Nonionic surfactant vesicular systems for effective drug delivery—an overview

Optimization and Transfollicular Delivery of Finasteride-Loaded Proniosomes for Hair Growth Stimulation in C57BL/6Mlac Mice

The study aimed to develop the finasteride-loaded proniosome (FLP) to enhance the transfollicular delivery of finasteride (FN). The response surface methodology (RSM) combined with central composite design (CCD) with three independent variables (FN concentrations, total lipid content, and cholesterol content) was used to optimize the FLP preparation. The particles size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and drug loading capacity of the FLP were analyzed. The transfollicular delivery of the optimum formulation was investigated in vitro. In vivo hair growth stimulation study was performed on C57BL/6Mlac mice dorsal areas. The Draize primary skin irritation test for erythema and edema was performed in the New Zealand white rabbit skin. The optimum FLP consists of 5.0 mM of FN, 10.1 mM of total lipid content, and 50.0% of the cholesterol in the total lipid. The prepared proniosome delivered the FN significantly (p < 0.05), compared to the naked finasteride solution in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The FLP treatment significantly increases the number and size of hair follicles in a dose-dependent manner. The efficiency of 1% FLP was comparable to the 2% minoxidil solution. The FLP exhibited no skin irritation after 72 h. Therefore, the results demonstrated that the FLP could stimulate hair growth via a transfollicular delivery system.

Nanoarchitectonics of Multifunctional Niosomes for Advanced Drug Delivery

Niosomes are a type of vesicular nanocarrier exploited for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of various drugs in clinical practice. Niosomes comprise a bilayer hydrophobic membrane enclosing a central cavity filled with an aqueous phase, and therefore, they can encapsulate and deliver both hydrophobic and hydrophilic substances. Niosomal nanocarriers are preferred over other bilayer structures such as liposomes due to their chemical stability, biodegradability, biocompatibility, low production cost, low toxicity, and easy storage and handling. In addition, the niosomal membrane can be easy modified by the inclusion of ligands or stimulus-sensitive segments for achieving targeted delivery and triggered release of the encapsulated cargo. This mini-review outlines the current advances in designing functional niosomes and their use as platforms for developing advanced drug and gene delivery systems.

Preparation and evaluation of crocin loaded in nanoniosomes and their effects on ischemia-reperfusion injuries in rat kidney

As a powerful antioxidant compound, crocin can partially protect against renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injuries. The encapsulation of components in niosomes (non-ionic surfactant-based vesicle) as nano-sized carrier systems has been proposed as they improve the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of drugs. Herein, the encapsulation of crocin in nano-niosomes and the effects of crocin-loaded nano-niosomes on renal ischemia/reperfusion-induced damages were evaluated. Nano-niosomes containing crocin were formulated by a modified heating method and were characterized for their physicochemical characteristics. Ischemia was induced by clamping the renal artery for 30 min followed by 1 or 24 h of reperfusion. Rats received an intra-arterial injection of nano-niosome-loaded crocin at the outset of reperfusion. Blood samples were taken after reperfusion to measure urea, creatinine (Cr), malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. The right kidney was removed for histological examination. The results showed that crocin-contain nano-niosomes have appropriate size and morphology, acceptable encapsulation efficiency, and a proper release pattern of crocin. I/R enhanced creatinine (Cr), urea, and malondialdehyde (MDA) serum levels and reduced SOD activity and histological damages in the renal tissue.

Potentiality of Melittin-Loaded Niosomal Vesicles Against Vancomycin-Intermediate Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcal Skin Infection

Background

Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen, especially causing skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs). Over the decades, the infections caused by antibiotic-resistant strains have often become life-threatening. Consequently, exploration and development of competent approaches to combat these serious circumstances are urgently required.

Methods

The antibacterial activity of melittin (Mel) on S. aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and clinical isolates of vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) was investigated by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and time-killing assays. The localization of Mel on the bacterial cell was visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy and its effect on the membrane was indicated based on propidium iodide uptake. The non-ionic surfactant vesicle (NISV) or niosome nanocarrier was established for Mel loading (Mel-loaded NISV) by the thin-film hydration method. Physicochemical and in vitro biological properties of Mel-loaded NISVs were characterized. The cellular uptake of Mel-loaded NISVs was evaluated by holotomography analysis. In addition, an ex vivo study was conducted on a porcine ear skin model to assess the permeation ability of Mel-loaded NISVs and their potential to inhibit bacterial skin infection.

Results

The effective inhibitory activity of Mel on skin pathogens was demonstrated. Among the tested strains, VISA was most susceptible to Mel. Regarding to its function, Mel targeted the bacterial cell envelope and disrupted cell membrane integrity. Mel-loaded NISVs were successfully fabricated with a nano-size of 120-200 nm and entrapment efficiency of greater than 90%. Moreover, Mel-loaded NISVs were taken up and accumulated in the intracellular space. Meanwhile, Mel was released and distributed throughout the cytosol and nucleus. Mel-loaded NISVs efficiently inhibited the growth of bacteria, particularly MRSA and VISA. Importantly, they not only penetrated epidermal and dermal skin layers, but also reduced the bacterial growth in infected skin.

Conclusion

Mel-loaded NISVs have a great potential to exhibit antibacterial activity. Therapeutic application of Mel-loaded NISVs could be further developed as an alternative platform for the treatment of skin infection via dermal and transdermal delivery.

Development of niosomes for encapsulating captopril-quercetin prodrug to combat hypertension

Novel and effective anti-hypertensive agents are required to manage hypertension; therefore, we synthesised a novel antihypertensive drug from captopril and quercetin (cap-que) and explored its antihypertensive potential in a niosomal formulation via molecular hybridisation. The cap-que hybrid was synthesised, and its structure was characterised via NMR, FTIR, and HRMS. Niosomes were then loaded with cap-que using the thin-film hydration method. The particle size, polydispersity index, surface charge and drug entrapment efficiency (EE%) of the formulation were 418.8 ± 4.21 nm, 0.393 ± 0.063, 16.25 ± 0.21 mV, and 87.74 ± 2.82%, respectively. The drug release profile showed a sustained release of the active compound (43 ± 0.09%) from the niosomal formulation, compared to the parent drug (80.7 ± 4.68%), over 24 h. The cell viability study confirmed the biosafety of the formulation. The in vivo study in a rat model showed enhanced antihypertensive activity of the hybrid molecule and niosomal formulation which reduced systolic and diastolic pressure when compared to the individual, bare drugs. The findings of this study concluded that the antihypertensive potential of captopril can be enhanced by its hybridisation with quercetin, followed by niosomal nano drug delivery.

In Silico Drug Screening Based Development of Novel Formulations for Onychomycosis Management

Onychomycosis is a prominent fungal infection that causes discoloration, thickening, and mutilation leading to the separation of the nail from the nail bed. Treatment modalities for onychomycosis may include oral, topical, or combination therapy with antifungals and at times may require chemical or surgical intervention. The burden of side effects of antifungals is enormous, and therefore using molecular docking-based drug selection in context with the target keratin protein would ensure better disease management. Ciclopirox, Amorolfine HCl, Efinaconazole, Tioconazole, and Tavaborole were submitted for assessment, revealing that Amorolfine HCl is the best fit. Consequently, two formulations (Nail lacquer and nanoemulgel) were developed from Amorolfine HCl to validate the in silico screening outcomes. The formulations were further fortified with over-the-counter ingredients vis-a-vis with vitamin E in nail lacquer and undecylenic acid in nanoemulgel for their prominent roles in improving nail health. Both the formulations were systematically designed, optimized, and characterized. Amorolfine HCl containing nanoemulgel (NEG) was developed using undecylenic acid as an oil phase and thioglycolic acid as a penetration enhancer. The quality parameters evaluated were particle size, the zeta potential for nanoemulsion (NE) (78.04 ± 4.724 nm and −0.7mV, respectively), in vitro cumulative drug release (96.74% for NE and 88.54% for NEG), and transungual permeation (about 73.49% for NEG and 54.81% for NE). Nail lacquer was evaluated for the drying time, non-volatile content, and blush test. In vitro cumulative drug release of the developed nail lacquer and comparator marketed formulations were around 81.5% and 75%, respectively. Similarly, the transungual drug permeation was 6.32 μg/cm² and 5.89 μg/cm², respectively, in 24 h. The in silico guided preparation of both formulations containing Amorolfine HCl and over the counter ingredients is amenable for therapeutic use against onychomycosis and will be evaluated in the in vivo model.

Streptomycin Sulfate-Loaded Niosomes Enables Increased Antimicrobial and Anti-Biofilm Activities

One of the antibiotics used to treat infections is streptomycin sulfate that inhibits both Gram-negative and -positive bacteria. Nanoparticles are suitable carriers for the direct delivery and release of drug agents to infected locations. Niosomes are one of the new drug delivery systems that have received much attention today due to their excellent biofilm penetration property and controlled release. In this study, niosomes containing streptomycin sulfate were prepared by using the thin layer hydration method and optimized based on the size, polydispersity index (PDI), and encapsulation efficiency (EE%) characteristics. It was found that the Span 60-to-Tween 60 ratio of 1.5 and the surfactant-to-cholesterol ratio of 1.02 led to an optimum formulation with a minimum of size, low PDI, and maximum of EE of 97.8 nm, 0.27, and 86.7%, respectively. The drug release investigation showed that 50.0 ± 1.2% of streptomycin sulfate was released from the niosome in 24 h and reached 66.4 ± 1.3% by the end of 72 h. Two-month stability studies at 25° and 4°C showed more acceptable stability of samples kept at 4°C. Consequently, antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities of streptomycin sulfate-loaded niosomes against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were found significantly higher than those of free drug, and the minimum inhibitory concentration values decreased 4- to 8-fold. Furthermore, niosome-encapsulated streptomycin up to 1,500 μg/ml exhibited negligible cytotoxicity against the human foreskin fibroblasts cell line, whereas the free drug exhibited slight cytotoxicity at this concentration. Desired physical characteristics and low toxicity of niosomal nano-carriers containing streptomycin sulfate made them a demanded candidate for the treatment of current bacterial infections and biofilms.

Functionalized niosomes as a smart delivery device in cancer and fungal infection

Various diseases remain untreated due to lack of suitable therapeutic moiety or a suitable drug delivery device, especially where toxicities and side effects are the primary reason for concern. Cancer and fungal infections are diseases where treatment schedules are not completed due to severe side effects or lengthy treatment protocols. Advanced treatment approaches such as active targeting and inhibition of angiogenesis may be preferred method for the treatment for malignancy over the conventional method. Niosomes may be a better alternative drug delivery carrier for various therapeutic moieties (either hydrophilic or hydrophobic) and also due to ease of surface modification, non-immunogenicity and economical. Active targeting approach may be done by targeting the receptors through coupling of suitable ligand on niosomal surface. Moreover, various receptors (CD44, folate, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) & Vascular growth factor receptor (VGFR)) expressed by malignant cells have also been reviewed. The preparation of suitable niosomal formulation also requires considerable attention, and its formulation depends upon various factors such as selection of non-ionic surfactant, method of fabrication, and fabrication parameters. A combination therapy (dual drug and immunotherapy) has been proposed for the treatment of fungal infection with special consideration for surface modification with suitable ligand on niosomal surface to sensitize the receptors (C-type lectin receptors, Toll-like receptors & Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors) present on immune cells involved in fungal immunity. Certain gene silencing concept has also been discussed as an advanced alternative treatment for cancer by silencing the mRNA at molecular level using short interfering RNA (si-RNA).

Protein and peptide delivery to lungs by using advanced targeted drug delivery

The challenges and difficulties associated with conventional drug delivery systems have led to the emergence of novel, advanced targeted drug delivery systems. Therapeutic drug delivery of proteins and peptides to the lungs is complicated owing to the large size and polar characteristics of the latter. Nevertheless, the pulmonary route has attracted great interest today among formulation scientists, as it has evolved into one of the important targeted drug delivery platforms for the delivery of peptides, and related compounds effectively to the lungs, primarily for the management and treatment of chronic lung diseases. In this review, we have discussed and summarized the current scenario and recent developments in targeted delivery of proteins and peptide-based drugs to the lungs. Moreover, we have also highlighted the advantages of pulmonary drug delivery over conventional drug delivery approaches for peptide-based drugs, in terms of efficacy, retention time and other important pharmacokinetic parameters. The review also highlights the future perspectives and the impact of targeted drug delivery on peptide-based drugs in the coming decade.

Predicting Critical Micelle Concentrations for Surfactants Using Graph Convolutional Neural Networks

Surfactants are amphiphilic molecules that are widely used in consumer products, industrial processes, and biological applications. A critical property of a surfactant is the critical micelle concentration (CMC), which is the concentration at which surfactant molecules undergo cooperative self-assembly in solution. Notably, the primary method to obtain CMCs experimentally-tensiometry-is laborious and expensive. In this study, we show that graph convolutional neural networks (GCNs) can predict CMCs directly from the surfactant molecular structure. In particular, we developed a GCN architecture that encodes the surfactant structure in the form of a molecular graph and trained it using experimental CMC data. We found that the GCN can predict CMCs with higher accuracy on a more inclusive data set than previously proposed methods and that it can generalize to anionic, cationic, zwitterionic, and nonionic surfactants using a single model. Molecular saliency maps revealed how atom types and surfactant molecular substructures contribute to CMCs and found this behavior to be in agreement with physical rules that correlate constitutional and topological information to CMCs. Following such rules, we proposed a small set of new surfactants for which experimental CMCs are not available; for these molecules, CMCs predicted with our GCN exhibited similar trends to those obtained from molecular simulations. These results provide evidence that GCNs can enable high-throughput screening of surfactants with desired self-assembly characteristics.

Evaluation of sonication on stability-indicating properties of optimized pilocarpine hydrochloride-loaded niosomes in ocular drug delivery

Niosomes are increasingly explored for enhancing drug penetration and retention in ocular tissues for both posterior and anterior eye delivery. They have been employed in encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, but their use is still plagued with challenges of stability and poor entrapment efficiency particularly with hydrophilic drugs. As a result, focus is on understanding the parameters that affect their stability and their optimization for improved results. Pilocarpine hydrochloride (HCl), a hydrophilic drug is used in the management of intraocular pressure in glaucoma. We aimed at optimizing pilocarpine HCl niosomes and evaluating the effect of sonication on its stability-indicating properties such as particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential and entrapment efficiency. Pilocarpine niosomes were prepared by ether injection method. Composition concentrations were varied and the effects of these variations on niosomal properties were evaluated. The effects of sonication on niosomes were determined by sonicating optimized drug-loaded formulations for 30 min and 60 min. Tween 60 was confirmed to be more suitable over Span 60 for encapsulating hydrophilic drugs, resulting in the highest entrapment efficiency (EE) and better polydispersity and particle size indices. Optimum sonication duration as a process variable was determined to be 30 min which increased EE from 24.5% to 42% and zeta potential from (-)14.39 ± 8.55 mV to (-)18.92 ± 7.53 mV. In addition to selecting the appropriate surfactants and varying product composition concentrations, optimizing sonication parameters can be used to fine-tune niosomal properties to those most desirable for extended eye retainment and maintenance of long term stability.

Celastrol Niosome Hydrogel Has Anti-Inflammatory Effect on Skin Keratinocytes and Circulation without Systemic Drug Exposure in Psoriasis Mice

Purpose

Psoriasis is an inflammatory skin disease, where keratinocytes play pivotal roles in its pathogenesis. We prepared Celastrol Noisome hydrogel (Cel Nio gel) for the treatment of psoriasis and aimed to study its target site as well as the mechanism.

Methods

Cel Nio was fabricated with thin-film hydration and sonication, then topically administered to imiquimod (IMQ)-induced psoriasis mice. The concentrations of Cel in the skin, blood and lymphatic system were determined using LC-MS. The anti-psoriasis effect of Cel Nio gel was studied, and the levels of inflammatory cytokines in blood were evaluated by flow cytometry. For the in vitro study, the uptake of Nio by HaCaT cells was quantified with flow cytometry, and the anti-inflammatory effect of Cel on HaCaT cells was detected with qPCR. The expressions of inflammatory factors and Ki-67 in skin were observed by immunofluorescence.

Results

Cel Nio possessed a particle size of 133 nm with encapsulation efficacy (EE%) of 83.2%. After topical administration of Cel Nio gel to mice, Cel was mainly accumulated in the skin instead of exposure in blood or lymphatic system, while the levels of inflammatory factors in blood had a significant decline. In addition, the preparation of Nio enhanced the uptake by HaCaT cells, and Cel obviously reduced the mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines in HaCaT cells. Moreover, Cel Nio gel significantly decreased the expression of inflammatory cytokines and Ki-67 in the skin.

Conclusion

Cel Nio gel achieved the anti-psoriatic effect by inhibiting the inflammation and hyperproliferation of keratinocytes in the skin and further suppressing the systemic inflammation, thus could be a novel topical drug delivery system to treat psoriasis with topical and systemic effects.

Glimepiride-Loaded Nanoemulgel; Development, In Vitro Characterization, Ex Vivo Permeation and In Vivo Antidiabetic Evaluation

Glimepiride (GMP), an oral hypoglycemic agent is extensively employed in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Transdermal delivery of GMP has been widely investigated as a promising alternative to an oral approach but the delivery of GMP is hindered owing to its low solubility and permeation. The present study was designed to formulate topical nanoemulgel GMP system and previously reported solubility enhanced glimepiride (GMP/βCD/GEL-44/16) in combination with anti-diabetic oil to enhance the hypoglycemic effect. Nanoemulsions were developed using clove oil, Tween-80, and PEG-400 and were gelled using xanthan gum (3%, w/w) to achieve the final nanoemulgel formulations. All of the formulations were evaluated in terms of particle size, zeta potential, pH, conductivity, viscosity, and in vitro skin permeation studies. In vivo hypoglycemic activity of the optimized nanoemulgel formulations was evaluated using a streptozocin-induced diabetes model. It was found that a synergistic combination of GMP with clove oil improved the overall drug permeation across the skin membrane and the hypoglycemic activity of GMP. The results showed that GMP/βCD/GEL-44/16-loaded nanoemulgel enhanced the in vitro skin permeation and improved the hypoglycemic activity in comparison with pure and marketed GMP. It is suggested that topical nano emulsion-based GMP gel and GMP/βCD/GEL-44/16 could be an effective alternative for oral therapy in the treatment of diabetes.

Optical-Property-Enhancing Novel Near-Infrared Active Niosome Nanoformulation for Deep-Tissue Bioimaging

Indocyanine green (ICG) is a clinically approved near-infrared (NIR) contrast agent used in medical diagnosis. However, ICG has not been used to its fullest for biomedical imaging applications due to its low fluorescence quantum yield, aqueous instability, concentration-dependent aggregation, and photo and thermal degradations, leading to quenching of its fluorescence emission. In the present study, a nanosized niosomal formulation, ICGNiosomes (ICGNios), is fabricated to encapsulate and protect ICG from degradation. Interestingly, compared to free ICG, the ICGNios exhibited higher fluorescence quantum yield and fluorescence emission with a bathochromic shift. Also, ICGNios nanoparticles are biocompatible, biodegradable, and readily uptaken by the cells. Furthermore, ICGNios show more enhanced fluorescence intensity through ∼1 cm thick chicken breast tissue compared to free ICG, which showed minimal emission through the same thickness of tissue. Our results suggest that ICGNios could offer a promising platform for deep-tissue NIR in vivo imaging to visualize inaccessible tissue microstructures for disease diagnosis and therapeutics.

Hydrophobically Grafted Pullulan Nanocarriers for Percutaneous Delivery: Preparation and Preliminary In Vitro Characterisation

Polymeric colloidal nanocarriers formulated from hydrophobically grafted carbohydrates have been the subject of intensive research due to their potential to increase the percutaneous penetration of hydrophilic actives. To this goal, a series of hydrophobically grafted pullulan (BMO-PUL) derivatives with varying degree of grafting (5–64%) was prepared through functionalisation with 2-(butoxymethyl)oxirane. The results demonstrated that monodispersed BMO-PUL nanocarriers (size range 125–185 nm) could be easily prepared via nanoprecipitation; they exhibit close-to-spherical morphology and adequate stability at physiologically relevant pH. The critical micellar concentration of BMO-PUL was found to be inversely proportional to their molecular weight (Mw) and degree of grafting (DG), with values of 60 mg/L and 40 mg/L for DG of 12.6% and 33.8%, respectively. The polymeric nanocarriers were loaded with the low Mw hydrophilic active α-arbutin (16% loading), and the release of this active was studied at varying pH values (5 and 7), with a slightly faster release observed in acidic conditions; the release profiles can be best described by a first-order kinetic model. In vitro investigations of BMO-PUL nanocarriers (concentration range 0.1–4 mg/mL) using immortalised skin human keratinocytes cells (HaCaT) evidenced their lack of toxicity, with more than 85% cell viability after 24 h. A four-fold enhance in arbutin permeation through HaCaT monolayers was recorded when the active was encapsulated within the BMO-PUL nanocarriers. Altogether, the results obtained from the in vitro studies highlighted the potential of BMO-PUL nanocarriers for percutaneous delivery applications, which would warrant further investigation in vivo.

Lipid-based nanoparticles for psoriasis treatment: a review on conventional treatments, recent works, and future prospects

Psoriasis is a lingering inflammatory skin disease that attacks the immune system. The abnormal interactions between T cells, immune cells, and inflammatory cytokines causing the epidermal thickening. International guidelines have recommended topical treatments for mild to moderate psoriasis whilst systemic and phototherapy treatments for moderate to severe psoriasis. However, current therapeutic approaches have a wider extent to treat moderate to severe type of psoriasis especially since the emergence of diverse biologic agents. In the meantime, topical delivery of conventional treatments has prompted many unsatisfactory effects to penetrate through the skin (stratum corneum). By understanding the physiology of stratum corneum barrier functions, scientists have developed different types of lipid-based nanoparticles like solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanovesicles, and nanoemulsions. These novel drug delivery systems help the poorly solubilised active pharmaceutical ingredient reaches the targeted site seamlessly because of the bioavailability feature of the nanosized molecules. Lipid-based nanoparticles for psoriasis treatments create a paradigm for topical drug delivery due to their lipids' amphiphilic feature to efficiently encapsulate both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs. This review highlights different types of lipid-based nanoparticles and their recent works of nano formulated psoriasis treatments. The encapsulation of psoriasis drugs through lipid nanocarriers unfold numerous research opportunities in pharmaceutical applications but also draw challenges for the future development of nano drugs.

A transferosome-loaded bigel for enhanced transdermal delivery and antibacterial activity of vancomycin hydrochloride

Transdermal drug delivery is an attractive route of administration relative to other routes as it offers enhanced therapeutic efficacy. However, due to poor skin permeability of certain drugs, their application in transdermal delivery is limited. The ultra-deformable nature of transferosomes makes them suitable vehicles for transdermal delivery of drugs that have high molecular weights and hydrophilicity. However, their low viscosity, which leads to low contact time on the surface of the skin, has restricted their application in transdermal delivery. Therefore, this study aimed to deliver transferosomes loaded with a highly water-soluble and high molecular weight vancomycin hydrochloride (VCM-HCl) via a bigel for systemic delivery and treatment of microbial infections. VCM-HCl-loaded transferosomal formulations (TNFs) were prepared using a reverse-phase evaporation method and then loaded into a bigel. Both the TNFs and TNFs-loaded bigel (TNF-L-B) were characterized by a range of in vitro and ex vivo techniques. TNFs and TNF-L-B were tested for biosafety via the MTT assay and found to be biosafe. Prepared TNFs had sizes, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency of 63.02 ± 5.34 nm, -20.93 ± 6.13 mV and 84.48 ± 1.22% respectively. VCM-HCl release from TNF-L-B showed a prolonged release profile with 39.76 ± 1.6% after 24hrs when compared to bare VCM-HCl loaded in the bigel (74.81 ± 8.84%). Ex-vivo permeation of prepared TNF-L-B showed a higher permeation flux of 0.56 µg/cm²/h compared to the bare VCM-HCl-loaded bigel of 0.23 µg/cm²/h, indicating superior permeation and bioavailability of the drug. Additionally, the prepared TNF-L-B demonstrated improved antimicrobial activity. The TNF-L-B showed minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 0.97 μg/ml against Staphylococcus aureus (SA) and 1.95 μg/ml against methicillin-resistant SA (MRSA), which were 2-fold lower MIC values than the bare drug. The time-kill assay showed that both TNFs and TNF-L-B systems caused a 5.6-log reduction (100%) in MRSA compared to bare VCM-HCl after 24 hrs of incubation. Furthermore, as opposed to the bare VCM-HCl solution, the degree of biofilm reduction caused by TNFs (55.72%) and TNF-L-B (34.58%) suggests their dominance in eradicating MRSA biofilm. These findings indicate that TNF-L-B is a promising system for transdermal delivery of hydrophilic and high molecular weight drugs.

Comprehensive review on ultrasound-responsive theranostic nanomaterials: mechanisms, structures and medical applications

The field of theranostics has been rapidly growing in recent years and nanotechnology has played a major role in this growth. Nanomaterials can be constructed to respond to a variety of different stimuli which can be internal (enzyme activity, redox potential, pH changes, temperature changes) or external (light, heat, magnetic fields, ultrasound). Theranostic nanomaterials can respond by producing an imaging signal and/or a therapeutic effect, which frequently involves cell death. Since ultrasound (US) is already well established as a clinical imaging modality, it is attractive to combine it with rationally designed nanoparticles for theranostics. The mechanisms of US interactions include cavitation microbubbles (MBs), acoustic droplet vaporization, acoustic radiation force, localized thermal effects, reactive oxygen species generation, sonoluminescence, and sonoporation. These effects can result in the release of encapsulated drugs or genes at the site of interest as well as cell death and considerable image enhancement. The present review discusses US-responsive theranostic nanomaterials under the following categories: MBs, micelles, liposomes (conventional and echogenic), niosomes, nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, chitosan nanocapsules, dendrimers, hydrogels, nanogels, gold nanoparticles, titania nanostructures, carbon nanostructures, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, fuel-free nano/micromotors.

Co-delivery of paclitaxel and anti-VEGF siRNA by tripeptide lipid nanoparticle to enhance the anti-tumor activity for lung cancer therapy

The combination of chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel (PTX) and VEGF siRNA could inhibit cancer development with synergistic efficacy. However, efficient and safe delivery systems with high encapsulation efficiency of PTX and a long-time release of drugs are urgently needed. In this study, novel nanoparticles (PTX/siRNA/FALS) were constructed by using tripeptide lipid (L), sucrose laurate (S), and folate-PEG₂₀₀₀-DSPE (FA) to co-deliver PTX and siRNA. The cancer cell targeting nanoparticle carrier (PTX/siRNA/FALS) showed anticipated PTX encapsulation efficiency, siRNA retardation ability, improved cell uptake and sustained and controlled drug release. It led to significant anti-tumor activity in vitro and in vivo by efficient inhibition of VEGF expression and induction of cancer cell apoptosis. Importantly, the biocompatibility of the carriers and low dosage of PTX required for effective therapy greatly reduced the toxicity to mice. The targeting nanoparticles show potential as an effective co-delivery platform for RNAi and chemotherapy drugs, aiming to improve the efficacy of cancer therapy.

Strategies to improve insulin delivery through oral route: A review

Diabetes mellitus is found to be among the most suffered and lethal diseases for mankind. Diabetes mellitus type-1 is caused by the demolition of pancreatic islets responsible for the secretion of insulin. Insulin is the peptide hormone (anabolic] that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Upon the breakdown of the natural process of metabolism, the condition leads to hyperglycemia (increased blood glucose levels]. Hyperglycemia demands outsourcing of insulin. The subcutaneous route was found to be the most stable route of insulin administration but faces patient compliance problems. Oral Insulin delivery systems are the patient-centered and innovative novel drug delivery system, eliminating the pain caused by the subcutaneous route of administration. Insulin comes in contact across various barriers in the gastrointestinal tract, which has been discussed in detail in this review. The review describes about the different bioengineered formulations, including microcarriers, nanocarriers, Self-Microemulsifying drug delivery systems (SMEDDs), Self-Nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDs), polymeric micelles, cochleates, etc. Surface modification of the carriers is also possible by developing ligand anchored bioconjugates. A study on evaluation has shown that the carrier systems facilitate drug encapsulation without tampering the properties of insulin. Carrier-mediated transport by the use of natural, semi-synthetic, and synthetic polymers have shown efficient results in drug delivery by protecting insulin from harmful environment. This makes the formulation readily acceptable for a variety of populations. The present review focuses on the properties, barriers present in the GI tract, overcome the barriers, strategies to formulate oral insulin formulation by enhancing the stability and bioavailability of insulin.

Topical nanocarriers for management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A review

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease manifested by chronic joint inflammation leading to severe disability and premature mortality. With a global prevalence of about 0.3%-1% RA is 3-5 times more prevalent in women than in men. There is no known cure for RA; the ultimate goal for treatment of RA is to provide symptomatic relief. The treatment regimen for RA involves frequent drug administration and high doses of NSAIDs such as indomethacin, diclofenac, ibuprofen, celecoxib, etorcoxib. These potent drugs often have off target effects which drastically decreases patient compliance. Moreover, conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory have many formulation challenges like low solubility and permeability, poor bioavailability, degradation by gastrointestinal enzymes, food interactions and toxicity. To overcome these barriers, researchers have turned to topical route of drug administration, which has superior patience compliance and they also bypass the first past effect experienced with conventional oral administration. Furthermore, to enhance the permeation of drug through the layers of the skin and reach the site of inflammation, nanosized carriers have been designed such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, niosomes, ethosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles and transferosomes. These drug delivery systems are non-toxic and have high drug encapsulation efficiency and they also provide sustained release of drug. This review discusses the effect of formulation composition on the physiochemical properties of these nanocarriers in terms of particle size, surface charge, drug entrapment and also drug release profile thus providing a landscape of topically used nanoformulations for symptomatic treatment of RA.

Delivery of melittin-loaded niosomes for breast cancer treatment: an in vitro and in vivo evaluation of anti-cancer effect

Background

Melittin, a peptide component of honey bee venom, is an appealing candidate for cancer therapy. In the current study, melittin, melittin-loaded niosome, and empty niosome had been optimized and the anticancer effect assessed in vitro on 4T1 and SKBR3 breast cell lines and in vivo on BALB/C inbred mice. "Thin-layer hydration method" was used for preparing the niosomes; different niosomal formulations of melittin were prepared and characterized in terms of morphology, size, polydispersity index, encapsulation efficiency, release kinetics, and stability. A niosome was formulated and loaded with melittin as a promising drug carrier system for chemotherapy of the breast cancer cells. Hemolysis, apoptosis, cell cytotoxicity, invasion and migration of selected concentrations of melittin, and melittin-loaded niosome were evaluated on 4T1 and SKBR3 cells using hemolytic activity assay, flow cytometry, MTT assay, soft agar colony assay, and wound healing assay. Real-time PCR was used to determine the gene expression. 40 BALB/c inbred mice were used; then, the histopathology, P53 immunohistochemical assay and estimate of renal and liver enzyme activity for all groups had been done.

Results

This study showed melittin-loaded niosome is an excellent substitute in breast cancer treatment due to enhanced targeting, encapsulation efficiency, PDI, and release rate and shows a high anticancer effect on cell lines. The melittin-loaded niosome affects the genes expression by studied cells were higher than other samples; down-regulates the expression of Bcl2, MMP2, and MMP9 genes while they up-regulate the expression of Bax, Caspase3 and Caspase9 genes. They have also enhanced the apoptosis rate and inhibited cell migration, invasion in both cell lines compared to the melittin samples. Results of histopathology showed reduce mitosis index, invasion and pleomorphism in melittin-loaded niosome. Renal and hepatic biomarker activity did not significantly differ in melittin-loaded niosome and melittin compared to healthy control. In immunohistochemistry, P53 expression did not show a significant change in all groups.

Conclusions

Our study successfully declares that melittin-loaded niosome had more anti-cancer effects than free melittin. This project has demonstrated that niosomes are suitable vesicle carriers for melittin, compare to the free form.

Surfactant-Free Glibenclamide Nanoparticles: Formulation, Characterization and Evaluation of Interactions with Biological Barriers

PURPOSE

The aim of this work was to formulate and characterize surfactant-free glibenclamide nanoparticles using Eudragit RLPO and polyethylene glycol as sole stabilizer.

METHODS

Glibenclamide nanoparticles were obtained by nanoprecipitation and evaluated in terms of drug content, encapsulation efficiency, apparent saturation solubility, drug release profile, solid state and storage stability. The influence of different stirring speed on the particle size, size distribution and zeta potential of the nanoparticles was investigated. The nanoparticle biocompatibility and permeability were analyzed in vitro on Caco-2 cell line (clone HTB-37) and its interaction with mucin was also investigated.

RESULTS

It was found that increasing the molecular weight of polyethylene glycol from 400 to 6000 decreased drug encapsulation, whereas the aqueous solubility and dissolution rate of the drug increased. Particle size of the nanoformulations, with and without polyethylene glycol, were between 140 and 460 nm. Stability studies confirmed that glibenclamide nanoparticles were stable, in terms of particle size, after 120 days at 4°C. In vitro studies indicated minimal interactions of glibenclamide nanoparticles and mucin glycoproteins suggesting favorable properties to address the intestinal mucus barrier. Cell viability studies confirmed the safety profile of these nanoparticles and showed an increased permeation through epithelial cells.

CONCLUSION

Taking into consideration these findings, polyethylene glycol is a useful polymer for stabilizing these surfactant-free glibenclamide nanoparticles and represent a promising alternative to improve the treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes.

Fluorescein-entrapped magnetosomes for magnetically assisted photodynamic therapy

Aim: We investigated the application of fluorescein (FL)-entrapped magnetosomes, in other words, silica-coated iron oxide nanoparticles entrapped within niosomes (SIO/NIO), in magnetically assisted photodynamic therapy (PDT) in vitro. Methods: Panc-1 cells were treated with the magnetosomes, with and without external magnetic guidance, and irradiated with blue light. Results & conclusion: Upon photoactivation, the FL-entrapped magnetosomes can produce higher singlet oxygen in comparison to FL-entrapped micelles, probably due to the higher release tendency of the photosensitizer from the former. In vitro studies in Panc-1 cells revealed magnetically assisted enhancement in the cellular uptake of the magnetosomes. Magnetic assistance also led to enhancement in PDT efficiency in cells treated with the FL-entrapped magnetosomes and light, thus highlighting their potential in PDT.

Targeting Cancer using Curcumin Encapsulated Vesicular Drug Delivery Systems

Curcumin is a major curcuminoid present in turmeric. The compound is attributed to various therapeutic properties, which include anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-malarial, and neuroprotection. Due to its therapeutic potential, curcumin has been employed for centuries in treating different ailments. Curcumin has been investigated lately as a novel therapeutic agent in the treatment of cancer. However, the mechanisms by which curcumin exerts its cytotoxic effects on malignant cells are still not fully understood. One of the main limiting factors in the clinical use of curcumin is its poor bioavailability and rapid elimination. Advancements in drug delivery systems such as nanoparticle-based vesicular drug delivery platforms have improved several parameters, namely, drug bioavailability, solubility, stability, and controlled release properties. The use of curcumin-encapsulated niosomes to improve the physical and pharmacokinetic properties of curcumin is one such approach. This review provides an up-to-date summary of nanoparticle-based vesicular drug carriers and their therapeutic applications. Specifically, we focus on niosomes as novel drug delivery formulations and their potential in improving the delivery of challenging small molecules, including curcumin. Overall, the applications of such carriers will provide a new direction for novel pharmaceutical drug delivery, as well as for biotechnology, nutraceutical, and functional food industries.

Tuning Cationic Micelle Properties with an Antioxidant Additive: A Molecular Perspective

In this work, we characterize the micellization and morphology transition induced in aqueous cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) solution by the addition of the antioxidant propyl gallate (PG) using tensiometry, rheology, and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) techniques combined with the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation approach. The adsorption of CTAB at the air-water interface in the presence of varying [PG] revealed a progressive decrease in the critical micelle concentration (CMC), while the changes in different interfacial parameters indicated enhancement of the hydrophobicity induced by PG in the CTAB micellar system. The dynamic rheology behavior indicated an increase in the flow viscosity (η) as a function of [PG]. Moreover, the rheological components (storage modulus, G', and loss modulus, G″) depicted the viscoelastic features. SANS measurements depicted the existence of ellipsoidal micelles with varying sizes and aggregation number (N_agg) as a function of [PG] and temperature. Computational simulation performed using density functional theory (DFT) calculations and molecular dynamics (MD) provided an insight into the atomic composition of the examined system. The molecular electrostatic potential (MEP) analysis depicted a close proximity of CTAB, i.e., emphasized favorable interactions between the quaternary nitrogen of CTAB and the hydroxyl group of the PG monomer, further validated by the two-dimensional nuclear Overhauser enhancement spectroscopy (2D-NOESY), which showed the penetration of PG inside the CTAB micelles. In addition, various dynamic properties, viz., the radial distribution function (RDF), the radius of gyration (R_g), and solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), showed a significant microstructural evolution of the ellipsoidal micelles in the examined CTAB-PG system, where the changes in the micellar morphology with a more elongated hydrophobic chain and the increased R_g and SASA values indicated the notable intercalation of PG in the CTAB micelles.

Lipid nanovesicles for biomedical applications: 'What is in a name'?

Vesicles, generally defined as self-assembled structures formed by single or multiple concentric bilayers that surround an aqueous core, have been widely used for biomedical applications. They can either occur naturally (e.g. exosomes) or be produced artificially and range from the micrometric scale to the nanoscale. One the most well-known vesicle is the liposome, largely employed as a drug delivery nanocarrier. Liposomes have been modified along the years to improve physicochemical and biological features, resulting in long-circulating, ligand-targeted and stimuli-responsive liposomes, among others. In this process, new nomenclatures were reported in an extensive literature. In many instances, the new names suggest the emergence of a new nanocarrier, which have caused confusion as to whether the vesicles are indeed new entities or could simply be considered modified liposomes. Herein, we discussed the extensive nomenclature of vesicles based on the suffix "some" that are employed for drug delivery and composed of various types and proportions of lipids and others amphiphilic compounds. New names have most often been selected based on changes of vesicle lipid composition, but the payload, structural complexity (e.g. multicompartment) and new/improved proprieties (e.g. elasticity) have also inspired new vesicle names. Based on this discussion, we suggested a rational classification for vesicles.

Optimal configuration of confocal Raman spectroscopy for precisely determining stratum corneum thickness: Evaluation of the effects of polyoxyethylene stearyl ethers on skin

Properties regarding stratum corneum (SC), the outermost membrane of the skin, remain an active area in dermatologic and cosmetic research. The reduced thickness of SC is associated with varied adverse statuses such as skin lipid deficiency, skin barrier dysfunctions and skin deceases, etc. Emulsifiers with existing irritative effects on skin components also face the risk of decreasing SC thickness. We have been focusing on the effects of PEGylated emulsifiers on the skin and have an interest in finding the role of their polyethylene glycol (PEG)-chain length in tuning skin irritations. With this aim, PEG-stearyl ethers with different numbers of hydrophilic chains were applied on the skin, and their influence on skin thickness was discovered to determine their skin barrier effect. Confocal Raman spectroscopy (CRS) with extensive application in skin research was used here. To obtain the precise determination of skin thickness, our secondary aim was to find the optimal CRS configuration referring to varied objectives and pinhole sizes where further study is still in demand. Therefore, SC thickness measured via eddy current approach served as reference. The applied PEG-stearyl ethers formed the system to achieve varied thicknesses. Results confirmed that the skin interactions rose with increasing PEG-chain length, however only up to a certain limit, with decreasing effects recorded from PEG-40 stearyl ether and no effects observed from PEG-100 stearyl ether. Simultaneously, CRS combined with water immersion objective and 50 μm pinhole presented the most consistent values to the references and exhibited better spectral intensity and signal-to-noise ratio. Correlation plots involving different cases of configurations were calculated for error corrections. Taken together, this work helps to identify the potential mechanisms governing the interactions between PEG-stearyl ethers and skin and offers powerful evidence of using CRS as a reliable alternative to obtain accurate thickness values.

Fluticasone propionate-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles with augmented anti-inflammatory activity: optimisation, characterisation and pharmacodynamic evaluation on rats

This work aimed to elaborate an optimised fluticasone propionate (FP)-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) to enhance FP effectiveness for topical inflammatory remediation. The influences of drug amount, lipid, and surfactant ratios, on drug release pattern and stability were investigated utilising Box-Behnken design. Elaboration, characterisation, and pharmacodynamic evaluation in comparison with the marketed formulation (Cutivate® cream, 0.05%w/w FP), were conducted for the optimised SLNs. The optimised SLNs with a size of 248.3 ± 1.89 nm (PDI = 0.275) and -32.4 ± 2.85 mV zeta potential were evidenced good stability physiognomies. The optimised SLNs pre-treated rats exhibited non-significant difference in paw volume from that of the control group and showed a significant reduction in both PGE₂ and TNF-α levels by 51.5 and 61%, respectively, in comparison with the Carrageenan group. The optimised FP-loaded SLNs maximised the efficacy of FP towards inflammation alleviation that increase its potential as efficient implement in inflammatory skin diseases remediation.

Betaxolol-loaded niosomes integrated within pH-sensitive in situ forming gel for management of glaucoma

Blindness and impaired vision are considered as the most troublesome health conditions leading to significant socioeconomic strains. The current study focuses on development of nanoparticulate systems (i.e., niosomes) as drug vehicles to enhance the ocular availability of betaxolol hydrochloride for management of glaucoma. Betaxolol-loaded niosomes were further laden into pH-responsive in situ forming gels to further extend precorneal retention of the drug. The niosomes were evaluated in terms of vesicle size, morphology, size distribution, surface charge and encapsulation efficiency. The optimized niosomes, comprised of Span® 40 and cholesterol at a molar ratio of 4:1, displayed particle size of 332 ± 7 nm, zeta potential of -46 ± 1 mV, and encapsulation efficiency of 69 ± 5%. The optimal nanodispersion was then incorporated into a pH-triggered in situ forming gel comprised of Carbopol® 934P and hydroxyethyl cellulose. The formed gels were translucent, pseudoplastic, mucoadhesive, and displayed a sustained in vitro drug release pattern. Upon instillation of the betaxolol-loaded niosomal gel into rabbits' eyes, a prolonged intraocular pressure reduction and significant enhancement in the relative bioavailability of betaxolol (280 and 254.7%) in normal and glaucomatous rabbits, were attained compared to the marketed eye drops, respectively. Hence, the developed pH-triggered nanoparticulate gelling system might provide a promising carrier for ophthalmic drug delivery and for improved augmentation of glaucoma.

Aerosolized Niosome Formulation Containing Gemcitabine and Cisplatin for Lung Cancer Treatment: Optimization, Characterization and In Vitro Evaluation

Gemcitabine (Gem) and cisplatin (Cis) are currently being used for lung cancer treatment, but they are highly toxic in high dosages. This research aimed to develop a niosome formulation containing a low-dosage Gem and Cis (NGC), as an alternative formulation for lung cancer treatment. NGC was prepared using a very simple heating method and was further optimized by D-optimal mixture design. The optimum NGC formulation with particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of 166.45 nm, 0.16, and −15.28 mV, respectively, was obtained and remained stable at 27 °C with no phase separation for up to 90 days. The aerosol output was 96.22%, which indicates its suitability as aerosolized formulation. An in vitro drug release study using the dialysis bag diffusion technique showed controlled release for both drugs up to 24 h penetration. A cytotoxicity study against normal lung (MRC5) and lung cancer (A549) cell lines was investigated. The results showed that the optimized NGC had reduced cytotoxicity effects against both MRC5 and A549 when compared with the control (Gem + Cis alone) from very toxic (IC₅₀ < 1.56 µg/mL) to weakly toxic (IC₅₀ 280.00 µg/mL) and moderately toxic (IC₅₀ = 46.00 µg/mL), respectively, after 72 h of treatment. These findings revealed that the optimized NGC has excellent potential and is a promising prospect in aerosolized delivery systems to treat lung cancer that warrants further investigation.

Activation and Assembly of Plasmonic-Magnetic Nanosurfactants for Encapsulation and Triggered Release

Multifunctional surfactants hold great potentials in catalysis, separation, and biomedicine. Highly active plasmonic-magnetic nanosurfactants are developed through a novel acid activation treatment of Au-Fe₃O₄ dumbbell nanocrystals. The activation step significantly boosts nanosurfactant surface energy and enables the strong adsorption at interfaces, which reduces the interfacial energy one order of magnitude. Mediated through the adsorption at the emulsion interfaces, the nanosurfactants are further constructed into free-standing hierarchical structures, including capsules, inverse capsules, and two-dimensional sheets. The nanosurfactant orientation and assembly structures follow the same packing parameter principles of surfactant molecules. Furthermore, nanosurfactants demonstrate the capability to disperse and encapsulate homogeneous nanoparticles and small molecules without adding any molecular surfactants. The assembled structures are responsive to external magnetic field, and triggered release is achieved using an infrared laser by taking advantage of the enhanced surface plasmon resonance of nanosurfactant assemblies. Solvent and pH changes are also utilized to achieve the cargo release.

Development of Provesicular Nanodelivery System of Curcumin as a Safe and Effective Antiviral Agent: Statistical Optimization, In Vitro Characterization, and Antiviral Effectiveness

Curcumin is a natural compound that has many medical applications. However, its low solubility and poor stability could impede its clinical applications. The present study aimed to formulate dry proniosomes to overcome these pitfalls and improve the therapeutic efficacy of Curcumin. Curcumin-loaded proniosomes were fabricated by the slurry method according to 32 factorial design using Design-Expert software to demonstrate the impact of different independent variables on entrapment efficiency (EE%) and % drug released after 12 h (Q12h). The optimized formula (F5) was selected according to the desirability criteria. F5 exhibited good flowability and appeared, after reconstitution, as spherical nanovesicles with EE% of 89.94 ± 2.31% and Q12h of 70.89 ± 1.62%. F5 demonstrated higher stability and a significant enhancement of Q12h than the corresponding niosomes. The docking study investigated the ability of Curcumin to bind effectively with the active site of DNA polymerase of Herpes simplex virus (HSV). The antiviral activity and the safety of F5 were significantly higher than Curcumin. F5 improved the safety of Acyclovir (ACV) and reduced its effective dose that produced a 100% reduction of viral plaques. Proniosomes could be promising stable carriers of Curcumin to be used as a safe and efficient antiviral agent.

Inorganic-organic Nanomaterials for Therapeutics and Molecular Imaging Applications

Background::

Surface modification of nanoparticles with targeting moieties can be achieved through bioconjugation chemistries to impart new Functionalities. Various polymeric nanoparticles have been used for the formulation of nanoparticles such as naturally-occurring protein cages, virus-like particles, polymeric saccharides, and liposomes. These polymers have been proven to be biocompatible, side effects free and degradable with no toxicity.

Objectives::

This paper reviews available literature on the nanoparticles pharmaceutical and medical applications. The review highlights and updates the customized solutions for selective drug delivery systems that allow high-affinity binding between nanoparticles and the target receptors.

Methods::

Bibliographic databases and web-search engines were used to retrieve studies that assessed the usability of nanoparticles in the pharmaceutical and medical fields. Data were extracted on each system in vivo and in vitro applications, its advantages and disadvantages, and its ability to be chemically and genetically modified to impart new functionalities. Finally, a comparison between naturally occurring and their synthetic counterparts was carried out.

Results::

The results showed that nanoparticles-based systems could have promising applications in diagnostics, cell labeling, contrast agents (Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography), antimicrobial agents, and as drug delivery systems. However, precautions should be taken to avoid or minimize toxic effect or incompatibility of nanoparticles-based systems with the biological systems in case of pharmaceutical or medical applications.

Conclusion::

This review presented a summary of recent developments in the field of pharmaceutical nanotechnology and highlighted the challenges and the merits that some of the nanoparticles- based systems both in vivo and in vitro systems.

Celecoxib Loaded In-Situ Provesicular Powder and Its In-Vitro Cytotoxic Effect for Cancer Therapy: Fabrication, Characterization, Optimization and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

INTRODUCTION

Several recent studies have shown that the role of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) in carcinogenesis has become more evident. It affects angiogenesis, apoptosis, and invasion, and plays a key role in the production of carcinogens. It has also been reported that COX-2 inhibitors such as celecoxib (CLX) might play an effective role in preventing cancer formation and progression. Formulation of CLX into nanovesicles is a promising technique to improve its bioavailability and anticancer efficacy.

AIM

The aim of this study is to optimize and evaluate the anticancer efficacy of CLX-loaded in-situ provesicular powder composed of surfactants and fatty alcohol-based novel nanovesicles in-vitro and determine its pharmacokinetic parameters in-vivo.

METHODS

The novel provesicular powders were prepared by the slurry method and optimized by 3² full factorial design using the desirability function.

RESULTS

Small mean particle size was achieved by the formed vesicles with value of 351.7 ± 1.76 nm and high entrapment efficacy of CLX in the formed vesicles of 97.53 ± 0.84%. Solid state characterization of the optimized formulation showed that the powder was free flowing, showed no incompatibilities between drug and excipients and showed smooth texture. The cytotoxic study of the optimized formula on HCT-116, HepG-2, A-549, PC-3 and MCF-7 cell lines showed significant increase in activity of CLX compared to its free form. The pharmacokinetic study on albino rabbits after oral administration showed significant increase in the area under the curve (AUC)_{0-24 h} and significantly higher oral relative bioavailability of the optimized formulation compared to Celebrex^® 100 mg market product (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

All findings of this study suggest the potential improvement of efficacy and bioavailability of CLX when formulated in the form of in-situ provesicular powder composed of surfactants and fatty alcohol-based novel nanovesicles for its repositioned use as an anticancer agent.

Glaucoma: Management and Future Perspectives for Nanotechnology-Based Treatment Modalities

Glaucoma, being asymptomatic for relatively late stage, is recognized as a worldwide cause of irreversible vision loss. The eye is an impervious organ that exhibits natural anatomical and physiological barriers which renders the design of an efficient ocular delivery system a formidable task and challenge scientists to find alternative formulation approaches. In the field of glaucoma treatment, smart delivery systems for targeting have aroused interest in the topical ocular delivery field owing to its potentiality to oppress many treatment challenges associated with many of glaucoma types. The current momentum of nano-pharmaceuticals, in the development of advanced drug delivery systems, hold promises for much improved therapies for glaucoma to reduce its impact on vision loss. In this review, a brief about glaucoma; its etiology, predisposing factors and different treatment modalities has been reviewed. The diverse ocular drug delivery systems currently available or under investigations have been presented. Additionally, future foreseeing of new drug delivery systems that may represent potential means for more efficient glaucoma management are overviewed. Finally, a gab-analysis for the required investigation to pave the road for commercialization of ocular novel-delivery systems based on the nano-technology are discussed.

Optimization, physicochemical characterization, and antimicrobial activity of a novel simvastatin nano-niosomal gel against E. coli and S. aureus

Niosomes, as a kind of drug delivery system, is widely used for the topical delivery of lipophilic drugs. Optimization of niosomes plays an essential role in enhancing their therapeutic efficiencies. This study aims to prepare an optimized niosomal formulation of simvastatin (nSIM), a lipophilic member of statins, through the experiment (Response Surface methodology). Optimized niosomes were characterized in size, polydispersity index (PDI), entrapment efficiency (EE), stability, releasing pattern, and antimicrobial activity. The different molar ratio of surfactant and cholesterol were applied to prepare various formulation of simvastatin loaded niosome. Mean particle size and size distribution were analyzed by dynamic light scattering. Antibacterial activity was determined by MIC and MBC tests against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The release rate of simvastatin from noisome nanoparticles was studied by the Franz diffusion cell method. The release pattern was studied through zero order, first order, Higuchi, Korsmeyer-Peppas, and Hixson-Crowell kinetics models. Optimized niosomes were obtained by span 80, drug to cholesterol ratio of 0.4 with 7 min sonication time. Mean particle size, PDI, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency (EE%) of optimized nSIM were obtained about 168 nm, 0.34, -32.40, and 96 %, respectively. The niosomes significantly decreased the drug's releasing rate and enhanced antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. Coli. It was found that the release pattern of drug followed the Higuchi kinetic model which means drug release is by diffusion. Overall, our findings indicated that the prepared simvastatin loaded niosomes showed good stability and biological properties than free drug. Our study suggests that niosomal formulation could be considered as a promising strategy for the delivery of poor water-soluble drugs that enhance antibacterial activity.