoke pH" and "pHeff" are not useful practical parameters for providing understanding or predictability of tobacco smoke chemistry or nicotine bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey I Seeman
- SaddlePoint Frontiers, 12001 Bollingbrook Place, Richmond, Virginia 23236-3218, USA.
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141
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Abstract
Cigarette smoking is the primary cause of numerous preventable diseases; as such, the goals of smoking cessation are both to reduce health risks and to improve the quality of life. Currently, the first-line smoking cessation therapies include nicotine replacement products and bupropion. The nicotinic receptor partial agonist varenicline has recently been approved by the FDA for smoking cessation. A newer product currently under development and seeking approval by the FDA are nicotine vaccines. Clonidine and nortriptyline have demonstrated some efficacy but side effects may limit their use to second-line therapeutic products. Other therapeutic drugs that are under development include rimonabant, mecamylamine, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and dopamine receptor D3 antagonists. Inhibitors of nicotine metabolism are also promising candidates for smoking reduction and cessation. In conclusion, promising new therapeutic products are emerging and they will provide smokers additional options to assist in achieving smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C K Siu
- Center for Addiction & Mental Health and Department of Pharmacology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
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142
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Hatsukami D, Mooney M, Murphy S, LeSage M, Babb D, Hecht S. Effects of high dose transdermal nicotine replacement in cigarette smokers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 86:132-9. [PMID: 17267026 PMCID: PMC2063438 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2006] [Revised: 12/16/2006] [Accepted: 12/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Nicotine replacement therapies (NRT) have been evaluated to facilitate cigarette smoking reduction in smokers unwilling or unable to quit. In most of these studies, only conventional doses of NRT have been tested and higher doses may be required to result in significant reductions in smoking and in biomarkers of exposure. OBJECTIVE To determine if higher NRT doses in conjunction with smoking are safe and may promote significant reductions in cigarette smoking and biomarkers of exposure. METHODS A dose-ranging, within-subject design was implemented to evaluate the effects of 15, 30 and 45 mg nicotine-patch treatment on measures of safety and the extent of smoking reduction and biomarker exposure per cigarette in smokers (N=20 completers) not immediately interested in quitting. RESULTS Concurrent smoking and NRT were generally tolerated and resulted in no changes in blood pressure or heart rate. Slightly less than 10% of the study sample was not given the highest dose of NRT due to side effects. Self-reported cigarette smoking decreased with increasing doses of nicotine replacement and significant reductions were observed for total NNAL (a carcinogen biomarker) and carbon monoxide. However, even at the 45 mg dose, increased carbon monoxide and total NNAL per cigarette occurred, even though cotinine levels increased on average, 69.3% from baseline. CONCLUSIONS The present results suggest that the use of high dose NRT is safe, leads to significant reductions in smoking (-49%), significant but less reductions in total NNAL (-24%) and carbon monoxide (-37%) due to compensatory smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothy Hatsukami
- Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Center, University of Minnesota, Department of Psychiatry, Minneapolis, MN 55414, United States.
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143
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Kassel JD, Greenstein JE, Evatt DP, Wardle MC, Yates MC, Veilleux JC, Eissenberg T. Smoking topography in response to denicotinized and high-yield nicotine cigarettes in adolescent smokers. J Adolesc Health 2007; 40:54-60. [PMID: 17185206 DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2006] [Revised: 08/09/2006] [Accepted: 08/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The objective of this study was to explore the smoking topography of adolescent smokers. It is well established that the majority of adult nicotine-dependent smokers began smoking as adolescents. Whereas recent advances have been made with respect to identification of factors that predispose to nicotine dependence, very little is known about the actual smoking behavior (e.g., topography) of adolescent smokers, or its relationship to nicotine dependence. Correspondingly, the extent to which adolescent smokers smoke to obtain nicotine is also unknown. METHODS In the present study, we assessed several topographical indices of smoking (e.g., puff volume, puff number) in a sample of 35 light, adolescent smokers. Moreover, we examined whether smoking behavior is different in response to smoking a denicotinized relative to a high-yield, nicotine cigarette. RESULTS All participants evidenced a significant increase in expired air carbon monoxide after the smoking of a cigarette. Results of independent-sample t-tests revealed that adolescents who smoked a low-yield nicotine cigarette took significantly more puffs per cigarette than did those who smoked a high-yield cigarette. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that adolescent smokers do titrate their nicotine intake in response to smoking denicotinized cigarettes, but do so not by taking larger puffs or smoking more quickly, but by simply taking more puffs per cigarette. Implications of the findings and future directions for this type of research with adolescents are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon D Kassel
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA.
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144
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Hughes JR, Carpenter MJ. Does smoking reduction increase future cessation and decrease disease risk? A qualitative review. Nicotine Tob Res 2006; 8:739-49. [PMID: 17132521 DOI: 10.1080/14622200600789726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This review examines whether reduction in smoking among smokers not currently interested in quitting (a) undermines or promotes future smoking cessation or (b) decreases the risks of developing smoking-related diseases. Systematic computer searches and other methods located 19 studies examining reduction and subsequent cessation and 10 studies examining reduction and disease risk. Because of the heterogeneity of methods and results, a meta-analysis could not be undertaken. None of 19 studies found that reduction undermined future cessation, and 16 found that reduction was associated with greater future cessation, including the two randomized trials of reduction versus nonreduction. The 10 trials of disease risk found conflicting results, and none was an adequate test. We conclude that (a) smoking reduction increases the probability of future cessation and (b) whether smoking reduction decreases the risks of smoking-related diseases has not been adequately tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Hughes
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05401, USA.
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St Charles FK, Krautter GR, Dixon M, Mariner DC. A comparison of nicotine dose estimates in smokers between filter analysis, salivary cotinine, and urinary excretion of nicotine metabolites. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 189:345-54. [PMID: 17028908 PMCID: PMC1705539 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0586-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2006] [Accepted: 08/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Nicotine uptake during smoking was estimated by either analyzing the metabolites of nicotine in various body fluids or by analyzing filters from smoked cigarettes. However, no comparison of the filter analysis method with body fluid analysis methods has been published. OBJECTIVES Correlate nicotine uptake estimates between filter analysis, salivary cotinine, and urinary excretion of selected nicotine metabolites to determine the suitability of these methods in estimating nicotine absorption in smokers of filtered cigarettes. MATERIALS AND METHODS A 5-day clinical study was conducted with 74 smokers who smoked 1-19 mg Federal Trade Commission tar cigarettes, using their own brands ad libitum. Filters were analyzed to estimate the daily mouth exposure of nicotine. Twenty-four-hour urine samples were collected and analyzed for nicotine, cotinine, and 3'-hydroxycotinine plus their glucuronide conjugates. Saliva samples were collected daily for cotinine analysis. RESULTS Each method correlated significantly (p < 0.01) with the other two. The best correlation was between the mouth exposure of nicotine, as estimated by filter analysis, and urinary nicotine plus metabolites. Multiple regression analysis implies that saliva cotinine and urinary output are dependent on nicotine mouth exposure for multiple days. Creatinine normalization of the urinary metabolites degrades the correlation with mouth exposure. CONCLUSIONS The filter analysis method was shown to correlate with more traditional methods of estimating nicotine uptake. However, because filter analysis is less complicated and intrusive, subjects can collect samples easily and unsupervised. This should enable improvements in study compliance and future study designs.
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146
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Scherer G. Carboxyhemoglobin and thiocyanate as biomarkers of exposure to carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide in tobacco smoke. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 58:101-24. [PMID: 16973339 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2006.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2006] [Accepted: 07/26/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The determination of biomarkers in human body fluids is a useful tool, which allows the quantitative assessment of the exposure to chemicals or complex mixtures of chemicals and of early biological effects as a result of the exposure. Biomarkers require validation before their successful application in human studies. This review describes some general purposes of human biomonitoring and biomarkers including the requirements for validation. Risk assessment and harm reduction of smoking and tobacco products, respectively, is a very suitable field for the application of biomarkers. A brief historical review shows that the application of biomarkers of exposure and effect in human smoking goes back more than 150 years. Two 'classical' biomarkers of exposure to tobacco, namely carboxyhemoglobin (COHb and its equivalent carbon monoxide in exhalate, COex) and thiocyanate (SCN) in body fluids are discussed in terms of sources of exposure, metabolism, disposition kinetics and influencing host factors. Data on COHb/COex and SCN in nonsmokers and smokers as well as the power to discriminate between smokers and nonsmokers are presented. Both biomarkers are significantly correlated with the daily cigarette consumption. Smoking machine-derived yields of the precursors carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide were not correlated with COHb/COex and SCN, respectively. It is concluded that, while COHb/COex is a useful biomarker for assessing the smoke inhalation, preferably in controlled studies, the application of SCN in body fluids as a biomarker for smoking is limited, mainly due to the abundance of other sources for SCN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Scherer
- ABF Analytisch-biologisches Forschungslabor GmbH, Goethestrasse 20, 80336 München, Germany.
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147
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Relationship between machine-derived smoke yields and biomarkers in cigarette smokers in Germany. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2006; 47:171-83. [PMID: 17034917 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In order to determine whether smokers of cigarettes in the contemporary yield ranges of the German market (0.1-1.0mg nicotine, 1-10mg tar) differ in their actual exposure to various smoke constituents, we performed a field study with 274 smokers and 100 non-smokers. The following biomarkers were determined: In 24-h urine: Nicotine equivalents (molar sum of nicotine, cotinine, trans-3'-hydroxycotinine and their respective glucuronides), 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL, metabolite of the tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone, NNK), 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid (metabolite of acrolein), trans,trans-muconic acid, S-phenylmercapturic acid (metabolites of benzene), 1-hydroxypyrene (metabolite of pyrene); in saliva: Cotinine and trans-3'-hydroxycotinine; in exhaled air: Carbon monoxide; in blood: Methyl-, hydroxyethyl-, cyanoethyl- (biomarker of acrylonitrile) and carbamoylethylvaline (biomarker of acrylamide) hemoglobin adducts. All biomarkers were found to be significantly higher in smokers compared to non-smokers and showed strong correlations with the daily cigarette consumption. Biomarker levels and per cigarette increases in smokers were at most weakly related to the machine-derived smoke yields. It is concluded that machine-derived yields of cigarettes from the contemporary German cigarette market have little or no impact on the actual smoking-related exposure determined by suitable biomarkers.
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148
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Abstract
AIMS To measure reduction in exposure to smoke in two population-based studies of self-reported smoking reduction not using nicotine replacement. DESIGN Cross-sectional analyses of biomarkers and smoking. SETTING Data from two time-points in the Copenhagen City Heart Study (CCHS), 1981/83 and 1991/94, and the Copenhagen Male Study (CMS) in 1976 and 1985/86, respectively. PARTICIPANTS There were 3026 adults who were smokers at both time-points in the CCHS and 1319 men smoking at both time-points in the CMS. MEASUREMENTS Smoking status and tobacco consumption were assessed by self-completion questionnaire. Measurements of biomarkers of smoke intake were taken at the second time-point in the two studies: expired-air carbon monoxide (CO) in the CCHS and serum cotinine in the CMS. Biomarker levels in medium (15-29 g tobacco/day) and heavy (> 30 g/day) smokers at the first time-point who later reported a reduction in cigarettes per day of 50% or more without quitting were compared with continuing medium, heavy and light smokers (1-14 g/day) using linear regression. Sex (CCHS only), age, self-reported inhalation of smoke, duration of smoking, type of tobacco and amount smoked were included as covariates in multivariate models. FINDINGS Heavy smokers who reduced did not show lower levels of biomarkers at follow-up. Medium smokers who reduced showed a reduction in cotinine but not CO. The reduction in cotinine was not commensurate with the reported reduction in consumption. CONCLUSIONS Long-term reductions in self-reported tobacco smoking are probably associated with, at best, modest reductions in smoke exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina S Godtfredsen
- The Copenhagen Centre for Prospective Population Studies, Institute of Preventive Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital, Denmark.
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Scherer G, Urban M, Engl J, Hagedorn HW, Riedel K. Influence of smoking charcoal filter tipped cigarettes on various biomarkers of exposure. Inhal Toxicol 2006; 18:821-9. [PMID: 16774872 DOI: 10.1080/08958370600747945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Charcoal (CC) filters of cigarettes are known to significantly reduce a series of volatile constituents in mainstream smoke, including reactive alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehydes such as acrolein and crotonaldehyde. We performed a randomized, crossover, 2-wk brand-switching study with 39 smokers. Twenty of the subjects smoked cellulose acetate (CA) filter tipped cigarettes during wk 1 of the study; the remaining 19 subjects smoked CC filter tipped cigarettes during wk 1. In wk 2, the subjects switched to the corresponding brand with the other filter type, with similar smoking machine-derived tar and nicotine yields. Daily cigarette consumption, carbon monoxide in exhaled breath, salivary cotinine, and urinary nicotine equivalents (molar sum of nicotine plus five major metabolites) did not change significantly when switching to the cigarettes with the other filter type. Urinary excretion rates of 3-hydroxy-1-methylpropylmercapturic acid (metabolite of crotonaldehyde), monohydroxybutenylmercapturic acid (metabolite of 1,3-butadiene), and S-phenylmercapturic acid (metabolite of benzene) were significantly lower when smoking CC compared to CA filter tipped cigarettes. The reduction in amount of 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid (metabolite of acrolein) was of borderline significance. Other mercapturic acids and thioethers (the latter is a summary parameter that indicates the exposure to electrophilic compounds) were not or were only slightly reduced upon smoking CC filter tipped cigarettes. We conclude that smoking CC filter tipped cigarettes does not change the uptake of carbon monoxide and nicotine when compared to CA filter tipped cigarettes with similar tar and nicotine yields, but significantly reduces the exposure to toxicologically relevant smoke constituents such as acrolein, crotonaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene, and benzene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Scherer
- ABF Analytisch-Biologisches Forschungslabor GmbH, Muenchen, Germany.
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Lee PN, Forey BA, Gori GB. Do reductions in the tar and nicotine yields of cigarettes help to explain recent reductions in lung cancer rates in young men and women in the United States? Inhal Toxicol 2006; 18:365-88. [PMID: 16513594 DOI: 10.1080/08958370500516101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Between 1985 and 2000, lung cancer rates in U.S. men and women aged 35-54 yr have declined. To investigate whether these declines can adequately be explained by changes in smoking prevalence, consumption, and duration, or if changes in tar and nicotine yields also contributed, two model-fitting approaches were used. Both approaches used individual person National Health Interview Survey data on smoking prevalence, age of starting and time of quitting, and national estimates of consumption per smoker and yields. Both approaches compared observed rates (by sex and age) relative to 1985, with those predicted after successively including various smoking variables into the model, making varying allowance for compensation for reduced yield. Approach A was simpler, based on mean smoking statistics estimated separately for current and former smokers. Approach B used the multistage model and individual smoking histories to estimate risk. Both approaches showed observed declines in risk were (except for men aged 35-39 yr) clearly greater than predicted based only on prevalence, consumption, and duration. Including yield generally improved the fit. At younger ages, models assuming substantial compensation (consistent with evidence from studies relating nicotine yield and intake) fitted well, but at age 50-54 yr in both sexes and age 45-49 yr in women, the decline was better fitted by models assuming little compensation. The conclusions were not sensitive to the precise parameter values assumed in the modeling. Interpretation is not straightforward, but the findings suggest declines in yields have contributed to the recent declines in rates in young U.S. men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter N Lee
- P. N. Lee Statistics and Computing Ltd, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom.
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