Enzyme inhibition-based biosensors for food safety and environmental monitoring

Sensing platform for neuron specific enolase based on molecularly imprinted polymerized ionic liquids in between gold nanoarrays

A molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor for neuron specific enolase (NSE) was developed by electrochemical polymerizing ionic liquid, which was functionalized with pyrrole moiety, in between gold nanoarrays. A well-defined 3D structured gold nanoarray was fabricated on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) surface by using template-assisted electrochemical deposition technique. 1-(3-mercaptopropyl)-3-vinyl-imidazolium tetrafluoroborate was self-assembled onto the surface of gold nanoarrays to produce active sites for anchoring the molecularly imprinted film. Subsequently, an electrochemical polymerization procedure was carried out in an aqueous solution containing 1,3-di(3-N-pyrrolpropyl)imidazolium bromine ionic liquid and neuron specific enolase (NSE). After removing NSE templates, a molecularly imprinted sensor was successfully fabricated. The sensor showed high selectivity and sensitivity towards NSE, produced a linear response in the concentration range from 0.01 to 1.0ngmL^-1 and had a detection limit of 2.6pgmL^-1 with an incubation time of 15min. The developed sensor was demonstrated successful in determining NSE in clinical serum samples.

Nanosensor Technology Applied to Living Plant Systems

An understanding of plant biology is essential to solving many long-standing global challenges, including sustainable and secure food production and the generation of renewable fuel sources. Nanosensor platforms, sensors with a characteristic dimension that is nanometer in scale, have emerged as important tools for monitoring plant signaling pathways and metabolism that are nondestructive, minimally invasive, and capable of real-time analysis. This review outlines the recent advances in nanotechnology that enable these platforms, including the measurement of chemical fluxes even at the single-molecule level. Applications of nanosensors to plant biology are discussed in the context of nutrient management, disease assessment, food production, detection of DNA proteins, and the regulation of plant hormones. Current trends and future needs are discussed with respect to the emerging trends of precision agriculture, urban farming, and plant nanobionics.

Fate and ecotoxicological impact of new generation herbicides from the triketone family: An overview to assess the environmental risks

Triketones, derived chemically from a natural phytotoxin (leptospermone), are a good example of allelochemicals as lead molecules for the development of new herbicides. Targeting a new and key enzyme involved in carotenoid biosynthesis, these latest-generation herbicides (sulcotrione, mesotrione and tembotrione) were designed to be eco-friendly and commercialized fifteen-twenty years ago. The mechanisms controlling their fate in different ecological niches as well as their toxicity and impact on different organisms or ecosystems are still under investigation. This review combines an overview of the results published in the literature on β-triketones and more specifically, on the commercially-available herbicides and includes new results obtained in our interdisciplinary study aiming to understand all the processes involved (i) in their transfer from the soil to the connected aquatic compartments, (ii) in their transformation by photochemical and biological mechanisms but also to evaluate (iii) the impacts of the parent molecules and their transformation products on various target and non-target organisms (aquatic microorganisms, plants, soil microbial communities). Analysis of all the data on the fate and impact of these molecules, used pure, as formulation or in cocktails, give an overall guide for the assessment of their environmental risks.

Recent Advances in Synthesis and Biomedical Applications of Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Nanosheets

During recent decades, a giant leap in the development of nanotechnology has been witnessed. Numerous nanomaterials with different dimensions and unprecedented features have been developed and provided unimaginably wide scope to solve the challenging problems in biomedicine, such as cancer diagnosis and therapy. Recently, two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenide (TMDC) nanosheets (NSs), including MoS₂ , WS₂ , and etc., have emerged as novel inorganic graphene analogues and attracted tremendous attention due to their unique structures and distinctive properties, and opened up great opportunities for biomedical applications, including ultrasensitive biosensing, biological imaging, drug delivery, cancer therapy, and antibacterial treatment. A comprehensive overview of different synthetic methods of ultrathin 2D TMDC NSs and their state-of-the-art biomedical applications, especially those that have appeared in the past few years, is presented. At the end of this review, the future opportunities and challenges for 2D TMDC NSs in biomedicine are also discussed.

Acetylcholinesterase biosensor based on electrochemically inducing 3D graphene oxide network/multi-walled carbon nanotube composites for detection of pesticides

A sensitive electrochemical biosensor for determining organophosphates and carbamate pesticides has been achieved by immobilizing acetylcholinesterase on electrochemically inducing 3D graphene oxide network/multi-walled carbon nanotubes composites.

Visible-light-activated photoelectrochemical biosensor for the detection of the pesticide acetochlor in vegetables and fruit based on its inhibition of glucose oxidase

A new and sensitive photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensor which is visible-light-activated was fabricated based on acetochlor’s ability to inhibit glucose oxidase (GOx) activity.

Nanomaterials-based enzyme electrochemical biosensors operating through inhibition for biosensing applications

In recent years great progress has been made in applying nanomaterials to design novel biosensors. Use of nanomaterials offers to biosensing platforms exceptional optical, electronic and magnetic properties. Nanomaterials can increase the surface of the transducing area of the sensors that in turn bring an increase in catalytic behaviors. They have large surface-to-volume ratio, controlled morphology and structure that also favor miniaturization, an interesting advantage when the sample volume is a critical issue. Biosensors have great potential for achieving detect-to-protect devices: devices that can be used in detections of pollutants and other treating compounds/analytes (drugs) protecting citizens' life. After a long term focused scientific and financial efforts/supports biosensors are expected now to fulfill their promise such as being able to perform sampling and analysis of complex samples with interest for clinical or environment fields. Among all types of biosensors, enzymatic biosensors, the most explored biosensing devices, have an interesting property, the inherent inhibition phenomena given the enzyme-substrate complex formation. The exploration of such phenomena is making remarkably important their application as research and applied tools in diagnostics. Different inhibition biosensor systems based on nanomaterials modification has been proposed and applied. The role of nanomaterials in inhibition-based biosensors for the analyses of different groups of drugs as well as contaminants such as pesticides, phenolic compounds and others, are discussed in this review. This deep analysis of inhibition-based biosensors that employ nanomaterials will serve researchers as a guideline for further improvements and approaching of these devices to real sample applications so as to reach society needs and such biosensor market demands.

Enzyme Immobilization: An Overview on Methods, Support Material, and Applications of Immobilized Enzymes

Immobilized enzymes can be used in a wide range of processes. In recent years, a variety of new approaches have emerged for the immobilization of enzymes that have greater efficiency and wider usage. During the course of the last two decades, this area has rapidly expanded into a multidisciplinary field. This current study is a comprehensive review of a variety of literature produced on the different enzymes that have been immobilized on various supporting materials. These immobilized enzymes have a wide range of applications. These include applications in the sugar, fish, and wine industries, where they are used for removing organic compounds from waste water. This study also reviews their use in sophisticated biosensors for metabolite control and in situ measurements of environmental pollutants. Immobilized enzymes also find significant application in drug metabolism, biodiesel and antibiotic production, bioremediation, and the food industry. The widespread usage of immobilized enzymes is largely due to the fact that they are cheaper, environment friendly, and much easier to use when compared to equivalent technologies.

Catalytic properties of maltogenic α-amylase from Bacillus stearothermophilus immobilized onto poly(urethane urea) microparticles

The immobilization of maltogenic α-amylase from Bacillus stearothermophilus (BsMa) onto novel porous poly(urethane urea) (PUU) microparticles synthesized from poly(vinyl alcohol) and isophorone diisocyanate was performed by covalent attachment to free isocyanate groups from PUU microparticles, or by physical adsorption of enzyme onto the surface of the carrier. The influence of structure, surface area and porosity of microparticles on the catalytic properties of immobilized BsMa was evaluated. The highest efficiency of immobilization of BsMa was found to be 72%. Optimal activity of immobilized BsMa was found to have increased by 10°C compared with the native enzyme. Influence of concentration of sodium chloride on activity of immobilized BsMa was evaluated. High storage and thermal stability and reusability for starch hydrolysis of immobilized enzyme were obtained. Immobilized BsMa has a great potential for biotechnology.

Benchmarking the scientific output of industrial wastewater research in Arab world by utilizing bibliometric techniques

Rapid population growth, worsening of the climate, and severity of freshwater scarcity are global challenges. In Arab world countries, where water resources are becoming increasingly scarce, the recycling of industrial wastewater could improve the efficiency of freshwater use. The benchmarking of scientific output of industrial wastewater research in the Arab world is an initiative that could support in shaping up and improving future research activities. This study assesses the scientific output of industrial wastewater research in the Arab world. A total of 2032 documents related to industrial wastewater were retrieved from 152 journals indexed in the Scopus databases; this represents 3.6 % of the global research output. The h-index of the retrieved documents was 70. The total number of citations, at the time of data analysis, was 34,296 with an average citation of 16.88 per document. Egypt, with a total publications of 655 (32.2 %), was ranked the first among the Arab countries followed by Saudi Arabia 300 (14.7 %) and Tunisia 297 (14.6 %). Egypt also had the highest h-index, assumed with Saudi Arabia, the first place in collaboration with other countries. Seven hundred fifteen (35.2 %) documents with 66 countries in Arab/non-Arab country collaborations were identified. Arab researchers collaborated mostly with researchers from France 239 (11.7 %), followed by the USA 127 (6.2 %). The top active journal was Desalination 126 (6.2 %), and the most productive institution was the National Research Center, Egypt 169 (8.3 %), followed by the King Abdul-Aziz University, Saudi Arabia 75 (3.7 %). Environmental Science was the most prevalent field of interest 930 (45.8 %). Despite the promising indicators, there is a need to close the gap in research between the Arab world and the other nations. Optimizing the investments and developing regional experiences are key factors to promote the scientific research.

Recent approaches to improving selectivity and sensitivity of enzyme-based biosensors for organophosphorus pesticides: A review

Pesticide determination has attracted great attention due to the fact that they exhibit high acute toxicity and can cause long-term damage to the environment and human lives even at trace levels. Although classical analytical methods (including gas chromatography, high performance liquid chromatography, capillary electrophoresis and mass spectrometry) have been effectively used for analysis of pesticides in contaminated samples, they present certain limitations such as time-consuming sample preparation, complexity, and the requirement of expensive instrumentation and highly skilled personnel. For these reasons, there is an expanding need for analytical methods able to provide simple, rapid, sensitive, selective, low cost and reliable detection of pesticides at trace levels. Over the past decades, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensors have emerged as simple, rapid and ultra-sensitive tools for toxicity detection of pesticides in the environment and food. These biosensors have the potential to complement or replace the classical analytical methods by simplifying or eliminating sample preparation and making field-testing easier and faster with significant decrease in cost per analysis. With the recent engineering of more sensitive AChE enzymes, the development of more reliable immobilization matrices and the progress in the area of microelectronics, AChE biosensors could become competitive for multi-analyte screening and soon be used for the development of portable instrumentation for rapid toxicity testing of samples. The enzymes organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) and organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA) have also shown considerable potential in OP biosensor applications and they have been used for direct detection of OPs. This review presents the recent advances in the fabrication of enzyme biosensors for organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) and their possible applications for toxicity monitoring of organophosphorus pesticide residues in real samples. The focus will be on the different strategies for the biosensor construction, the analytical performance of the biosensors and the advantages and disadvantages of these biosensor methods. The recent works done to improve the analytical performance, sensitivity and selectivity of these biosensors will also be discussed.

Quantitative Detection of Nucleoside Analogues by Multi-enzyme Biosensors using Time-Resolved Kinetic Measurements

Fast, simple and cost-effective methods for detecting and quantifying pharmaceutical agents in patients are highly sought after to replace equipment and labor-intensive analytical procedures. The development of new diagnostic technology including portable detection devices also enables point-of-care by non-specialists in resource-limited environments. We have focused on the detection and dose monitoring of nucleoside analogues used in viral and cancer therapies. Using deoxyribonucleoside kinases (dNKs) as biosensors, our chemometric model compares observed time-resolved kinetics of unknown analytes to known substrate interactions across multiple enzymes. The resulting dataset can simultaneously identify and quantify multiple nucleosides and nucleoside analogues in complex sample mixtures.

Inhibition-based first-generation electrochemical biosensors: theoretical aspects and application to 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid detection

In this work, several theoretical aspects involved in the first-generation inhibition-based electrochemical biosensor measurements have been discussed. In particular, we have developed a theoretical-methodological approach for the characterization of the kinetic interaction between alkaline phosphatase (AlP) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) as representative inhibitor studied by means of cyclic voltammetry and amperometry. Based on these findings, a biosensor for the fast, simple, and inexpensive determination of 2,4-D has been developed. The enzyme has been immobilized on screen-printed electrodes (SPEs). To optimize the biosensor performances, several carbon-based SPEs, namely graphite (G), graphene (GP), and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), have been evaluated. AlP was immobilized on the electrode surface by means of polyvinyl alcohol with styryl-pyridinium groups (PVA-SbQ) as cross-linking agent. In the presence of ascorbate 2-phosphate (A2P) as substrate, the herbicide has been determined, thanks to its inhibition activity towards the enzyme catalyzing the oxidation of A2P to ascorbic acid (AA). Under optimum experimental conditions, the best performance in terms of catalytic efficiency has been demonstrated by MWCNTs SPE-based biosensor. The inhibition biosensor shows a linearity range towards 2,4-D within 2.1-110 ppb, a LOD of 1 ppb, and acceptable repeatability and stability. This analysis method was applied to fortified lake water samples with recoveries above 90%. The low cost of this device and its good analytical performances suggest its application for the screening and monitoring of 2,4-D in real matrices.

Synthesis of pH-responsive β-CD-based star polymer and impact of its self-assembly behavior on pectinase activity

A novel type of pH-responsive star polymer based on β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) was synthesized and further covalently conjugated with enzyme. The impact of its self-assembly behavior on enzyme activity was investigated. In our design, azide containing the polymer (N₃ )₇ -β-CD-(PtBA)₁₄ was synthesized via atom transfer radical polymerization of tert-butyl acrylate using (N₃ )₇ -β-CD-(Br)₁₄ as the multifunctional initiator. The final product (N₃ )₇ -β-CD-(PAA)₁₄ was obtained via hydrolysis and covalently conjugating pectinase onto pH-responsive polyacrylic acid (PAA) arms. PAA can change its conformation with the self-assembly by altered pH, leading its nanostructure into micellar nanoparticles in aqueous solution and further affecting the activity of immobilized pectinase. The results were proved by fluorescence spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering. This system proves that the activity of immobilized enzyme can be tailored predictably, and this pH-responsive polymer holds great potential for controllable delivery of enzymes.

Surface Functionalization for Immobilization of Probes on Microarrays

The microarray technology has been a tremendous advance in molecular-based testing methods for biochemical and biomedical applications. As a result, the immobilization techniques and grafting chemistries of biochemical molecules have experienced great progress. The particularities of the grafting techniques adapted to the microarray development will be presented here.

High enzymatic activity preservation of malate dehydrogenase immobilized in a Langmuir–Blodgett film and its electrochemical biosensor application for malic acid detection

Malate dehydrogenase was immobilized on a cation octadecylamine monolayer and transferred onto an indium tin oxide coated glass substrate. The enzyme immobilized electrode was then used to electrochemically sense malic acid in the range of 2.2–50 mM.

Voltammetric determination of 4-chlorophenol using multiwall carbon nanotube/gold nanoparticle nanocomposite modified glassy carbon electrodes

We synthesized gold nanoparticles/carboxyl functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes nanocomposites via an in situ reduction method and further explored their potentials in 4-chlorophenol detection.

Mesoporous-silica nanofluidic channels for quick enrichment/extraction of trace pesticide molecules

As nanofluidic channels, uniaxially oriented mesoporous-silica is, for the first time, in-situ self-assembled in a microfluidic chip for quick enrichment/extraction of ng L(-1)(ppt)-level organo-phosphorous (OP) pesticide residue from aqueous solution to ethanol. This micro/nano combined pre-treatment chip is essential for following gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) quantitative analysis. Featuring huge surface area and dense silanol groups at the inwall surface, the mesoporous-silica is uniaxially self-assembled in a micro-reservoir to form a pile of nanofluidic channels (diameter = 2.1 nm). The captured/enriched pesticide molecules in the nanochannels can be efficiently extracted by much smaller volume of ethanol due to its much higher solubility to OP. In our affirming experiment, three mixed OP pesticides of dichlorvos, paraoxon and chlorpyrifos (in water) are captured/enriched by the nano-channels and eluted/extracted by only 0.6 mL ethanol. The whole process only takes 16 min. The GC-MS quantitative results for the extracted three pesticides indicate that the extraction recovery achieves 80%. The achieved limit of quantification (LOQ) and the limit of detection (LOD) are 100 ng L(-1) and 30 ng L(-1), respectively. The nanofluidic-channel pre-treatment technique is promising in various application fields like agriculture and food safety security.

Rapid amperometric detection of trace metals by inhibition of an ultrathin polypyrrole-based glucose biosensor

A sensitive and reliable inhibitive amperometric glucose biosensor is described for rapid trace metal determination. The biosensor utilises a conductive ultrathin (55 nm thick) polypyrrole (PPy) film for entrapment of glucose oxidase (GOx) to permit rapid inhibition of GOx activity in the ultrathin film upon exposure to trace metals, resulting in reduced glucose amperometric response. The biosensor demonstrates a relatively fast response time of 20s and does not require incubation. Furthermore, a complete recovery of GOx activity in the ultrathin PPy-GOx biosensor is quickly achieved by washing in 2mM EDTA for only 10s. The minimum detectable concentrations achieved with the biosensor for Hg(2+), Cu(2+), Pb(2+) and Cd(2+) by inhibitive amperometric detection are 0.48, 1.5, 1.6 and 4.0 µM, respectively. Also, suitable linear concentration ranges were achieved from 0.48-3.3 µM for Hg(2+), 1.5-10 µM for Cu(2+), 1.6-7.7 µM for Pb(2+) and 4-26 µM for Cd(2+). The use of Dixon and Cornish-Bowden plots revealed that the suppressive effects observed with Hg(2+) and Cu(2+) were via non-competitive inhibition, while those of Pb(2+) and Cd(2+) were due to mixed and competitive inhibition. The stronger inhibition exhibited by the trace metals on GOx activity in the ultrathin PPy-GOx film was also confirmed by the low inhibition constant obtained from this analysis. The biosensor was successfully applied to the determination of trace metals in tap water samples.

Recent advances in biosensors based on enzyme inhibition

Enzyme inhibitors like drugs and pollutants are closely correlated to human and environmental health, thus their monitoring is of paramount importance in analytical chemistry. Enzymatic biosensors represent cost-effective, miniaturized and easy to use devices; particularly biosensors based on enzyme inhibition are useful analytical tools for fast screening and monitoring of inhibitors. The present review will highlight the research carried out in the last 9 years (2006-2014) on biosensors based on enzyme inhibition. We underpin the recent advances focused on the investigation in new theoretical approachs and in the evaluation of biosensor performances for reversible and irreversible inhibitors. The use of nanomaterials and microfluidic systems as well as the applications of the various biosensors in real samples is critically reviewed, demonstrating that such biosensors allow the development of useful devices for a fast and reliable alarm system.

Conformational plasticity surrounding the active site of NADH oxidase from Thermus thermophilus

Biotechnological applications of enzymes can involve the use of these molecules under nonphysiological conditions. Thus, it is of interest to understand how environmental variables affect protein structure and dynamics and how this ultimately modulates enzyme function. NADH oxidase (NOX) from Thermus thermophilus exemplifies how enzyme activity can be tuned by reaction conditions, such as temperature, cofactor substitution, and the addition of cosolutes. This enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of reduced NAD(P)H to NAD(P)(+) with the concurrent reduction of O2 to H2O2, with relevance to biosensing applications. It is thermophilic, with an optimum temperature of approximately 65°C and sevenfold lower activity at 25°C. Moderate concentrations (≈1M) of urea and other chaotropes increase NOX activity by up to a factor of 2.5 at room temperature. Furthermore, it is a flavoprotein that accepts either FMN or the much larger FAD as cofactor. We have used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) titration and (15)N spin relaxation experiments together with isothermal titration calorimetry to study how NOX structure and dynamics are affected by changes in temperature, the addition of urea and the substitution of the FMN cofactor with FAD. The majority of signals from NOX are quite insensitive to changes in temperature, cosolute addition, and cofactor substitution. However, a small cluster of residues surrounding the active site shows significant changes. These residues are implicated in coupling changes in the solution conditions of the enzyme to changes in catalytic activity.

Environmental sensing of heavy metals through whole cell microbial biosensors: a synthetic biology approach

Whole cell microbial biosensors are offering an alternative means for rapid, on-site heavy metal detection. Based in microorganisms, biosensing constructs are designed and constructed to produce both qualitative and quantitative outputs in response to heavy metal ions. Previous microbial biosensors designs are focused on single-input constructs; however, development of multiplexed systems is resulting in more flexible designs. The movement of microbial biosensors from laboratory based designs toward on-site, functioning heavy metal detectors has been hindered by the toxic nature of heavy metals, along with the lack of specificity of heavy metals promoter elements. Applying a synthetic biology approach with alternative microbial chassis may increase the robustness of microbial biosensors and mitigate these issues. Before full applications are achieved, further consideration has to be made regarding the risk and regulations of whole cell microbial biosensor use in the environment. To this end, a standard framework for future whole cell microbial biosensor design and use is proposed.

Enzyme biosensor systems based on porous silicon photoluminescence for detection of glucose, urea and heavy metals

A phenomenon of changes in photoluminescence of porous silicon at variations in medium pH is proposed to be used as a basis for the biosensor system development. The method of conversion of a biochemical signal into an optical one is applied for direct determination of glucose and urea as well as for inhibitory analysis of heavy metal ions. Changes in the quantum yield of porous silicon photoluminescence occur at varying pH of the tested solution due to the enzyme-substrate reaction. When creating the biosensor systems, the enzymes urease and glucose oxidase (GOD) were used as a bioselective material; their optimal concentrations were experimentally determined. It was shown that the photoluminescence intensity of porous silicon increased by 1.7 times when increasing glucose concentration in the GOD-containing reaction medium from 0 to 3.0mM, and decreased by 1.45 times at the same increase in the urea concentration in the urease-containing reaction medium. The calibration curves of dependence of the biosensor system responses on the substrate concentrations are presented. It is shown that the presence of heavy metal ions (Cu(2+), Pb(2+), and Cd(2+)) in the tested solution causes an inhibition of the enzymatic reactions catalyzed by glucose oxidase and urease, which results in a restoration of the photoluminescence quantum yield of porous silicon. It is proposed to use this effect for the inhibitory analysis of heavy metal ions.

Graphene oxide immobilized enzymes show high thermal and solvent stability

The thermal and solvent tolerance of enzymes is highly important for their industrial use. We show here that the enzyme lipase from Rhizopus oryzae exhibits exceptionally high thermal stability and high solvent tolerance and even increased activity in acetone when immobilized onto a graphene oxide (GO) nanosupport prepared by Staudenmaier and Brodie methods. We studied various forms of immobilization of the enzyme: by physical adsorption, covalent attachment, and additional crosslinking. The activity recovery was shown to be dependent on the support type, enzyme loading and immobilization procedure. Covalently immobilized lipase showed significantly better resistance to heat inactivation (the activity recovery was 65% at 70 °C) in comparison with the soluble counterpart (the activity recovery was 65% at 40 °C). Physically adsorbed lipase achieved over 100% of the initial activity in a series of organic solvents. These findings, showing enhanced thermal stability and solvent tolerance of graphene oxide immobilized enzyme, will have a profound impact on practical industrial scale uses of enzymes for the conversion of lipids into fuels.

An amperometric biosensor for L-glutamate determination prepared from L-glutamate oxidase immobilized in polypyrrole-polyvinylsulphonate film

In this paper, a novel amperometric L-glutamate (Glu) biosensor with immobilization of L-glutamate oxidase (L-GlOx) on polypyrrole-polyvinylsulphonate (PPy-PVS) film has been successfully developed. L-GlOx enzyme was immobilized on PPy-PVS film by cross-linking with glutaraldehyde (GA) and bovine serum albumin (BSA). Determination of Glu was carried out by oxidation of enzymatically produced H2O2 at 0.3 V versus Ag/AgCl. The optimum pH and temperature parameters were found to be 9.0 and 55 °C, respectively. There were three linear parts in the regions between 1.0 × 10(-9) and 1.0 × 10(-8) M (R(2) = 0.847), 5.0 × 10(-8) and 5.0 × 10(-7) M (R(2) = 0.997), 5.0 × 10(-7) and 5.0 × 10(-5) M (R(2) = 0.994). Storage stability, operation stability of the enzyme electrode were also studied.

Ultrasensitive electrochemical detection of dual DNA targets based on G-quadruplex-mediated amplification

Dual DNA targets were ligated to a long strand containing a G-quadruplex forming sequence and detected on a capture probe modified electrode.

An ON1–OFF–ON2 electrochemiluminescence response: combining the intermolecular specific binding with a radical scavenger

The electrochemiluminescence (ECL) technique was combined with the “ON¹–OFF–ON²” strategy based on the chemical reactions and specific binding among different small chemical compounds for the highly sensitive detection of nonelectroactive organophosphate pesticides.

Detection of trace heavy metal ions in water by nanostructured porous Si biosensors

Specific and sensitive detection and quantification of heavy metals in real water using label-free optical biosensors.