The role of lipid components in lipid nanoparticles for vaccines and gene therapy

Versatile Cell Penetrating Peptide for Multimodal CRISPR Gene Editing in Primary Stem Cells

CRISPR gene editing offers unprecedented genomic and transcriptomic control for precise regulation of cell function and phenotype. However, delivering the necessary CRISPR components to therapeutically relevant cell types without cytotoxicity or unexpected side effects remains challenging. Viral vectors risk genomic integration and immunogenicity while non-viral delivery systems are challenging to adapt to different CRISPR cargos, and many are highly cytotoxic. The arginine-alanine-leucine-alanine (RALA) cell penetrating peptide is an amphiphilic peptide that self-assembles into nanoparticles through electrostatic interactions with negatively charged molecules before delivering them across the cell membrane. This system has been used to deliver DNAs, RNAs, and small anionic molecules to primary cells with lower cytotoxicity compared to alternative non-viral approaches. Given the low cytotoxicity, versatility, and competitive transfection rates of RALA, we aimed to establish this peptide as a new CRISPR delivery system in a wide range of molecular formats across different editing modalities. We report that RALA was able to effectively encapsulate and deliver CRISPR in DNA, RNA, and ribonucleic protein (RNP) formats to primary mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Comparisons between RALA and commercially available reagents revealed superior cell viability leading to higher numbers of transfected cells and the maintenance of cell proliferative capacity. We then used the RALA peptide for the knock-in and knock-out of reporter genes into the MSC genome as well as for the transcriptional activation of therapeutically relevant genes. In summary, we establish RALA as a powerful tool for safer and effective delivery of CRISPR machinery in multiple cargo formats for a wide range of gene editing strategies.

Lipid Nanoparticles for Brain Tumor Theranostics: Challenges and Status

Lipid nanoparticles have been recognized as a powerful weapon for delivering various imaging and therapeutic agents to the localized solid tumors, especially brain tumors individually or in combination. Promisingly, lipid-based nanosystems have been considered as safe delivery systems which are even approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA). One recent spotlight of lipid nanoparticles as COVID-19 mRNA vaccines where lipid nanoparticles play an important role in effectively protecting and delivering mRNA to the desired cells. As of now, successive progress in lipid-based nanocarriers, viz., nanoliposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, ionizable lipid nanostructures, etc., with better biochemical and biophysical stabilities, has been noticed and reported. Moreover, lipid nanostructures have been considered as versatile therapeutics platforms for a variety of diseases due to their biocompatibility, ability to protect and deliver therapeutics to the localized site, and better reproducibility and reliability. However, lipid nanoparticles still face morphological and biochemical changes upon their in vivo administration. These changes alter the specific biological and pathological response of lipid nanoparticles during their personalized brain tumor theranostics. Second, lipid nanomedicine still faces major challenges of zero premature leakage of loaded cargo, long-term colloidal stability, and off targeting. Herein, various lipid-based nanomedicines for brain tumor imaging and therapeutics "theranostics" have been reviewed and summarized considering major aspects of preclinical and clinical studies. On the other hand, engineering and biological challenges of lipid theranostics systems with relevant advantages and guidelines for clinical practice for different brain tumors have also been discussed. This review provides in-depth knowledge of lipid nanoparticle-based theranostics agents for brain tumor imaging and therapeutics.

RP-CAD for Lipid Quantification: Systematic Method Development and Intensified LNP Process Characterization

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) and their versatile nucleic acid payloads bear great potential as delivery systems. Despite their complex lipid composition, their quality is primarily judged by particle characteristics and nucleic acid encapsulation. In this study, we present a holistic reversed-phase (RP)-charged aerosol detection (CAD)-based method developed for commonly used LNP formulations, allowing for intensified LNP and process characterization. We used an experimental approach for power function value (PFV) optimization termed exploratory calibration, providing a single PFV (1.3) in an appropriate linearity range for all six lipids. Followed by the procedure of method calibration and validation, linearity (10-400 ng, R2 > 0.996), precision, accuracy, and robustness were effectively proven. To complement the commonly determined LNP attributes and to evaluate the process performance across LNP processing, the developed RP-CAD method was applied in a process parameter study varying the total flow rate (TFR) during microfluidic mixing. The RP-CAD method revealed a constant lipid molar ratio across processing but identified deviations in the theoretical lipid content and general lipid loss, which were both, however, entirely TFR-independent. The deviations in lipid content could be successfully traced back to the lipid stock solution preparation. In contrast, the observed lipid loss was attributable to the small-scale dialysis following microfluidic mixing. Overall, this study establishes a foundation for employing RP-CAD for lipid quantification throughout LNP processing, and it highlights the potential to extend its applicability to other LNPs, process parameter studies, or processes such as cross-flow filtration.

Enhancing Targeted Drug Delivery through Cell-Specific Endosomal Escape

Endosome is a major barrier in the intracellular delivery of drugs, especially for biologics, such as proteins, peptides, and nucleic acids. After being endocytosed, these cargos will be trapped inside the endosomal compartments and finally degraded in the lysosomes. Thus, various strategies have been developed to facilitate the escape of cargos from the endosomes to improve the intracellular delivery efficiency. While the majority of the studies are focusing on strengthening the endosomal escape capability to maximize the delivery outcome, recent evidence suggests that a careful control of the endosomal escape process could provide opportunity for targeted drug delivery. In this concept review, we examined current delivery systems that can sense intra-endosomal factors or external stimuli for controlling endosomal escape toward a targeted intracellular delivery of cargos. Furthermore, the prospects and challenges of such strategies are discussed.

Rational Design of Lipid Nanoparticles for Enhanced mRNA Vaccine Delivery via Machine Learning

Since the coronavirus pandemic, mRNA vaccines have revolutionized the field of vaccinology. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are proposed to enhance mRNA delivery efficiency; however, their design is suboptimal. Here, a rational method for designing LNPs is explored, focusing on the ionizable lipid composition and structural optimization using machine learning (ML) techniques. A total of 213 LNPs are analyzed using random forest regression models trained with 314 features to predict the mRNA expression efficiency. The models, which predict mRNA expression levels post-administration of intradermal injection in mice, identify phenol as the dominant substructure affecting mRNA encapsulation and expression. The specific phospholipids used as components of the LNPs, as well as the N/P ratio and mass ratio, are found to affect the efficacy of mRNA delivery. Structural analysis highlights the impact of the carbon chain length on the encapsulation efficiency and LNP stability. This integrated approach offers a framework for designing advanced LNPs and has the potential to unlock the full potential of mRNA therapeutics.

All-Atom Membrane Builder via Multiscale Simulation

I present an automated and flexible tool designed for constructing bilayer membranes at all-atom (AA) resolution. The builder initiates the construction and equilibration of bilayer membranes at Martini coarse-grained (CG) resolution, followed by resolution enhancement to the atomic level using the accompanying backmapping tool. Notably, this tool enables users to create bilayer membranes with user-defined lipid compositions and protein structures, while also offering the flexibility to accommodate new lipid types. To assess the simplicity and robustness of the tool, I demonstrate the construction of several membranes incorporating protein structures. The tool is freely available at github.com/ksy141/mstool.

Design and lyophilization of mRNA-encapsulating lipid nanoparticles

The remarkable success of two FDA-approved mRNA-encapsulating vaccines (Comirnaty® and Spikevax®) indicated the importance of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) delivery systems in clinical use. Currently, mRNA-encapsulating LNPs (mRNA-LNPs) vaccines are stored as frozen liquid at low or ultralow temperatures. We designed lyophilized LNPs utilizing FDA-approved lipids to expedite the clinical application of our developed lyophilized mRNA-LNPs in the future. The key parameters of sucrose concentration and the selection and molar ratio of the four lipids in these vaccines were optimized for long-term stability with high transfection efficiency after lyophilization. We demonstrated that 8.7% sucrose is the optimal cryoprotectant concentration to maintain the transfection efficiency of lyophilized mRNA-LNPs. Optimal lipid formulations with high transfection efficiency both before and after lyophilization were screened using an orthogonal experimental design. The ratios of distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC)/cholesterol and the selection of the ionizable and PEGylated lipids are the main factors influencing the long-term stability of mRNA-LNPs. Comparative mouse transfection experiments showed that the optimal lyophilized mRNA-LNPs maintained high mRNA expression after lyophilization, predominantly in the spleen or liver, with no expression in the kidneys or eyes. Our studies demonstrated the importance of the sucrose concentration and of the selection and molar ratio of the four lipids composing LNPs for maintaining mRNA-LNP stability under lyophilization and for long-term storage under mild conditions.

Size-Controllable and Monodispersed Lipid Nanoparticle Production with High mRNA Delivery Efficiency Using 3D-Printed Ring Micromixers

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are gaining recognition as potentially effective carriers for delivery of therapeutic agents, including nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), for the prevention and treatment of various diseases. Much effort has been devoted to the implementation of microfluidic techniques for the production of monodisperse and stable LNPs and the improvement of encapsulation efficiency. Here, we developed three-dimensional (3D)-printed ring micromixers for the production of size-controllable and monodispersed LNPs with a high mRNA delivery efficiency. The effects of flow rate and ring shape asymmetry on the mixing performance were initially examined. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties (such as hydrodynamic diameter, polydispersity, and encapsulation efficiency) of the generated LNPs were quantified as a function of these physical parameters via biochemical analysis and cryo-electron microscopy imaging. With a high production rate of 68 mL/min, our 3D-printed ring micromixers can be used to manufacture LNPs with diameters less than 90 nm, low polydispersity (<0.2), and high mRNA encapsulation efficiency (>91%). Despite the simplicity of the ring-shaped mixer structure, we can produce mRNA-loaded LNPs with exceptional quality and high throughput, outperforming costly commercial micromixers.

mRNA-based therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment

In the rapidly evolving landscape of medical research, the emergence of RNA-based therapeutics is paradigm shifting. It is mainly driven by the molecular adaptability and capacity to provide precision in targeting. The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic crisis underscored the effectiveness of the mRNA therapeutic development platform and brought it to the forefront of RNA-based interventions. These RNA-based therapeutic approaches can reshape gene expression, manipulate cellular functions, and correct the aberrant molecular processes underlying various diseases. The new technologies hold the potential to engineer and deliver tailored therapeutic agents to tackle genetic disorders, cancers, and infectious diseases in a highly personalized and precisely tuned manner. The review discusses the most recent advancements in the field of mRNA therapeutics for cancer treatment, with a focus on the features of the most utilized RNA-based therapeutic interventions, current pre-clinical and clinical developments, and the remaining challenges in delivery strategies, effectiveness, and safety considerations.

Advances in targeted delivery of mRNA into immune cells for enhanced cancer therapy

Messenger RNA (mRNA) therapy has been applied to the treatment of various human diseases including malignant tumors. Increasing evidences have shown that mRNA can enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy by modulating the functions of immune cells and stimulating their activity. However, mRNA is a type of negatively charged biomacromolecules that are susceptible to serum nucleases and cannot readily cross the cell membrane. In the past few decades, various nanoparticles (NPs)-based delivery systems have been rationally designed and developed to facilitate the intracellular uptake and cytosolic delivery of mRNA. More importantly, by means of the specific recognition between the targeting ligands decorated on NP surface and receptors specifically expressed on immune cells, these mRNA delivery systems could be functionalized to target immune cells to further enhance the mRNA-based cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we briefly introduced the advancements of mRNA in cancer therapy, discussed the challenges faced by mRNA delivery, and systematically summarized the recent development in NPs-based mRNA delivery systems targeting various types of immune cells for cancer immunotherapy. The future development of NPs-mediated targeted mRNA delivery and their challenges in clinical translation are also discussed.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticle fabrication, functionalization, and biological considerations for drug delivery

Nanoparticles can be used for drug delivery and consist of many sizes and chemical compositions. They can accommodate a diverse population of drugs and can be made to target specific areas of the body. Fabrication methods generally follow either top-down or bottom-up manufacturing techniques, which have differing production controls, which determine nanoparticle characteristics including but not limited to size and encapsulation efficiency. Functionalizing these nanoparticles is done to add drugs, prevent aggregation, add positive charge, add targeting, etc. As the nanoparticles reach the target cells, cellular uptake occurs, drug is released, and the nanoparticle is broken down. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles have often been used for drug delivery applications as they have shown minimal toxicity, which has helped with US FDA approval. This review breaks down PLGA nanoparticle fabrication, functionalization, and biological considerations.

Rational formulation and industrial manufacturing of lipid-based complex injectables: Landmarks and trends

Lipid-based complex injectables are renowned for their effectiveness in delivering drugs, with many approved products. While significant strides have been made in formulating nanosystems for small molecular weight drugs, a pivotal breakthrough emerged with the recognition of lipid nanoparticles as a promising platform for delivering nucleic acids. This finding has paved the way for tackling long-standing challenges in molecular and delivery aspects (e.g., mRNA stability, intracellular delivery) that have impeded the clinical translation of gene therapy, especially in the realm of immunotherapy. Nonetheless, developing and implementing new lipid-based delivery systems pose significant challenges, as industrial manufacturing of these formulations often involves complex, multi-batch processes, giving rise to issues related to scalability, stability, sterility, and regulatory compliance. To overcome these obstacles, embracing the principles of quality-by-design (QbD) is imperative. Furthermore, adopting cutting-edge manufacturing and process analytical tools (PAT) that facilitate the transition from batch to continuous production is essential. Herein, the key milestones and insights derived from the development of currently approved lipid- nanosystems will be explored. Additionally, a comprehensive and critical overview of the latest technologies and regulatory guidelines that underpin the creation of more efficient, scalable, and flexible manufacturing processes for complex lipid-based nanoformulations will be provided.

Advances in the development of lipid nanoparticles for ophthalmic therapeutics

Previously, researchers have employed Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to directly encapsulate medicines. In the realm of gene therapy, researchers have begun to employ lipid nanoparticles to encapsulate nucleic acids such as messenger RNA, small interfering RNA, and plasmid DNA, which are known as nucleic acid lipid nanoparticles. Recent breakthroughs in LNP-based medicine have provided significant prospects for the treatment of ocular disorders, such as corneal, choroidal, and retinal diseases. The use of LNP as a delivery mechanism for medicines and therapeutic genes can increase their effectiveness while avoiding undesired immune reactions. However, LNP-based medicines may pose ocular concerns. In this review, we discuss the general framework of LNP. Additionally, we review adjustable approaches and evaluate their possible risks. In addition, we examine newly described ocular illnesses in which LNP was utilized as a delivery mechanism. Finally, we provide perspectives for solving these potential issues.

Influence of ionizable lipid tail length on lipid nanoparticle delivery of mRNA of varying length

RNA-based therapeutics have gained traction for the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases. However, their fragility and immunogenicity necessitate a drug carrier. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as the predominant delivery vehicle for RNA therapeutics. An important component of LNPs is the ionizable lipid (IL), which is protonated in the acidic environment of the endosome, prompting cargo release into the cytosol. Currently, there is growing evidence that the structure of IL lipid tails significantly impacts the efficacy of LNP-mediated mRNA translation. Here, we optimized IL tail length for LNP-mediated delivery of three different mRNA cargos. Using C12-200, a gold standard IL, as a model, we designed a library of ILs with varying tail lengths and evaluated their potency in vivo. We demonstrated that small changes in lipophilicity can drastically increase or decrease mRNA translation. We identified that LNPs formulated with firefly luciferase mRNA (1929 base pairs) and C10-200, an IL with shorter tail lengths than C12-200, enhance liver transfection by over 10-fold. Furthermore, different IL tail lengths were found to be ideal for transfection of LNPs encapsulating mRNA cargos of varying sizes. LNPs formulated with erythropoietin (EPO), responsible for stimulating red blood cell production, mRNA (858 base pairs), and the C13-200 IL led to EPO translation at levels similar to the C12-200 LNP. The LNPs formulated with Cas9 mRNA (4521 base pairs) and the C9-200 IL induced over three times the quantity of indels compared with the C12-200 LNP. Our findings suggest that shorter IL tails may lead to higher transfection of LNPs encapsulating larger mRNAs, and that longer IL tails may be more efficacious for delivering smaller mRNA cargos. We envision that the results of this project can be utilized as future design criteria for the next generation of LNP delivery systems for RNA therapeutics.

Recent Advances in RNA Interference-Based Therapy for Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Emphasis on siRNA

Even though RNA treatments were first proposed as a way to change aberrant signaling in cancer, research in this field is currently ongoing. The term "RNAi" refers to the use of several RNAi technologies, including ribozymes, riboswitches, Aptamers, small interfering RNA (siRNA), antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and CRISPR/Cas9 technology. The siRNA therapy has already achieved a remarkable feat by revolutionizing the treatment arena of cancers. Unlike small molecules and antibodies, which need administration every three months or even every two years, RNAi may be given every quarter to attain therapeutic results. In order to overcome complex challenges, delivering siRNAs to the targeted tissues and cells effectively and safely and improving the effectiveness of siRNAs in terms of their action, stability, specificity, and potential adverse consequences are required. In this context, the three primary techniques of siRNA therapies for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are accomplished for inhibiting angiogenesis, decreasing cell proliferation, and promoting apoptosis, are discussed in this review. We also deliberate targeting issues, immunogenic reactions to siRNA therapy, and the difficulties with their intrinsic chemistry and transportation.

Organ-Targeted Ionizable Lipid Nanoparticles Facilitate Sequence-Activated Fluorogenic Probe for Precise Imaging of Inflammatory Liver Disease

Activatable near-infrared (NIR) fluorogenic probes offer a potent tool for real-time, in situ detection of hepatic biomarkers, significantly advancing the precision in diagnosing inflammatory liver disease (ILD). However, the limited distribution of small molecule fluorogenic probes in the liver and their rapid clearance impair the accuracy of fluorescence imaging and in ILD diagnosis. In this study, an effective utilization of ionizable lipid nanoparticles (iLNPs) is presented as liver-targeted carriers for efficient delivery of fluorogenic probes, aiming to overcome biodistribution barriers and achieve accurate detection of hepatic biomarkers. Based on this strategy, a liver-targeted NIR fluorogenic nanoprobe hCy-H2O2@iLNP is prepared using hCy-H2O2 as a small molecule reporter for visualizing the over-produced hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in situ of liver. Notably, iLNPs not only significantly enhance probe accumulation in the liver, but also enable sequence activation of fluorescent nanoprobes. This response is achieved through primary liposome-dissociation release and secondary hCy-H2O2 response with pathological H2O2, enabling high-precision detection of oxidative stress in hepatocytes. These distinctive features facilitate accurate early diagnosis of acetaminophen (APAP)-induced inflammatory liver injury as well as lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced hepatitis. Therefore, the organ-targeted nanoprobe design strategy showcasts great potential for early and accurate diagnosis of lesions in situ in different organs.

Pyroptotic-Spatiotemporally Selective Delivery of siRNA against Pyroptosis and Autoimmune Diseases

Small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) offer promising prospects for treating pyroptosis-related autoimmune diseases. However, poor stability and off-target effects during in vivo transportation hinder their practical clinical applications. Precision delivery and adaptive release of siRNAs into inflamed tissues and immune cells could unleash their full therapeutic potential. This study establishes a pyroptotic-spatiotemporally selective siRNA delivery system (PMRC@siGSDME) that selectively targets inflammatory tissues, responds to pyroptosis, and exhibits remarkable therapeutic efficacy against various autoimmune diseases. Novel hybrid nanovesicles (NVs) are designed as a combination of pyroptotic macrophage membranes (PMs) and R8-cardiolipin-containing nanovesicles (RC-NVs). Evidence provides that PM-derived proteins involved in cell-cell interactions and membrane trafficking may contribute to the specificity of NVs to inflammatory tissue. In addition, cardiolipin anchored in the hybrid NVs increases its affinity for activated gasdermin E (GSDME) and achieves pyroptosis-adaptive release of siGSDME for the spatiotemporally selective suppression of immune responses. More importantly, PMRC@siGSDME displays significant anti-inflammatory and therapeutic effects in multiple mouse autoimmune disease models, including arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Collectively, an innovative siRNA delivery strategy precisely tailored for pyroptotic cells has been developed, paving the way for new treatments for autoimmune inflammatory diseases with minimal side effects and wide clinical applicability.

A perspective on bleb and empty LNP structures

Although lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been FDA-approved for mRNA delivery, there is still much to learn about these fascinating multi-component delivery systems. Here, I discuss the presence of "bleb" structures on LNPs and the co-existence of mRNA-empty LNPs in LNP-mRNA-based formulations. Specifically, I discuss key articles on these structural and compositional heterogeneities, whether these features present negative or positive LNP attributes, and how to deal with them in research and quality control settings. Additionally, I present current approaches and propose novel strategies on how to study and quantify bleb and empty LNP structures. With the conflicting views on these features in the literature and limited systematic studies on their impact on safety and efficacy, I hope this Perspective will support current and bring forward new thinking about these matters. I anticipate that novel studies and insights could emerge from these lines of thinking, which could potentially enhance the development of safe and efficient LNP-based drug products that will either embrace, leverage, or mitigate the presence of blebs and empty LNPs.

Lipid Nanoparticles for Nucleic Acid Delivery Beyond the Liver

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are the most clinically advanced drug delivery system for nucleic acid therapeutics, exemplified by the success of the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. However, their clinical use is currently limited to hepatic diseases and vaccines due to their tendency to accumulate in the liver upon intravenous administration. To fully leverage their potential, it is essential to understand and address their liver tropism, while also developing strategies to enhance delivery to tissues beyond the liver. Ensuring that these therapeutics reach their target cells while avoiding off-target cells is essential for both their efficacy and safety. There are three potential targeting strategies-passive, active, and endogenous-which can be used individually or in combination to target nonhepatic tissues. In this review, we delve into the recent advancements in LNP engineering for delivering nucleic acid beyond the liver.

siRNA nanoparticle targeting Usp20 lowers lipid levels and ameliorates metabolic syndrome in mice

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is closely correlated with elevated low density lipoprotein-cholesterol. In feeding state, glucose and insulin activate mammalian target of rapamycin 1 that phosphorylates the deubiquitylase ubiquitin-specific peptidase 20 (USP20). USP20 then stabilizes HMG-CoA reductase, thereby increasing lipid biosynthesis. In this study, we applied clinically approved lipid nanoparticles to encapsulate the siRNA targeting Usp20. We demonstrated that silencing of hepatic Usp20 by siRNA decreased body weight, improved insulin sensitivity, and increased energy expenditure through elevating UCP1. In Ldlr-/- mice, silencing Usp20 by siRNA decreased lipid levels and prevented atherosclerosis. This study suggests that the RNAi-based therapy targeting hepatic Usp20 has a translational potential to treat metabolic disease.

Lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated DNA vaccine confers protection against swine and human-origin H1N1 influenza viruses

In 2009, a novel swine-origin H1N1 virus emerged, causing a pandemic. The virus, known as H1N1pdm09, quickly displaced the circulating H1 lineage and became the dominant seasonal influenza A virus subtype infecting humans. Human-to-swine spillovers of the H1N1pdm09 have occurred frequently, and each occurrence has led to sustained transmission of the human-origin H1N1pdm09 within swine populations. In the present study, we developed a lipid nanoparticle-based DNA vaccine (LNP-DNA) containing the hemagglutinin gene of a swine-origin H1N1pdm09. In pigs, this LNP-DNA vaccine induced a robust antibody response after a single intramuscular immunization and protected the pigs against challenge infection with the homologous swine-origin H1N1pdm09 virus. In a mouse model, the LNP-DNA vaccine induced antibody and T-cell responses and protected mice against lethal challenge with a mouse-adapted human-origin H1N1pdm09 virus. These findings demonstrate the potential of the LNP-DNA vaccine to protect against both swine- and human-origin H1N1pdm09 viruses.

IMPORTANCE

Swine influenza A virus (IAV) is widespread and causes significant economic losses to the swine industry. Moreover, bidirectional transmission of IAV between swine and humans commonly occurs. Once introduced into the swine population, human-origin IAV often reassorts with endemic swine IAV, resulting in reassortant viruses. Thus, it is imperative to develop a vaccine that is not only effective against IAV strains endemic in swine but also capable of preventing the spillover of human-origin IAV. In this study, we developed a lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated DNA plasmid vaccine (LNP-DNA) that demonstrates efficacy against both swine- and human-origin H1N1 viruses. The LNP-DNA vaccines are non-infectious and non-viable, meeting the criteria to serve as a vaccine platform for rapidly updating vaccines. Collectively, this LNP-DNA vaccine approach holds great potential for alleviating the impact of IAV on the swine industry and preventing the emergence of reassortant IAV strains.

Nanotechnology Advances in the Detection and Treatment of Lymphoid Malignancies

Lymphoid malignancies are complex diseases with distinct biological behaviors, clinical presentations, and treatment responses. Ongoing research and advancements in biotechnology enhance the understanding and management of these malignancies, moving towards more personalized approaches for diagnosis and treatment. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising tool to improve some limitations of conventional diagnostics as well as treatment strategies for lymphoid malignancies. Nanoparticles (NPs) offer unique advantages such as enhanced multimodal detection, drug delivery, and targeted therapy capabilities, with the potential to improve precision medicine and patient outcomes. Here, we comprehensively examine the current landscape of nanoconstructs applied in the management of lymphoid disease. Through a comprehensive analysis of preclinical studies, we highlight the translational potential of NPs in revolutionizing the field of hematological malignancies, with a specific focus on lymphoid neoplasms.

Impact of mixing and shaking on mRNA-LNP drug product quality characteristics

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the interest in RNA-lipid nanoparticle (LNP) based drug products has increased drastically. While one RNA-LNP drug product, Onpattro, was already on the market in 2018, high volume manufacturing was only initiated end of 2020 with the approval of the mRNA-LNP vaccines, Comirnaty and Spikevax. As such, deep product knowledge for RNA-LNPs is continuously increasing. In this article the effect of large-scale mixing and lab-scale shaking on mRNA-LNP drug product quality characteristics is investigated. It is shown that mixing and shaking can have a profound impact on both LNP size distribution and mRNA encapsulation, suggesting a direct correlation between both quality characteristics, and further supported by a proposed underlying mechanism. An in-depth investigation of different drug product (DP) presentations reveals a consistent effect of headspace volume and LNP content on the shaking stress sensitivity. Results reported in this study are of utter importance for both small- and large-scale manufacturers but also for care givers and patients using these products.

Enhancing Vaccine Efficacy and Stability: A Review of the Utilization of Nanoparticles in mRNA Vaccines

The development of vaccines has entered a new era with the advent of nanotechnology, particularly through the utilization of nanoparticles. This review focuses on the role of nanoparticles in enhancing the efficacy and stability of mRNA vaccines. Nanoparticles, owing to their unique properties such as high surface area, tunable size, and their ability to be functionalized, have emerged as powerful tools in vaccine development. Specifically, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have revolutionized the delivery of mRNA vaccines by protecting the fragile mRNA molecules and facilitating their efficient uptake by cells. This review discusses the various types of nanoparticles employed in mRNA vaccine formulations, including lipid-based, polymer-based, and inorganic nanoparticles, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Moreover, it explores the mechanisms by which nanoparticles improve immune responses, such as enhanced antigen presentation and the prolonged release of mRNA. This review also addresses the challenges and future directions in nanoparticle-based vaccine development, emphasizing the need for further research to optimize formulations for broader applications. By providing an in-depth analysis of the current advancements in and potential of nanoparticles in mRNA vaccines, this review aims to shed light on their critical role in combating infectious diseases and improving public health outcomes.

Advances in Nonviral mRNA Delivery Materials and Their Application as Vaccines for Melanoma Therapy

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines are promising platforms for cancer immunotherapy because of their potential to encode for a variety of tumor antigens, high tolerability, and capacity to induce strong antitumor immune responses. However, the clinical translation of mRNA cancer vaccines can be hindered by the inefficient delivery of mRNA in vivo. In this review, we provide an overview of mRNA cancer vaccines by discussing their utility in treating melanoma. Specifically, we begin our review by describing the barriers that can impede mRNA delivery to target cells. We then review native mRNA structure and discuss various modification methods shown to enhance mRNA stability and transfection. Next, we outline the advantages and challenges of three nonviral carrier platforms (lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and lipopolyplexes) frequently used for mRNA delivery. Last, we summarize preclinical and clinical studies that have investigated nonviral mRNA vaccines for the treatment of melanoma. In writing this review, we aim to highlight innovative nonviral strategies designed to address mRNA delivery challenges while emphasizing the exciting potential of mRNA vaccines as next-generation therapies for the treatment of cancers.

Lipid- and Polymer-Based Nanocarrier Platforms for Cancer Vaccine Delivery

Cancer immunotherapy has gained popularity in recent years in the search for effective treatment modalities for various malignancies, particularly those that are resistant to conventional chemo- and radiation therapy. Cancer vaccines target the cancer-immunity cycle by boosting the patient's own immune system to recognize and kill cancer cells, thus serving as both preventative and curative therapeutic tools. Among the different types of cancer vaccines, those based on nanotechnology have shown great promise in advancing the field of cancer immunotherapy. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have become the most advanced platforms for cancer vaccine delivery, but polymer-based NPs have also received considerable interest. This Review aims to provide an overview of the nanotechnology-enabled cancer vaccine landscape, focusing on recent advances in lipid- and polymer-based nanovaccines and their hybrid structures and discussing the challenges against the clinical translation of these important nanomedicines.

Nucleic Acid Delivery Nanotechnologies for In Vivo Cell Programming

In medicine, it is desirable for clinicians to be able to restore function and imbue novel function into selected cells for therapy and disease prevention. Cells damaged by disease, injury, or aging could be programmed to restore normal or lost functions, such as retinal cells in inherited blindness and neuronal cells in Alzheimer's disease. Cells could also be genetically programmed with novel functions such as immune cells expressing synthetic chimeric antigen receptors for immunotherapy. Furthermore, knockdown or modification of risk factor proteins can mitigate disease development. Currently, nucleic acids are emerging as a versatile and potent therapeutic modality for achieving this cellular programming. In this review, we highlight the latest developments in nanobiomaterials-based nucleic acid therapeutics for cellular programming from a biomaterial design and delivery perspective and how to overcome barriers to their clinical translation to benefit patients.

Nucleic Acid Armor: Fortifying RNA Therapeutics through Delivery and Targeting Innovations for Immunotherapy

RNA is a promising nucleic acid-based biomolecule for various treatments because of its high efficacy, low toxicity, and the tremendous availability of targeting sequences. Nevertheless, RNA shows instability and has a short half-life in physiological environments such as the bloodstream in the presence of RNAase. Therefore, developing reliable delivery strategies is important for targeting disease sites and maximizing the therapeutic effect of RNA drugs, particularly in the field of immunotherapy. In this mini-review, we highlight two major approaches: (1) delivery vehicles and (2) chemical modifications. Recent advances in delivery vehicles employ nanotechnologies such as lipid-based nanoparticles, viral vectors, and inorganic nanocarriers to precisely target specific cell types to facilitate RNA cellular entry. On the other hand, chemical modification utilizes the alteration of RNA structures via the addition of covalent bonds such as N-acetylgalactosamine or antibodies (antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates) to target specific receptors of cells. The pros and cons of these technologies are enlisted in this review. We aim to review nucleic acid drugs, their delivery systems, targeting strategies, and related chemical modifications. Finally, we express our perspective on the potential combination of RNA-based click chemistry with adoptive cell therapy (e.g., B cells or T cells) to address the issues of short duration and short half-life associated with antibody-oligonucleotide conjugate drugs.

Cationic Serine-Based Gemini Surfactant:Monoolein Aggregates as Viable and Efficacious Agents for DNA Complexation and Compaction: A Cytotoxicity and Physicochemical Assessment

Cationic gemini surfactants have emerged as potential gene delivery agents as they can co-assemble with DNA due to a strong electrostatic association. Commonly, DNA complexation is enhanced by the inclusion of a helper lipid (HL), which also plays a key role in transfection efficiency. The formation of lipoplexes, used as non-viral vectors for transfection, through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions is affected by various physicochemical parameters, such as cationic surfactant:HL molar ratio, (+/-) charge ratio, and the morphological structure of the lipoplexes. Herein, we investigated the DNA complexation ability of mixtures of serine-based gemini surfactants, (nSer)2N5, and monoolein (MO) as a helper lipid. The micelle-forming serine surfactants contain long lipophilic chains (12 to 18 C atoms) and a five CH2 spacer, both linked to the nitrogen atoms of the serine residues by amine linkages. The (nSer)2N5:MO aggregates are non-cytotoxic up to 35-90 µM, depending on surfactant and surfactant/MO mixing ratio, and in general, higher MO content and longer surfactant chain length tend to promote higher cell viability. All systems efficaciously complex DNA, but the (18Ser)2N5:MO one clearly stands as the best-performing one. Incorporating MO into the serine surfactant system affects the morphology and size distribution of the formed mixed aggregates. In the low concentration regime, gemini-MO systems aggregate in the form of vesicles, while at high concentrations the formation of a lamellar liquid crystalline phase is observed. This suggests that lipoplexes might share a similar bilayer-based structure.

Optimized microfluidic formulation and organic excipients for improved lipid nanoparticle mediated genome editing

mRNA-based gene editing platforms have tremendous promise in the treatment of genetic diseases. However, for this potential to be realized in vivo, these nucleic acid cargos must be delivered safely and effectively to cells of interest. Ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), the most clinically advanced non-viral RNA delivery system, have been well-studied for the delivery of mRNA but have not been systematically optimized for the delivery of mRNA-based CRISPR-Cas9 platforms. In this study, we investigated the effect of microfluidic and lipid excipient parameters on LNP gene editing efficacy. Through in vitro screening in liver cells, we discovered distinct trends in delivery based on phospholipid, cholesterol, and lipid-PEG structure in LNP formulations. Combination of top-performing lipid excipients produced an LNP formulation that resulted in 3-fold greater gene editing in vitro and facilitated 3-fold greater reduction of a therapeutically-relevant protein in vivo relative to the unoptimized LNP formulation. Thus, systematic optimization of LNP formulation parameters revealed a novel LNP formulation that has strong potential for delivery of gene editors to the liver to treat metabolic disease.

RNA therapeutics to control fibrinolysis: review on applications in biology and medicine

Regulation of fibrinolysis, the process that degrades blood clots, is pivotal in maintaining hemostasis. Dysregulation leads to thrombosis or excessive bleeding. Proteins in the fibrinolysis system include fibrinogen, coagulation factor XIII, plasminogen, tissue plasminogen activator, urokinase plasminogen activator, α2-antiplasmin, thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, α2-macroglobulin, and others. While each of these is a potential therapeutic target for diseases, they lack effective or long-acting inhibitors. Rapid advances in RNA-based technologies are creating powerful tools to control the expression of proteins. RNA agents can be long-acting and tailored to either decrease or increase production of a specific protein. Advances in nucleic acid delivery, such as by lipid nanoparticles, have enabled the delivery of RNA to the liver, where most proteins of coagulation and fibrinolysis are produced. This review will summarize the classes of RNA that induce 1) inhibition of protein synthesis, including small interfering RNA and antisense oligonucleotides; 2) protein expression, including messenger RNA and self-amplifying RNA; and 3) gene editing for gene knockdown and precise editing. It will review specific examples of RNA therapies targeting proteins in the coagulation and fibrinolysis systems and comment on the wide range of opportunities for controlling fibrinolysis for biological applications and future therapeutics using state-of-the-art RNA therapies.

Delivery of nucleic acid based genome editing platforms via lipid nanoparticles: Clinical applications

CRISPR/Cas technology presents a promising approach for treating a wide range of diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders. Despite its potential, the translation of CRISPR/Cas into effective in-vivo gene therapy encounters challenges, primarily due to the need for safe and efficient delivery mechanisms. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), FDA-approved for RNA delivery, show potential for delivering also CRISPR/Cas, offering the capability to efficiently encapsulate large mRNA molecules with single guide RNAs. However, achieving precise targeting in-vivo remains a significant obstacle, necessitating further research into optimizing LNP formulations. Strategies to enhance specificity, such as modifying LNP structures and incorporating targeting ligands, are explored to improve organ and cell type targeting. Furthermore, the development of base and prime editing technology presents a potential breakthrough, offering precise modifications without generating double-strand breaks (DSBs). Prime editing, particularly when delivered via targeted LNPs, holds promise for treating diverse diseases safely and precisely. This review assesses both the progress made and the persistent challenges faced in using LNP-encapsulated CRISPR-based technologies for therapeutic purposes, with a particular focus on clinical translation.

Beyond Lipids: Exploring Advances in Polymeric Gene Delivery in the Lipid Nanoparticles Era

The recent success of gene therapy during the COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of effective and safe delivery systems. Complementing lipid-based delivery systems, polymers present a promising alternative for gene delivery. Significant advances have been made in the recent past, with multiple clinical trials progressing beyond phase I and several companies actively working on polymeric delivery systems which provides assurance that polymeric carriers can soon achieve clinical translation. The massive advantage of structural tunability and vast chemical space of polymers is being actively leveraged to mitigate shortcomings of traditional polycationic polymers and improve the translatability of delivery systems. Tailored polymeric approaches for diverse nucleic acids and for specific subcellular targets are now being designed to improve therapeutic efficacy. This review describes the recent advances in polymer design for improved gene delivery by polyplexes and covalent polymer-nucleic acid conjugates. The review also offers a brief note on novel computational techniques for improved polymer design. The review concludes with an overview of the current state of polymeric gene therapies in the clinic as well as future directions on their translation to the clinic.

Cancer Nanovaccines: Nanomaterials and Clinical Perspectives

Cancer nanovaccines represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, utilizing nanotechnology to augment traditional vaccine efficacy. This review comprehensively examines the current state-of-the-art in cancer nanovaccine development, elucidating innovative strategies and technologies employed in their design. It explores both preclinical and clinical advancements, emphasizing key studies demonstrating their potential to elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses. The study encompasses various facets, including integrating biomaterial-based nanocarriers for antigen delivery, adjuvant selection, and the impact of nanoscale properties on vaccine performance. Detailed insights into the complex interplay between the tumor microenvironment and nanovaccine responses are provided, highlighting challenges and opportunities in optimizing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, the study presents a thorough analysis of ongoing clinical trials, presenting a snapshot of the current clinical landscape. By curating the latest scientific findings and clinical developments, this study aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians engaged in advancing cancer immunotherapy. Integrating nanotechnology into vaccine design holds immense promise for revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms, and this review provides a timely update on the evolving landscape of cancer nanovaccines.

Latest Delivery Advancements of Lipid Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment

As one of the primary causes of illness and death globally, cancer demands novel and potent treatment approaches, which is why lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have gained attention as a promising delivery system for anticancer drugs with precision and efficacy. The article discusses the salient characteristics of LNPs, such as the lipid components, particle size, polydispersity index, and encapsulation efficiency, followed by strategies that enhance their remarkable drug delivery capabilities. The articles explore LNPs ability to improve the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of various chemotherapeutics, nucleic acids, and immunotherapeutic modalities. It also highlights the recent advancement in surface modification of LNPs, which is essential to improve their effectiveness. Tailored coatings of LNPs improve targeting precision, stability, and biocompatibility; enhancing their transport to boost therapeutic efficacy for cancer targeting. The review summarizes the recent advancements made in using LNPs to treat different forms of cancer and focuses on the most recent clinical studies. Overall, the review highlights that the LNPs can target and treat cancer in a tailored manner through gene therapy, RNA interference, and immunotherapy.

Targeting pentamidine towards CD44-overexpressing cells using hyaluronated lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles

Biodegradable nanocarriers possess enormous potential for use as drug delivery systems that can accomplish controlled and targeted drug release, and a wide range of nanosystems have been reported for the treatment and/or diagnosis of various diseases and disorders. Of the various nanocarriers currently available, liposomes and polymer nanoparticles have been extensively studied and some formulations have already reached the market. However, a combination of properties to create a single hybrid system can give these carriers significant advantages, such as improvement in encapsulation efficacy, higher stability, and active targeting towards specific cells or tissues, over lipid or polymer-based platforms. To this aim, this work presents the formulation of poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles in the presence of a hyaluronic acid (HA)-phospholipid conjugate (HA-DPPE), which was used to anchor HA onto the nanoparticle surface and therefore create an actively targeted hybrid nanosystem. Furthermore, ionic interactions have been proposed for drug encapsulation, leading us to select the free base form of pentamidine (PTM-B) as the model drug. We herein report the preparation of hybrid nanocarriers that were loaded via ion-pairing between the negatively charged PLGA and HA and the positively charged PTM-B, demonstrating an improved loading capacity compared to PLGA-based nanoparticles. The nanocarriers displayed a size of below 150 nm, a negative zeta potential of -35 mV, a core-shell internal arrangement and high encapsulation efficiency (90%). Finally, the ability to be taken up and exert preferential and receptor-mediated cytotoxicity on cancer cells that overexpress the HA specific receptor (CD44) has been evaluated. Competition assays supported the hypothesis that PLGA/HA-DPPE nanoparticles deliver their cargo within cells in a CD44-dependent manner.

Strategies and mechanisms for endosomal escape of therapeutic nucleic acids

Despite impressive recent establishment of therapeutic nucleic acids as drugs and vaccines, their broader medical use is impaired by modest performance in intracellular delivery. Inefficient endosomal escape presents a major limitation responsible for inadequate cytosolic cargo release. Depending on the carrier, this endosomal barrier can strongly limit or even abolish nucleic acid delivery. Different recent endosomal escape strategies and their hypothesized mechanisms are reviewed.

Non-coding RNAs as therapeutic targets and biomarkers in ischaemic heart disease

The adult heart is a complex, multicellular organ that is subjected to a series of regulatory stimuli and circuits and has poor reparative potential. Despite progress in our understanding of disease mechanisms and in the quality of health care, ischaemic heart disease remains the leading cause of death globally, owing to adverse cardiac remodelling, leading to ischaemic cardiomyopathy and heart failure. Therapeutic targets are urgently required for the protection and repair of the ischaemic heart. Moreover, personalized clinical biomarkers are necessary for clinical diagnosis, medical management and to inform the individual response to treatment. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) deeply influence cardiovascular functions and contribute to communication between cells in the cardiac microenvironment and between the heart and other organs. As such, ncRNAs are candidates for translation into clinical practice. However, ncRNA biology has not yet been completely deciphered, given that classes and modes of action have emerged only in the past 5 years. In this Review, we discuss the latest discoveries from basic research on ncRNAs and highlight both the clinical value and the challenges underscoring the translation of these molecules as biomarkers and therapeutic regulators of the processes contributing to the initiation, progression and potentially the prevention or resolution of ischaemic heart disease and heart failure.

Advances in microscopy characterization techniques for lipid nanocarriers in drug delivery: a comprehensive review

This review paper provides an in-depth analysis of the significance of lipid nanocarriers in drug delivery and the crucial role of characterization techniques. It explores various types of lipid nanocarriers and their applications, emphasizing the importance of microscopy-based characterization methods such as light microscopy, confocal microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The paper also delves into sample preparation, quantitative analysis, challenges, and future directions in the field. The review concludes by underlining the pivotal role of microscopy-based characterization in advancing lipid nanocarrier research and drug delivery technologies.

Lipid Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 Against Rubicon Ameliorates NAFLD by Modulating CD36 Along with Glycerophospholipid Metabolism

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a prominent cause of various chronic metabolic hepatic diseases with limited therapeutics. Rubicon, an essential regulator in lysosomal degradation, is reported to exacerbate hepatic steatosis in NAFLD mice and patients, indicating its probability of being a therapeutic target for NAFLD treatment. In this study, the therapeutic potential of Rubicon blockage is investigated. Lipid nanoparticles carrying Rubicon-specific CRISPR-Cas9 components exhibited liver accumulation, cell internalization, and Rubicon knockdown. A single administration of the nanoparticles results in attenuated lipid deposition and hepatic steatosis, with lower circulating lipid levels and decreased adipocyte size in NAFLD mice. Furthermore, the increase of phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine levels can be observed in the NAFLD mice livers after Rubicon silencing, along with regulatory effects on metabolism-related genes such as CD36, Gpcpd1, Chka, and Lpin2. The results indicate that knockdown of Rubicon improves glycerophospholipid metabolism and thereby ameliorates the NAFLD progression, which provides a potential strategy for NAFLD therapy via the restoration of Rubicon.

Advanced gene therapy system for the treatment of solid tumour: A review

In contrast to conventional therapies that require repeated dosing, gene therapy can treat diseases by correcting defective genes after a single transfection and achieving cascade amplification, and has been widely studied in clinical settings. However, nucleic acid drugs are prone to catabolism and inactivation. A variety of nucleic acid drug vectors have been developed to protect the target gene against nuclease degradation and increase the transformation efficiency and safety of gene therapy. In addition, gene therapy is often combined with chemotherapy, phototherapy, magnetic therapy, ultrasound, and other therapeutic modalities to improve the therapeutic effect. This review systematically introduces ribonucleic acid (RNA) interference technology, antisense oligonucleotides, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat/CRISPR-associated nuclease 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) genome editing. It also introduces the commonly used nucleic acid drug vectors, including viral vectors (adenovirus, retrovirus, etc.), organic vectors (lipids, polymers, etc.), and inorganic vectors (MOFs, carbon nanotubes, mesoporous silica, etc.). Then, we describe the combined gene therapy modalities and the pathways of action and report the recent applications in solid tumors of the combined gene therapy. Finally, the challenges of gene therapy in solid tumor treatment are introduced, and the prospect of application in this field is presented.

Plasma EV-miRNAs as Potential Biomarkers of COVID-19 Vaccine Immune Response in Cancer Patients

Cancer patients, prone to severe COVID-19, face immune challenges due to their disease and treatments. Identifying biomarkers, particularly extracellular vesicle (EV)-derived microRNAs (miRNAs), is vital for comprehending their response to COVID-19 vaccination. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate specific EV-miRNAs in the plasma of cancer patients under active treatment who received the COVID-19 booster vaccine. The selected miRNAs (EV-hsa-miR-7-5p, EV-hsa-miR-15b-5p, EV-hsa-miR-24-3p, EV-hsa-miR-145- 5p, and EV-hsa-miR-223-3p) are involved in regulating SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and cytokine release, making them potential biomarkers for vaccination response. The study involved 54 cancer patients. Plasma and serum samples were collected at pre-boost vaccination, and at 3 and 6 months post-boost vaccination. Anti-spike antibody levels were measured. Additionally, RNA was extracted from EVs isolated from plasma and the expression levels of miRNAs were assessed. The results showed a significantly positive antibody response after COVID-19 boost vaccination. The expression levels of EV-hsa-miR-7-5p, EV-hsa-miR-15b-5p, EV-hsa-miR-24-3p, and EV-hsa-miR-223-3p increased significantly after 6 months of COVID-19 booster vaccination. Interestingly, an increased expression of certain EV-hsa-miRNAs was positively correlated. Bioinformatic analysis revealed that these correlated miRNAs play a critical role in regulating the targets present in antiviral responses and cytokine production. These findings suggest that EV-hsa-miR-15b-5p, EV-hsa-miR-24-3p, and EV-hsa-miR-223-3p may be crucial in immune response induced by mRNA vaccines.

AGILE platform: a deep learning powered approach to accelerate LNP development for mRNA delivery

Ionizable lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are seeing widespread use in mRNA delivery, notably in SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines. However, the expansion of mRNA therapies beyond COVID-19 is impeded by the absence of LNPs tailored for diverse cell types. In this study, we present the AI-Guided Ionizable Lipid Engineering (AGILE) platform, a synergistic combination of deep learning and combinatorial chemistry. AGILE streamlines ionizable lipid development with efficient library design, in silico lipid screening via deep neural networks, and adaptability to diverse cell lines. Using AGILE, we rapidly design, synthesize, and evaluate ionizable lipids for mRNA delivery, selecting from a vast library. Intriguingly, AGILE reveals cell-specific preferences for ionizable lipids, indicating tailoring for optimal delivery to varying cell types. These highlight AGILE's potential in expediting the development of customized LNPs, addressing the complex needs of mRNA delivery in clinical practice, thereby broadening the scope and efficacy of mRNA therapies.

Non-coding RNA therapeutics in the treatment of heart failure

Non-coding RNA (ncRNA) therapeutics can target either ncRNAs or conventional messenger RNA, offering both superior pharmacokinetics and selectivity to conventional therapies and addressing new, previously unexplored pathways. Although no ncRNA has yet been approved for the treatment of heart failure, in this review we present five most promising pathways and agents that either are in human clinical trials or offer great promise in the near future.

Nucleic acid-based nanotherapeutics for treating sepsis and associated organ injuries

In recent years, gene therapy has been made possible with the success of nucleic acid drugs against sepsis and its related organ dysfunction. Therapeutics based on nucleic acids such as small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), messenger RNAs (mRNAs), and plasmid DNAs (pDNAs) guarantee to treat previously undruggable diseases. The advantage of nucleic acid-based therapy against sepsis lies in the development of nanocarriers, achieving targeted and controlled gene delivery for improved efficacy with minimal adverse effects. Entrapment into nanocarriers also ameliorates the poor cellular uptake of naked nucleic acids. In this study, we discuss the current state of the art in nanoparticles for nucleic acid delivery to treat hyperinflammation and apoptosis associated with sepsis. The optimized design of the nanoparticles through physicochemical property modification and ligand conjugation can target specific organs-such as lung, heart, kidney, and liver-to mitigate multiple sepsis-associated organ injuries. This review highlights the nanomaterials designed for fabricating the anti-sepsis nanosystems, their physicochemical characterization, the mechanisms of nucleic acid-based therapy in working against sepsis, and the potential for promoting the therapeutic efficiency of the nucleic acids. The current investigations associated with nanoparticulate nucleic acid application in sepsis management are summarized in this paper. Noteworthily, the potential application of nanotherapeutic nucleic acids allows for a novel strategy to treat sepsis. Further clinical studies are required to confirm the findings in cell- and animal-based experiments. The capability of large-scale production and reproducibility of nanoparticle products are also critical for commercialization. It is expected that numerous anti-sepsis possibilities will be investigated for nucleic acid-based nanotherapeutics in the future.

Functionally Designed Nanovaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and Its Variants

COVID-19, generated by SARS-CoV-2, has significantly affected healthcare systems worldwide. The epidemic has highlighted the urgent need for vaccine development. Besides the conventional vaccination models, which include live-attenuated, recombinant protein, and inactivated vaccines, nanovaccines present a distinct opportunity to progress vaccine research and offer convenient alternatives. This review highlights the many widely used nanoparticle vaccine vectors, outlines their benefits and drawbacks, and examines recent developments in nanoparticle vaccines to prevent SARS-CoV-2. It also offers a thorough overview of the many advantages of nanoparticle vaccines, including an enhanced host immune response, multivalent antigen delivery, and efficient drug delivery. The main objective is to provide a reference for the development of innovative antiviral vaccines.

Stimulus-Responsive Nanodelivery and Release Systems for Cancer Gene Therapy: Efficacy Improvement Strategies

Introduction of exogenous genes into target cells to overcome various tumor diseases caused by genetic defects or abnormalities and gene therapy, a new treatment method, provides a promising strategy for tumor treatment. Over the past decade, gene therapy has made exciting progress; however, it still faces the challenge of low nucleic acid delivery and release efficiencies. The emergence of nonviral vectors, primarily nanodelivery and release systems (NDRS), has resulted in a historic breakthrough in the application of gene therapy. NDRS, especially stimulus-responsive NDRS that can respond in a timely manner to changes in the internal and external microenvironment (eg, low pH, high concentration of glutathione/reactive oxygen species, overexpressed enzymes, temperature, light, ultrasound, and magnetic field), has shown excellent loading and release advantages in the precision and efficiency of tumor gene therapy and has been widely applied. The only disadvantage is that poor transfection efficiency limits the in-depth application of gene therapy in clinical practice, owing to the presence of biological barriers in the body. Therefore, this review first introduces the development history of gene therapy, the current obstacles faced by gene delivery, strategies to overcome these obstacles, and conventional vectors, and then focuses on the latest research progress in various stimulus-responsive NDRS for improving gene delivery efficiency. Finally, the future challenges and prospects that stimulus-responsive NDRS may face in clinical application and transformation are discussed to provide references for enhancing in-depth research on tumor gene therapy.

Bacteria extracellular vesicle as nanopharmaceuticals for versatile biomedical potential

Bacteria extracellular vesicles (BEVs), characterized as the lipid bilayer membrane-surrounded nanoparticles filled with molecular cargo from parent cells, play fundamental roles in the bacteria growth and pathogenesis, as well as facilitating essential interaction between bacteria and host systems. Notably, benefiting from their unique biological functions, BEVs hold great promise as novel nanopharmaceuticals for diverse biomedical potential, attracting significant interest from both industry and academia. Typically, BEVs are evaluated as promising drug delivery platforms, on account of their intrinsic cell-targeting capability, ease of versatile cargo engineering, and capability to penetrate physiological barriers. Moreover, attributing to considerable intrinsic immunogenicity, BEVs are able to interact with the host immune system to boost immunotherapy as the novel nanovaccine against a wide range of diseases. Towards these significant directions, in this review, we elucidate the nature of BEVs and their role in activating host immune response for a better understanding of BEV-based nanopharmaceuticals' development. Additionally, we also systematically summarize recent advances in BEVs for achieving the target delivery of genetic material, therapeutic agents, and functional materials. Furthermore, vaccination strategies using BEVs are carefully covered, illustrating their flexible therapeutic potential in combating bacterial infections, viral infections, and cancer. Finally, the current hurdles and further outlook of these BEV-based nanopharmaceuticals will also be provided.

Engineering Synthetic Erythrocytes as Next-Generation Blood Substitutes

Blood scarcity is one of the main causes of healthcare disruptions worldwide, with blood shortages occurring at an alarming rate. Over the last decades, blood substitutes has aimed at reinforcing the supply of blood, with several products (e.g., hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers, perfluorocarbons) achieving a limited degree of success. Regardless, there is still no widespread solution to this problem due to persistent challenges in product safety and scalability. In this Review, we describe different advances in the field of blood substitution, particularly in the development of artificial red blood cells, otherwise known as engineered erythrocytes. We categorize the different strategies into natural, synthetic, or hybrid approaches, and discuss their potential in terms of safety and scalability. We identify synthetic engineered erythrocytes as the most powerful approach, and describe erythrocytes from a materials engineering perspective. We review their biological structure and function, as well as explore different methods of assembling a material-based cell. Specifically, we discuss how to recreate size, shape, and deformability through particle fabrication, and how to recreate the functional machinery through synthetic biology and nanotechnology. We conclude by describing the versatile nature of synthetic erythrocytes in medicine and pharmaceuticals and propose specific directions for the field of erythrocyte engineering.

Tailored Monoacyl Poly(2-oxazoline)- and Poly(2-oxazine)-Lipids as PEG-Lipid Alternatives for Stabilization and Delivery of mRNA-Lipid Nanoparticles

The successful use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for clinical development of the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines marked a breakthrough in mRNA-LNP therapeutics. As one of the vital components of LNPs, poly(ethylene glycol)-lipid conjugates (PEG-lipids) influence particle biophysical properties and stability, as well as interactions within biological environments. Reports suggesting that anti-PEG antibodies can be detected quite commonly within the human population raise concerns that PEG content in commercial LNP products could further stimulate immune responses to PEG. The presence of anti-PEG antibodies has been linked to accelerated clearance of LNPs, potentially a source of variability in the biological response to mRNA-LNP products. This motivated us to explore potential PEG alternatives. Herein, we report physicochemical and biological properties of mRNA-LNPs assembled using poly(2-oxazoline) (POx)- and poly(2-oxazine) (POz)-based polymer-lipid conjugates. Notably, we investigated monoacyl lipids as alternatives to diacyl lipids. mRNA-LNPs produced using monoacyl POx/POz-lipids displayed comparable biophysical characteristics and cytocompatibility. Delivery of reporter mRNA resulted in similar transfection efficiencies, in both adherent and suspension cells, and in mice, compared to PEG-lipid equivalents. Our results suggest that monoacyl POx/POz-lipid-containing LNPs are promising candidates for the development of PEG-free LNP-based therapeutic products.