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Richards DM, Ruggiero E, Hofer AC, Sefrin JP, Schmidt M, von Kalle C, Feuerer M. The Contained Self-Reactive Peripheral T Cell Repertoire: Size, Diversity, and Cellular Composition. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015. [PMID: 26195815 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Individual self-reactive T cells have been discovered in both humans and mice. It is difficult to assess the entire contained self-reactive peripheral T cell repertoire in healthy individuals because regulatory T cells (Tregs) can render these cells anergic and, therefore, functionally indistinguishable. We addressed this issue by removing regulatory T cells, thereby allowing us to characterize the exposed self-reactive T cells. This resulted in activation of approximately 4% of both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Activation and division of these cells was not a bystander product of Ag-independent signals but required TCR stimulation. Analysis of TCR sequences showed that these responding cells were polyclonal and encompassed a broad range of structural TCR diversity. Adoptive transfer of naive and effector/memory T cell populations showed that even the naive T cell pool contained self-reactive T cell precursors. In addition, transfer of mature thymocytes showed that this response was an intrinsic T cell property rather than a peripheral adaptation. Finally, we found that the unexpectedly strong contribution of the naive CD5(low) T cell pool showed that the overall self-reactive response has not only a diverse polyclonal TCR repertoire, but also comprises a broad range of affinities for self.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Richards
- Immune Tolerance, Tumor Immunology Program, German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; and
| | - Eliana Ruggiero
- Division of Translational Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and National Center for Tumor Diseases, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ann-Cathrin Hofer
- Immune Tolerance, Tumor Immunology Program, German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; and
| | - Julian P Sefrin
- Immune Tolerance, Tumor Immunology Program, German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; and
| | - Manfred Schmidt
- Division of Translational Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and National Center for Tumor Diseases, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christof von Kalle
- Division of Translational Oncology, German Cancer Research Center and National Center for Tumor Diseases, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Markus Feuerer
- Immune Tolerance, Tumor Immunology Program, German Cancer Research Center, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; and
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102
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Hoekstra ME, Dijkgraaf FE, Schumacher TN, Rohr JC. Assessing T lymphocyte function and differentiation by genetically encoded reporter systems. Trends Immunol 2015; 36:392-400. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2015.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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103
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Bilbao D, Luciani L, Johannesson B, Piszczek A, Rosenthal N. Insulin-like growth factor-1 stimulates regulatory T cells and suppresses autoimmune disease. EMBO Mol Med 2015; 6:1423-35. [PMID: 25339185 PMCID: PMC4237469 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.201303376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent precipitous rise in autoimmune diseases is placing an increasing clinical and economic burden on health systems worldwide. Current therapies are only moderately efficacious, often coupled with adverse side effects. Here, we show that recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-1 (rhIGF-1) stimulates proliferation of both human and mouse regulatory T (Treg) cells in vitro and when delivered systemically via continuous minipump, it halts autoimmune disease progression in mouse models of type 1 diabetes (STZ and NOD) and multiple sclerosis (EAE) in vivo. rhIGF-1 administration increased Treg cells in affected tissues, maintaining their suppressive properties. Genetically, ablation of the IGF-1 receptor specifically on Treg cell populations abrogated the beneficial effects of rhIGF-1 administration on the progression of multiple sclerotic symptoms in the EAE model, establishing a direct effect of IGF-1 on Treg cell proliferation. These results establish systemically delivered rhIGF-1 as a specific, effective stimulator of Treg cell action, underscoring the clinical feasibility of manipulating natural tolerance mechanisms to suppress autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bilbao
- Mouse Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Monterotondo, Italy
| | - Luisa Luciani
- Mouse Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Monterotondo, Italy
| | - Bjarki Johannesson
- Mouse Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Monterotondo, Italy
| | - Agnieszka Piszczek
- Mouse Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Monterotondo, Italy
| | - Nadia Rosenthal
- Mouse Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Monterotondo, Italy National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, UK Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute/EMBL Australia, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
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104
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XU AIJING, ZHU WEI, LI TANG, LI XIUZHEN, CHENG JING, LI CUILING, YI PENG, LIU LI. Interleukin-10 gene transfer into insulin-producing β cells protects against diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice. Mol Med Rep 2015; 12:3881-3889. [DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2015.3809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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105
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Ellis JS, Braley-Mullen H. Regulatory T cells in B-cell-deficient and wild-type mice differ functionally and in expression of cell surface markers. Immunology 2015; 144:598-610. [PMID: 25318356 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
NOD.H-2h4 mice develop spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis (SAT) with chronic inflammation of thyroids by T and B cells. B-cell deficient (B(-/-) ) mice are resistant to SAT but develop SAT if regulatory T (Treg) cells are transiently depleted. We established a transfer model using splenocytes from CD28(-/-) B(-/-) mice (effector cells and antigen-presenting cells) cultured with or without sorted Treg cells from Foxp3-GFP wild-type (WT) or B(-/-) mice. After transfer to mice lacking T cells, mice given Treg cells from B(-/-) mice had significantly lower SAT severity scores than mice given Treg cells from WT mice, indicating that Treg cells in B(-/-) mice are more effective suppressors of SAT than Treg cells in WT mice. Treg cells from B(-/-) mice differ from WT Treg cells in expression of CD27, tumour necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) II p75, and glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein (GITR). After transient depletion using anti-CD25 or diphtheria toxin, the repopulating Treg cells in B(-/-) mice lack suppressor function, and expression of CD27, GITR and p75 is like that of WT Treg cells. If B(-/-) Treg cells develop with B cells in bone marrow chimeras, their phenotype is like that of WT Treg cells. Addition of B cells to cultures of B(-/-) Treg and T effector cells abrogates their suppressive function and their phenotype is like that of WT Treg cells. These results establish for the first time that Treg cells in WT and B(-/-) mice differ both functionally and in expression of particular cell surface markers. Both properties are altered after transient depletion and repopulation of B(-/-) Treg cells, and by the presence of B cells during Treg cell development or during interaction with effector T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S Ellis
- Department of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA; Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA
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106
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Tissue resident regulatory T cells: novel therapeutic targets for human disease. Cell Mol Immunol 2015; 12:543-52. [PMID: 25891216 PMCID: PMC4579654 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2015.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2014] [Revised: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, the ability of regulatory T cells (Tregs) to suppress multiple types of immune cells has received tremendous attention. Mounting evidence has revealed that tissue resident Tregs control non-immunological processes of their target tissues and contribute to a plethora of human diseases. The identification of novel tissue-specific Tregs has highlighted their heterogeneity and complexity. This review summarizes the recent findings for visceral adipose tissue CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (VAT Tregs), muscle Tregs, bone Tregs and skin memory Tregs, with a focus on their unique functions in local tissues. This interpretation of the roles of tissue-specific Tregs and of their involvement in disease progression provides new insight into the discovery of potential therapeutic targets of human diseases.
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107
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Abstract
There is a clear need to develop strategies to induce tolerance without the need of chronic immunosuppression in transplant recipient and in patients with autoimmunity. Adoptive T regulatory cell (Treg) therapy offers the potential of long-lasting protection. However, based on results of clinical trials so far with ex vivo expanded autologous Tregs in type 1 diabetic (T1D) patients, it seems unlikely that single immunotherapy with Treg infusion without immunomodulation regimens that promote stable donor Treg engraftment and persistence would afford truly significant clinical benefit. Combination therapies could provide improved outcomes with consideration of the fundamental factors required for Treg generation, homeostasis, and function to promote long-term donor Treg persistence to provoke beneficial therapeutic outcomes.
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108
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Mahne AE, Klementowicz JE, Chou A, Nguyen V, Tang Q. Therapeutic regulatory T cells subvert effector T cell function in inflamed islets to halt autoimmune diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:3147-55. [PMID: 25732730 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Therapeutic regulatory T cells (Tregs) can reverse pre-established autoimmune pathology. In this study, using a mouse model of autoimmune diabetes, we aimed to determine the means by which therapeutic Tregs control islet inflammation. Islet Ag-specific Tregs infiltrated inflamed islets soon after infusion into prediabetic mice, which was quickly followed by a selective reduction of mRNA associated with effector T cells in the islets. This change was partially due to decreased CD8(+) T cell accumulation in the tissue. CD8(+) T cells that remained in the islets after Treg treatment were able to engage dendritic cells in a manner similar to that found in untreated mice, consistent with the retention of an activated phenotype by islet dendritic cells shortly after Treg treatment. Nonetheless, Treg treatment abrogated IFN-γ production by intraislet CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells at the protein level with minimal effect on IFN-γ mRNA. Sustained expression of IFN-γ protein by effector T cells was dependent on common γ-chain cytokine activation of the mTOR pathway, which was suppressed in islet CD8(+) T cells in vivo after Treg treatment. These multifaceted mechanisms underlie the efficacy of therapeutic Treg subversion of effector T cell functions at the site of inflammation to restore normal tissue homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley E Mahne
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Joanna E Klementowicz
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Annie Chou
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Vinh Nguyen
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Qizhi Tang
- Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
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109
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Chong AS, Alegre ML. Transplantation tolerance and its outcome during infections and inflammation. Immunol Rev 2015; 258:80-101. [PMID: 24517427 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Much progress has been made toward understanding the mechanistic basis of transplantation tolerance in experimental models, which implicates clonal deletion of alloreactive T and B cells, induction of cell-intrinsic hyporesponsiveness, and dominant regulatory cells mediating infectious tolerance and linked suppression. Despite encouraging success in the laboratory, achieving tolerance in the clinic remains challenging, although the basis for these challenges is beginning to be understood. Heterologous memory alloreactive T cells generated by infections prior to transplantation have been shown to be a critical barrier to tolerance induction. Furthermore, infections at the time of transplantation and tolerance induction provide a pro-inflammatory milieu that alters the stability and function of regulatory T cells as well as the activation requirements and differentiation of effector T cells. Thus, infections can result in enhanced alloreactivity, resistance to tolerance induction, and destabilization of the established tolerance state. We speculate that these experimental findings have relevance to the clinic, where infections have been associated with allograft rejection and may be a causal event precipitating the loss of grafts after long periods of stable operational tolerance. Understanding the mechanisms by which infections prevent and destabilize tolerance can lead to therapies that promote stable life-long tolerance in transplant recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita S Chong
- Section of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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110
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Teh CE, Gray DHD. Can you rely on Treg cells on the rebound? Eur J Immunol 2015; 44:3504-7. [PMID: 25410151 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201445273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2014] [Revised: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
FoxP3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells comprise a highly dynamic population that restrains autoreactivity. Although complete or long-term depletion of Foxp3(+) CD4(+) Treg cells in adult mice has been shown to result in chronic inflammation and autoimmune disease, the impact of transient Treg-cell depletion on self-reactive responses is poorly defined. A new study published in this issue of the European Journal of Immunology [Eur. J. Immunol. 2014. 44: 3621-3631] shows that, although transient depletion of Treg cells in mice is swiftly followed by recovery of Treg-cell numbers, the "rebounded" population fails to maintain tolerance, culminating in severe autoimmune gastritis. This commentary explores new questions about the quantitative and qualitative aspects of Treg-cell function in immunological tolerance raised by this study and others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charis E Teh
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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111
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Abstract
UNLABELLED Regulatory T (Treg) cells are important in the maintenance of self-tolerance, and the depletion of Treg cells correlates with autoimmune development. It has been shown that type I interferon (IFN) responses induced early in the infection of mice can drive memory (CD44hi) CD8 and CD4 T cells into apoptosis, and we questioned here whether the apoptosis of CD44-expressing Treg cells might be involved in the infection-associated autoimmune development. Instead, we found that Treg cells were much more resistant to apoptosis than CD44hi CD8 and CD4 T cells at days 2 to 3 after lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection, when type I IFN levels are high. The infection caused a downregulation of the interleukin-7 (IL-7) receptor, needed for survival of conventional T cells, while increasing on Treg cells the expression of the high-affinity IL-2 receptor, needed for STAT5-dependent survival of Treg cells. The stably maintained Treg cells early during infection may explain the relatively low incidence of autoimmune manifestations among infected patients. IMPORTANCE Autoimmune diseases are controlled in part by regulatory T cells (Treg) and are thought to sometimes be initiated by viral infections. We tested the hypothesis that Treg may die off at early stages of infection, when virus-induced factors kill other lymphocyte types. Instead, we found that Treg resisted this cell death, perhaps reducing the tendency of viral infections to cause immune dysfunction and induce autoimmunity.
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112
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Petzold C, Steinbronn N, Gereke M, Strasser RH, Sparwasser T, Bruder D, Geffers R, Schallenberg S, Kretschmer K. Fluorochrome-based definition of naturally occurring Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells of intra- and extrathymic origin. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:3632-45. [PMID: 25159127 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201444750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Under physiological conditions, studies on the biology of naturally induced Foxp3(+) Treg cells of intra- and extrathymic origin have been hampered by the lack of unambiguous markers to discriminate the mature progeny of such developmental Treg-cell sublineages. Here, we report on experiments in double-transgenic mice, in which red fluorescent protein (RFP) is expressed in all Foxp3(+) Treg cells, whereas Foxp3-dependent GFP expression is exclusively confined to intrathymically induced Foxp3(+) Treg cells. This novel molecular genetic tool enabled us to faithfully track and characterize naturally induced Treg cells of intrathymic (RFP(+) GFP(+) ) and extrathymic (RFP(+) GFP(-) ) origin in otherwise unmanipulated mice. These experiments directly demonstrate that extrathymically induced Treg cells substantially contribute to the overall pool of mature Foxp3(+) Treg cells residing in peripheral lymphoid tissues of steady-state mice. Furthermore, we provide evidence that intra- and extrathymically induced Foxp3(+) Treg cells represent distinct phenotypic and functional sublineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathleen Petzold
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology/Immune Regulation, DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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113
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Nyström SN, Bourges D, Garry S, Ross EM, van Driel IR, Gleeson PA. Transient Treg-cell depletion in adult mice results in persistent self-reactive CD4(+) T-cell responses. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:3621-31. [PMID: 25231532 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201344432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Revised: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Depletion of Foxp3(+) CD4(+) regulatory T cells (Treg) in adults results in chronic inflammation and autoimmune disease. However, the impact of transient Treg-cell depletion on self-reactive responses is poorly defined. Here, we studied the effect of transient depletion of Treg cells on CD4(+) T-cell responses to endogenous self-antigens. Short-term ablation of Treg cells in mice resulted in rapid activation of CD4(+) T cells, increased percentage of IFN-γ(+) and Th17 cells in lymphoid organs, and development of autoimmune gastritis. To track self-reactive responses, we analyzed the activation of naïve gastric-specific CD4(+) T cells. There was a dramatic increase in proliferation and acquisition of effector function of gastric-specific T cells in the stomach draining LNs of Treg-cell-depleted mice, compared with untreated mice, either during Treg-cell depletion or after Treg-cell reconstitution. Moreover, the hyperproliferation of gastric-specific T cells in the Treg-cell-ablated mice was predominantly antigen-dependent. Transient depletion of Treg cells resulted in a shift in the ratio of peripheral:thymic Treg cells in the reemerged Treg-cell population, indicating an altered composition of Treg cells. These findings indicate that transient Treg-cell depletion results in ongoing antigen-driven self-reactive T-cell responses and emphasize the continual requirement for an intact Treg-cell population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia N Nyström
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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114
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Tan T, Xiang Y, Chang C, Zhou Z. Alteration of regulatory T cells in type 1 diabetes mellitus: a comprehensive review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2014; 47:234-43. [PMID: 25086642 DOI: 10.1007/s12016-014-8440-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease characterized by the destruction of pancreatic β cells. Numerous studies have demonstrated the key role of CD4(+)CD25(+)FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the development of T1DM. However, the changes in Treg expression and function as well as the regulation of these activities are not clearly elucidated. Most studies on the role of Tregs in T1DM were performed on peripheral blood rather than pancreas or pancreatic lymph nodes. Tissue-based studies are more difficult to perform, and there is a lack of histological data to support the role of Tregs in T1DM. In spite of this, strategies to increase Treg cell number and/or function have been viewed as potential therapeutic approaches in treating T1DM, and several clinical trials using these strategies have already emerged. Notably, many trials fail to demonstrate clinical response even when Treg treatment successfully boosts Tregs. In view of this, whether a failure of Tregs does exist and contribute to the development of T1DM and whether more Tregs would be clinically beneficial to patients should be carefully taken into consideration before applying Tregs as treatments in T1DM.
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MESH Headings
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use
- Autoantigens/immunology
- CD3 Complex/genetics
- CD3 Complex/immunology
- Cell Communication
- Clinical Trials as Topic
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/pathology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/drug therapy
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/genetics
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/immunology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/pathology
- Gene Expression
- Humans
- Insulin-Secreting Cells/immunology
- Insulin-Secreting Cells/pathology
- Lymphocyte Count
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/transplantation
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/pathology
- Th17 Cells/immunology
- Th17 Cells/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Tan
- Diabetes Center, The Second Xiangya Hospital, and Institute of Metabolism and Endocrinology, Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Central South University, 139 Renmin Zhong Road, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, People's Republic of China
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115
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Wan X, Zaghouani H. Antigen-specific therapy against type 1 diabetes: mechanisms and perspectives. Immunotherapy 2014; 6:155-64. [PMID: 24491089 DOI: 10.2217/imt.13.172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an immune-mediated disease that occurs when the insulin-producing β‑cells of the pancreatic islets are destroyed by an inflammatory process perpetuated by cells of the immune system. The logical approach to suppress T1D is to inactivate or eliminate the lymphocytes responsible for inducing inflammation and targeting the β‑cells. Antigen-specific approaches have been devised and were able to target inflammatory lymphocytes and induce apoptosis or block trafficking to pancreatic islets. Lack of costimulation, expansion of Tregs and bystander suppression are likely mechanisms by which antigen-specific treatments modulate pathogenic T cells. This strategy, however, while prevents the onset of T1D, could not overcome overt T1D, perhaps because of collateral damage to the islet vascular network. Recent developments indicate that donor endothelial stem cell precursors can repair the islets' vascular niche and assist antigen-specific therapy against overt T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Wan
- Department of Pathology & Immunology. Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
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116
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Milanez-Almeida P, Klawonn F, Meyer-Hermann M, Huehn J. Differential control of immune cell homeostasis by Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells in murine peripheral lymph nodes and spleen. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 2014; 4:147-55. [PMID: 25215190 DOI: 10.1556/eujmi-d-14-00022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) hamper efficient immune responses to tumors and chronic infections. Therefore, depletion of Foxp3(+) Tregs has been proposed as therapeutic option to boost immune responses and to improve vaccinations. Although Treg-mediated control of T cell homeostasis is well established, Foxp3(+) Treg interaction with other immune cell subsets is only incompletely understood. Thus, the present study aimed at examining dynamic effects of experimental Foxp3(+) Treg depletion on a broad range of immune cell subsets, including B cells, natural killer cells, and myeloid cells. Striking differences were observed when peripheral lymph nodes (LN) and spleen were compared. B cells, for example, showed a massive and long-lasting accumulation only in LN but not in spleen of transiently Treg-depleted mice. In contrast, monocyte-derived dendritic cells, which are potent inducers of T cell responses, also accumulated selectively, but only transiently in LN, suggesting that this cell population is under very strict control of Foxp3(+) Tregs. In summary, the observations described here provide insights into the dynamics of immune cells after selective depletion of Foxp3(+) Tregs. This will allow a better prediction of the impact of Treg ablation in translational studies that aim at boosting immune responses and vaccinations.
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117
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Abstract
Innate lymphocytes - including natural killer cells and the recently discovered innate lymphoid cells - have crucial roles during infection, tissue injury and inflammation. Innate signals regulate the activation and homeostasis of innate lymphocytes. The contribution of the adaptive immune system to the coordination of innate lymphocyte responses is less well understood. In this Opinion article, we review our current understanding of the interactions between adaptive and innate lymphocytes, and propose a model in which T cells of the adaptive immune system function as antigen-specific sensors for the activation of innate lymphocytes to amplify and instruct local immune responses. We highlight the potential roles of regulatory and helper T cells in these processes, and discuss major questions in the emerging area of crosstalk between adaptive and innate lymphocytes.
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118
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Bending D, Pesenacker AM, Ursu S, Wu Q, Lom H, Thirugnanabalan B, Wedderburn LR. Hypomethylation at the regulatory T cell-specific demethylated region in CD25hi T cells is decoupled from FOXP3 expression at the inflamed site in childhood arthritis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:2699-708. [PMID: 25092890 PMCID: PMC4157061 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The maintenance of FOXP3 expression in CD25hi regulatory T cells (Tregs) is crucial to the control of inflammation and essential for successful Treg transfer therapies. Coexpression of CD25 and FOXP3 in combination with a hypomethylated region within the FOXP3 gene, called the Treg-specific demethylated region (TSDR), is considered the hallmark of stable Tregs. The TSDR is an epigenetic motif that is important for stable FOXP3 expression and is used as a biomarker to measure Treg lineage commitment. In this study, we report that, unlike in peripheral blood, CD4+ T cell expression of CD25 and FOXP3 is frequently dissociated at the inflamed site in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis, which led us to question the stability of human Tregs in chronic inflammatory environments. We describe a novel CD4+CD127loCD25hi human T cell population that exhibits extensive TSDR and promoter demethylation in the absence of stable FOXP3 expression. This population expresses high levels of CTLA-4 and can suppress T conventional cell proliferation in vitro. These data collectively suggest that this population may represent a chronically activated FOXP3lo Treg population. We show that these cells have defects in IL-2 signaling and reduced expression of a deubiquitinase important for FOXP3 stability. Clinically, the proportions of these cells within the CD25hi T cell subset are increased in patients with the more severe courses of disease. Our study demonstrates, therefore, that hypomethylation at the TSDR can be decoupled from FOXP3 expression in human T cells and that environment-specific breakdown in FOXP3 stability may compromise the resolution of inflammation in juvenile idiopathic arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bending
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, United Kingdom; and
| | - Anne M Pesenacker
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, United Kingdom; and
| | - Simona Ursu
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, United Kingdom; and
| | - Qiong Wu
- Medical School, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah Lom
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, United Kingdom; and
| | - Balathas Thirugnanabalan
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, United Kingdom; and
| | - Lucy R Wedderburn
- Infection, Inflammation and Rheumatology Section, University College London Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, United Kingdom; and
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119
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Gjymishka A, Coman RM, Brusko TM, Glover SC. Influence of host immunoregulatory genes, ER stress and gut microbiota on the shared pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease and Type 1 diabetes. Immunotherapy 2014; 5:1357-66. [PMID: 24283846 DOI: 10.2217/imt.13.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) with its two distinct entities, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, and Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) are autoimmune diseases. The prevalence of these diseases continues to rapidly rise in the industrialized world. Despite the identification of several genetic loci that are associated with both IBD and T1D, thus far, there is a paucity of epidemiological data to support a clinical overlap. In an effort to better understand the underlying pathogenic mechanisms of both IBD and T1D, this review summarizes the literature about these related autoimmune diseases, describes the most recent advances in their etiopathogenesis and emphasizes the genetic and nongenetic factors that exercise a differential influence. Genome-wide association studies have identified genetic loci with a role in immune response regulation that are linked to both IBD (particularly Crohn's disease) and T1D. Some of these genetic loci (e.g., IL-18RAP) have a divergent role, conferring risk for one disease and protection for the other. Recent evidence highlights an important role of gut microbiota and cellular responses (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum stress) in the pathogenesis of both IBD and T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Altin Gjymishka
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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120
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Immunomodulation by gut microbiota: role of Toll-like receptor expressed by T cells. J Immunol Res 2014; 2014:586939. [PMID: 25147831 PMCID: PMC4131413 DOI: 10.1155/2014/586939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A close relationship exists between gut microbiota and immune responses. An imbalance of this relationship can determine local and systemic immune diseases. In fact the immune system plays an essential role in maintaining the homeostasis with the microbiota that normally resides in the gut, while, at the same time, the gut microbiota influences the immune system, modulating number and function of effector and regulatory T cells. To achieve this aim, mutual regulation between immune system and microbiota is achieved through several mechanisms, including the engagement of toll-like receptors (TLRs), pathogen-specific receptors expressed on numerous cell types. TLRs are able to recognize ligands from commensal or pathogen microbiota to maintain the tolerance or trigger the immune response. In this review, we summarize the latest evidences about the role of TLRs expressed in adaptive T cells, to understand how the immune system promotes intestinal homeostasis, fights invasion by pathogens, and is modulated by the intestinal microbiota.
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121
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Abstract
Classical dendritic cells (cDCs) form a critical interface between innate and adaptive immunity. As myeloid immune cell sentinels, cDCs are specialized in the sensing of pathogen challenges and cancer. They translate the latter for T cells into peptide form. Moreover, cDCs provide additional critical information on the original antigen context to trigger a diverse spectrum of appropriate protective responses. Here we review recent progress in our understanding of cDC subsets in mice. We will discuss cDC subset ontogeny and transcription factor dependencies, as well as emerging functional specializations within the cDC compartment in lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Mildner
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Steffen Jung
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
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122
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Bettini M, Blanchfield L, Castellaw A, Zhang Q, Nakayama M, Smeltzer MP, Zhang H, Hogquist KA, Evavold BD, Vignali DAA. TCR affinity and tolerance mechanisms converge to shape T cell diabetogenic potential. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:571-9. [PMID: 24943217 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Autoreactive T cells infiltrating the target organ can possess a broad TCR affinity range. However, the extent to which such biophysical parameters contribute to T cell pathogenic potential remains unclear. In this study, we selected eight InsB9-23-specific TCRs cloned from CD4(+) islet-infiltrating T cells that possessed a relatively broad range of TCR affinity to generate NOD TCR retrogenic mice. These TCRs exhibited a range of two-dimensional affinities (∼ 10(-4)-10(-3) μm(4)) that correlated with functional readouts and responsiveness to activation in vivo. Surprisingly, both higher and lower affinity TCRs could mediate potent insulitis and autoimmune diabetes, suggesting that TCR affinity does not exclusively dictate or correlate with diabetogenic potential. Both central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms selectively impinge on the diabetogenic potential of high-affinity TCRs, mitigating their pathogenicity. Thus, TCR affinity and multiple tolerance mechanisms converge to shape and broaden the diabetogenic T cell repertoire, potentially complicating efforts to induce broad, long-term tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bettini
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Lori Blanchfield
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Ashley Castellaw
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Qianxia Zhang
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105
| | - Maki Nakayama
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Matthew P Smeltzer
- Department of Biostatistics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105; and
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105; and
| | - Kristin A Hogquist
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55414
| | - Brian D Evavold
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Dario A A Vignali
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105;
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123
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Li M, Ikehara S. Stem cell treatment for type 1 diabetes. Front Cell Dev Biol 2014; 2:9. [PMID: 25364717 PMCID: PMC4206977 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2014.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a common chronic disease in children, characterized by a loss of β cells, which results in defects in insulin secretion and hyperglycemia. Chronic hyperglycemia causes diabetic complications, including diabetic nephropathy, neuropathy, and retinopathy. Curative therapies mainly include diet and insulin administration. Although hyperglycemia can be improved by insulin administration, exogenous insulin injection cannot successfully mimic the insulin secretion from normal β cells, which keeps blood glucose levels within the normal range all the time. Islet and pancreas transplantation achieves better glucose control, but there is a lack of organ donors. Cell based therapies have also been attempted to treat T1DM. Stem cells such as embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells and tissue stem cells (TSCs) such as bone marrow-, adipose tissue-, and cord blood-derived stem cells, have been shown to generate insulin-producing cells. In this review, we summarize the most-recently available information about T1DM and the use of TSCs to treat T1DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Li
- Department of Stem Cell Disorders, Kansai Medical University Hirakata City, Osaka, Japan
| | - Susumu Ikehara
- Department of Stem Cell Disorders, Kansai Medical University Hirakata City, Osaka, Japan
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Miska J, Abdulreda MH, Devarajan P, Lui JB, Suzuki J, Pileggi A, Berggren PO, Chen Z. Real-time immune cell interactions in target tissue during autoimmune-induced damage and graft tolerance. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 211:441-56. [PMID: 24567447 PMCID: PMC3949570 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20130785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Real-time imaging studies are reshaping immunological paradigms, but a visual framework is lacking for self-antigen-specific T cells at the effector phase in target tissues. To address this issue, we conducted intravital, longitudinal imaging analyses of cellular behavior in nonlymphoid target tissues to illustrate some key aspects of T cell biology. We used mouse models of T cell-mediated damage and protection of pancreatic islet grafts. Both CD4(+) and CD8(+) effector T (Teff) lymphocytes directly engaged target cells. Strikingly, juxtaposed β cells lacking specific antigens were not subject to bystander destruction but grew substantially in days, likely by replication. In target tissue, Foxp3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells persistently contacted Teff cells with or without involvement of CD11c(+) dendritic cells, an observation conciliating with the in vitro "trademark" of Treg function, contact-dependent suppression. This study illustrates tolerance induction by contact-based immune cell interaction in target tissues and highlights potentials of tissue regeneration under antigenic incognito in inflammatory settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Miska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and 2 Department of Surgery, 3 Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136 4 Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124
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125
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Wållberg M, Cooke A. Immune mechanisms in type 1 diabetes. Trends Immunol 2013; 34:583-91. [PMID: 24054837 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2013] [Revised: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
There are three prerequisites for development of the autoimmune disease type 1 diabetes (T1D). First, β cell-reactive T cells need to be activated; second, the response needs to be proinflammatory; and finally, immune regulation of autoreactive responses must fail. Here, we describe our current understanding of the cell types and immune mechanisms involved in each of these steps leading to T1D. Novel findings regarding β cell involvement in its own destruction, the importance of the microbiota for instruction of the immune system, and recent data from studies in T1D patients are discussed. In addition, we summarise therapeutic approaches to T1D, and how these relate to the immune mechanisms involved in disease development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Wållberg
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Rd, Cambridge CB21QP, UK.
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126
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Abstract
In light of their role in the immune response against tumors and viruses, natural killer (NK) cells represent a promising target for immunotherapy. Before this target is reached, the various mechanisms that control NK cell activity must first be identified and understood. In the past decades, studies have identified two critical processes that prevent spontaneous NK cell-mediated autoimmune activation while maximizing the efficiency of these cells during an immune response. First is the education process, whereby NK cells adapt to their environment by sensing ligands for inhibitory and activating receptors. Second is the priming phase of NK cell activation, which arms NK cells with appropriate cytotoxic molecules during inflammation. New studies now indicate that NK cell proliferation, accumulation, and activation are also under the control of regulatory T cells that restrict availability of IL-2 released by activated CD4(+) T cells. Together with other recent studies, these data highlight the importance of the adaptive immune system in the regulation of NK cell activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann Kerdiles
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U1104, Marseille, France.
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127
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Marrero I, Hamm DE, Davies JD. High-throughput sequencing of islet-infiltrating memory CD4+ T cells reveals a similar pattern of TCR Vβ usage in prediabetic and diabetic NOD mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76546. [PMID: 24146886 PMCID: PMC3798422 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoreactive memory CD4+ T cells play a critical role in the development of type 1 diabetes, but it is not yet known how the clonotypic composition and TCRβ repertoire of the memory CD4+ T cell compartment changes during the transition from prediabetes to diabetes. In this study, we used high-throughput sequencing to analyze the TCRβ repertoire of sorted islet-infiltrating memory CD4+CD44high T cells in 10-week-old prediabetic and recently diabetic NOD mice. We show that most clonotypes of islet-infiltrating CD4+CD44high T cells were rare, but high-frequency clonotypes were significantly more common in diabetic than in prediabetic mice. Moreover, although the CD4+CD44high TCRβ repertoires were highly diverse at both stages of disease development, dominant use of TRBV1 (Vβ2), TRBV13-3 (Vβ8.1), and TRBV19 (Vβ6) was evident in both prediabetic and diabetic mice. Our findings strongly suggest that therapeutic targeting of cells specifically expressing the dominant TCRβ might reduce pancreatic infiltration in prediabetic mice and attenuate the progression to diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Idania Marrero
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, San Diego, California, United States of America
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128
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Li L, Nishio J, van Maurik A, Mathis D, Benoist C. Differential response of regulatory and conventional CD4⁺ lymphocytes to CD3 engagement: clues to a possible mechanism of anti-CD3 action? JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2013; 191:3694-704. [PMID: 23986534 PMCID: PMC3932531 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Several clinical trials have shown anti-CD3 treatment to be a promising therapy for autoimmune diabetes, but its mechanism of action remains unclear. Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) are likely to be involved, but through unknown mechanistic pathways. We profiled the transcriptional consequences in CD4(+) Tregs and conventional T cells (Tconvs) in the first hours and days after anti-CD3 treatment of NOD mice. Anti-CD3 treatment led to a transient transcriptional response, terminating faster than most Ag-induced responses. Most transcripts were similarly induced in Tregs and Tconvs, but several were differential, in particular, those encoding the IL-7R and transcription factors Id2/3 and Gfi1, upregulated in Tregs but repressed in Tconvs. Because IL-7R was a plausible candidate for driving the homeostatic response of Tregs to anti-CD3, we tested its relevance by supplementation of anti-CD3 treatment with IL-7/anti-IL-7 complexes. Although ineffective alone, IL-7 significantly improved the rate of remission induced by anti-CD3. Four anti-human CD3 mAbs exhibited the same differential effect on IL-7R expression in human as in mouse cells, suggesting that the mechanism also underlies therapeutic effect in human cells, and perhaps a rationale for testing a combination of anti-CD3 and IL-7 for the treatment of recent-onset human type 1 diabetes. Thus, systems-level analysis of the response to anti-CD3 in the early phase of the treatment demonstrates different responses in Tregs and Tconvs, and provides new leads to a mechanistic understanding of its mechanism of action in reverting recent-onset diabetes.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/metabolism
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- CD3 Complex/immunology
- CD3 Complex/metabolism
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Drug Synergism
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Humans
- Interleukin-7/pharmacology
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Protein Binding
- Receptors, Interleukin-7/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-7/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Junko Nishio
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - André van Maurik
- Immuno Inflammation, GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage, SG1 2NY, United Kingdom
| | - Diane Mathis
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Christophe Benoist
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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129
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Gardner JM, Metzger TC, McMahon EJ, Au-Yeung BB, Krawisz AK, Lu W, Price JD, Johannes KP, Satpathy AT, Murphy KM, Tarbell KV, Weiss A, Anderson MS. Extrathymic Aire-expressing cells are a distinct bone marrow-derived population that induce functional inactivation of CD4⁺ T cells. Immunity 2013; 39:560-72. [PMID: 23993652 PMCID: PMC3804105 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The autoimmune regulator (Aire) is essential for prevention of autoimmunity; its role is best understood in the thymus, where it promotes self-tolerance through tissue-specific antigen (TSA) expression. Recently, extrathymic Aire-expressing cells (eTACs) have been described in murine secondary lymphoid organs, but the identity of such cells and their role in immune tolerance remains unclear. Here we have shown that eTACs are a discrete major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II)(hi), CD80(lo), CD86(lo), epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM)(hi), CD45(lo) bone marrow-derived peripheral antigen-presenting cell (APC) population. We also have demonstrated that eTACs can functionally inactivate CD4⁺ T cells through a mechanism that does not require regulatory T cells (Treg) and is resistant to innate inflammatory stimuli. Together, these findings further define eTACs as a distinct tolerogenic cell population in secondary lymphoid organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Gardner
- Diabetes Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0540, USA; Department of Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0540, USA
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130
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Baeyens A, Pérol L, Fourcade G, Cagnard N, Carpentier W, Woytschak J, Boyman O, Hartemann A, Piaggio E. Limitations of IL-2 and rapamycin in immunotherapy of type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 2013; 62:3120-31. [PMID: 23670972 PMCID: PMC3749335 DOI: 10.2337/db13-0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Administration of low-dose interleukin-2 (IL-2) alone or combined with rapamycin (RAPA) prevents hyperglycemia in NOD mice. Also, low-dose IL-2 cures recent-onset type 1 diabetes (T1D) in NOD mice, partially by boosting pancreatic regulatory T cells (Treg cells). These approaches are currently being evaluated in humans. Our objective was to study the effect of higher IL-2 doses (250,000-500,000 IU daily) as well as low-dose IL-2 (25,000 IU daily) and RAPA (1 mg/kg daily) (RAPA/IL-2) combination. We show that, despite further boosting of Treg cells, high doses of IL-2 rapidly precipitated T1D in prediabetic female and male mice and increased myeloid cells in the pancreas. Also, we observed that RAPA counteracted IL-2 effects on Treg cells, failed to control IL-2-boosted NK cells, and broke IL-2-induced tolerance in a reversible way. Notably, the RAPA/IL-2 combination failure to cure T1D was associated with an unexpected deleterious effect on glucose homeostasis at multiple levels, including β-cell division, glucose tolerance, and liver glucose metabolism. Our data help to understand the therapeutic limitations of IL-2 alone or RAPA/IL-2 combination and could lead to the design of improved therapies for T1D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Baeyens
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7211, Paris, France
- Department of Immunology-Immunopathology-Immunotherapy, INSERM U959, Paris, France
| | - Louis Pérol
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7211, Paris, France
- Department of Immunology-Immunopathology-Immunotherapy, INSERM U959, Paris, France
| | - Gwladys Fourcade
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7211, Paris, France
- Department of Immunology-Immunopathology-Immunotherapy, INSERM U959, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Cagnard
- INSERM U580, Paris, France
- Bioinformatics Platform, Faculty of Medicine Paris Descartes, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, Paris, France
| | - Wassila Carpentier
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
- Plateforme Post-Génomique P3S, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Faculty of Medicine, Paris, France
| | - Janine Woytschak
- Laboratory of Applied Immunobiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Onur Boyman
- Laboratory of Applied Immunobiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Allergy Unit, Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Agnès Hartemann
- Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Diabetes, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Pitié-Salpêtrière-Charles Foix Hospital, Paris, France
- Department of Medicine Faculty, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
| | - Eliane Piaggio
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR 7211, Paris, France
- Department of Immunology-Immunopathology-Immunotherapy, INSERM U959, Paris, France
- Corresponding author: Eliane Piaggio,
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131
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Costa DL, Guimarães LH, Cardoso TM, Queiroz A, Lago E, Roselino AM, Bacellar O, Carvalho EM, Silva JS. Characterization of regulatory T cell (Treg) function in patients infected with Leishmania braziliensis. Hum Immunol 2013; 74:1491-500. [PMID: 23993989 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2013.08.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Th1 immune responses are crucial for eliminating Leishmania parasites. However, despite strong Th1 responses, cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) patients infected with Leishmania braziliensis develop the disease, while milder Th1 responses are found in sub-clinical (SC) infections. Therefore, CL patients may experience impaired regulatory T cell (Treg) function, causing excessive Th1 responses and tissue damage. To address this hypothesis, we characterized the function of circulating Tregs in L. braziliensis infected CL patients and compared them to Tregs from uninfected controls (UC) and SC subjects. The frequency of circulating Tregs was similar in CL patients, UC and SC subjects. Moreover, CL patients Tregs suppressed lymphocyte proliferation and PBMC pro-inflammatory cytokine production more efficiently than UC Tregs, and also produced higher levels of IL-10 than UC and SC Tregs. Furthermore, PBMC and mononuclear cells from lesions of CL patients responded normally to Treg-induced suppression. Therefore, the lesion development in CL patients infected with L. braziliensis is not associated with impairment in Treg function or failure of cells to respond to immunomodulation. Rather, the increased Treg activation in CL patients may impair parasite elimination, resulting in establishment of chronic infection. Thus, immunological strategies that interfere with this response may improve leishmaniasis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego L Costa
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Av. Bandeirantes, 3900, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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132
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Jeker LT, Bour-Jordan H, Bluestone JA. Breakdown in peripheral tolerance in type 1 diabetes in mice and humans. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2013; 2:a007807. [PMID: 22393537 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a007807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 Diabetes (T1D), also called juvenile diabetes because of its classically early onset, is considered an autoimmune disease targeting the insulin-producing β cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. T1D reflects a loss of tolerance to tissue self-antigens caused by defects in both central tolerance, which aims at eliminating potentially autoreactive lymphocytes developing in the thymus, and peripheral tolerance, which normally controls autoreactive T cells that escaped the thymus. Like in other autoimmune diseases, the mechanisms leading to T1D are multifactorial and depend on a complex combination of genetic, epigenetic, molecular, and cellular elements that result in the breakdown of peripheral tolerance. In this article, we discuss the contribution of these factors in the development of the autoimmune response targeting pancreatic islets in T1D and the therapeutic strategies currently being explored to correct these defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas T Jeker
- UCSF Diabetes Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
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133
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Ellis JS, Wan X, Braley-Mullen H. Transient depletion of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells results in multiple autoimmune diseases in wild-type and B-cell-deficient NOD mice. Immunology 2013; 139:179-86. [PMID: 23293979 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2012] [Revised: 01/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Approximately 80% of female wild-type non-obese diabetic (WT NOD) mice spontaneously develop diabetes, whereas B-cell-deficient (B(-/-)) NOD mice are resistant to diabetes. B(-/-) mice are also resistant to other spontaneous and experimentally induced autoimmune diseases, including arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren syndrome and thyroiditis. Under normal conditions, activation of self-reactive T cells in the periphery is limited by CD4(+) CD25(+) natural regulatory T (Treg) cells. B(-/-) NOD.H-2h4 mice, normally resistant to spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis (SAT), develop SAT when Treg cells are depleted, suggesting that Treg cells are preferentially activated when autoantigen is initially presented by non-B-cell antigen-presenting cells. To test the hypothesis that increased Treg cell activity in B(-/-) mice contributes to their resistance to other autoimmune diseases, WT and B(-/-) NOD mice were given anti-CD25 to transiently deplete CD4(+) CD25(+) Treg cells. The WT and B(-/-) NOD mice given anti-CD25 developed diabetes much earlier than WT mice given rat IgG, whereas rat IgG-treated B(-/-) mice did not develop diabetes. Treg-cell-depleted mice had increased lymphocyte infiltration of the pancreas, salivary glands and thyroid compared with controls given rat IgG. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that resistance of B-cell-deficient NOD mice to several autoimmune diseases is due to the activity of Treg cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S Ellis
- Department of Medicine, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, USA
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134
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Yeh LT, Miaw SC, Lin MH, Chou FC, Shieh SJ, Chuang YP, Lin SH, Chang DM, Sytwu HK. Different modulation of Ptpn22 in effector and regulatory T cells leads to attenuation of autoimmune diabetes in transgenic nonobese diabetic mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:594-607. [PMID: 23752610 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ptpn22 encodes PEST domain-enriched tyrosine phosphatase (Pep), which negatively regulates TCR proximal signaling and is strongly associated with a variety of autoimmune diseases in humans. The net effect of Pep on the balance of immunity and tolerance is uncertain because of the simultaneous inhibition of TCR-mediated signaling of effector and regulatory T cells (T(regs)). In this study, we generated transgenic NOD mice that overexpressed Pep in T cells. The transgenic mice had a significantly lower incidence of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes, which was accompanied by fewer IFN-γ-producing T cells, and an increased ratio of CD4(+)Foxp3(+) T(regs)to CD4(+)IFN-γ(+) or to CD8(+)IFN-γ(+) T cells, respectively, in pancreatic islets. Transgenic T cells showed markedly decreased TCR-mediated effector cell responses such as proliferation and Th1 differentiation. By contrast, the inhibitory effect of transgenic Pep on TCR signaling did not affect the differentiation of T(regs) or their suppressive activity. Adoptive transfer experiments showed that transgenic splenocytes exhibited attenuated diabetogenic ability. To examine further the pathogenic features of transgenic T cells, we generated Ptpn22/BDC2.5 doubly transgenic mice and found reduced proliferation and Th1 differentiation in CD4(+) T lymphocytes with additional Pep in pancreatic lymph nodes but not in inguinal lymph nodes of NOD/SCID recipients. This finding indicates that transgenic Pep attenuates T cell functions in an islet Ag-driven manner. Taken together, our results demonstrate that Pep overexpression in T cells attenuates autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice by preferentially modulating TCR signaling-mediated functions in diabetogenic T cells but not in T(regs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Tzu Yeh
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan
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135
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Sitrin J, Ring A, Garcia KC, Benoist C, Mathis D. Regulatory T cells control NK cells in an insulitic lesion by depriving them of IL-2. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 210:1153-65. [PMID: 23650440 PMCID: PMC3674700 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20122248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Pancreatic T reg cells control the availability of CD4+ T cell–secreted IL-2 to limit NK cell function. Regulatory T (T reg) cells control progression to autoimmune diabetes in the BDC2.5/NOD mouse model by reining in natural killer (NK) cells that infiltrate the pancreatic islets, inhibiting both their proliferation and production of diabetogenic interferon-γ. In this study, we have explored the molecular mechanisms underlying this NK–T reg cell axis, following leads from a kinetic exploration of gene expression changes early after punctual perturbation of T reg cells in BDC2.5/NOD mice. Results from gene signature analyses, quantification of STAT5 phosphorylation levels, cytokine neutralization experiments, cytokine supplementation studies, and evaluations of intracellular cytokine levels collectively argue for a scenario in which T reg cells regulate NK cell functions by controlling the bioavailability of limiting amounts of IL-2 in the islets, generated mainly by infiltrating CD4+ T cells. This scenario represents a previously unappreciated intertwining of the innate and adaptive immune systems: CD4+ T cells priming NK cells to provoke a destructive T effector cell response. Our findings highlight the need to consider potential effects on NK cells when designing therapeutic strategies based on manipulation of IL-2 levels or targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Sitrin
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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136
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Gasteiger G, Hemmers S, Firth MA, Le Floc'h A, Huse M, Sun JC, Rudensky AY. IL-2-dependent tuning of NK cell sensitivity for target cells is controlled by regulatory T cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 210:1167-78. [PMID: 23650441 PMCID: PMC3674692 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20122462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of the adaptive immune system took a toll in the form of pathologies mediated by self-reactive cells. Regulatory T cells (T reg cells) exert a critical brake on responses of T and B lymphocytes to self- and foreign antigens. Here, we asked whether T reg cells are required to restrain NK cells, the third lymphocyte lineage, whose features combine innate and adaptive immune cell properties. Although depletion of T reg cells led to systemic fatal autoimmunity, NK cell tolerance and reactivity to strong activating self- and non-self-ligands remained largely intact. In contrast, missing-self responses were increased in the absence of T reg cells as the result of heightened IL-2 availability. We found that IL-2 rapidly boosted the capacity of NK cells to productively engage target cells and enabled NK cell responses to weak stimulation. Our results suggest that IL-2-dependent adaptive-innate lymphocyte cross talk tunes NK cell reactivity and that T reg cells restrain NK cell cytotoxicity by limiting the availability of IL-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Gasteiger
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
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137
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Carrero JA, Calderon B, Towfic F, Artyomov MN, Unanue ER. Defining the transcriptional and cellular landscape of type 1 diabetes in the NOD mouse. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59701. [PMID: 23555752 PMCID: PMC3608568 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Our ability to successfully intervene in disease processes is dependent on definitive diagnosis. In the case of autoimmune disease, this is particularly challenging because progression of disease is lengthy and multifactorial. Here we show the first chronological compendium of transcriptional and cellular signatures of diabetes in the non-obese diabetic mouse. Our data relates the immunological environment of the islets of Langerhans with the transcriptional profile at discrete times. Based on these data, we have parsed diabetes into several discrete phases. First, there is a type I interferon signature that precedes T cell activation. Second, there is synchronous infiltration of all immunological cellular subsets and a period of control. Finally, there is the killing phase of the diabetogenic process that is correlated with an NF-kB signature. Our data provides a framework for future examination of autoimmune diabetes and its disease progression markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier A Carrero
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America.
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138
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Su J, Zhou L, Kong X, Yang X, Xiang X, Zhang Y, Li X, Sun L. Endoplasmic reticulum is at the crossroads of autophagy, inflammation, and apoptosis signaling pathways and participates in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Res 2013; 2013:193461. [PMID: 23762873 PMCID: PMC3673337 DOI: 10.1155/2013/193461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disease, and its incidence is growing worldwide. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a central component of cellular functions and is involved in protein folding and trafficking, lipid synthesis, and maintenance of calcium homeostasis. The ER is also a sensor of both intra- and extracellular stress and thus participates in monitoring and maintaining cellular homeostasis. Therefore, the ER is one site of interaction between environmental signals and a cell's biological function. The ER is tightly linked to autophagy, inflammation, and apoptosis, and recent evidence suggests that these processes are related to the pathogenesis of DM and its complications. Thus, the ER has been considered an intersection integrating multiple stress responses and playing an important role in metabolism-related diseases including DM. Here, we review the relationship between the ER and autophagy, inflammation, and apoptosis in DM to better understand the molecular mechanisms of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Su
- Department of Pathophysiology, Norman Bethune College of Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Lei Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Xiaoxia Kong
- Institute of Hypoxia Research, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical College, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325035, China
| | - Xiaochun Yang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Norman Bethune College of Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Xiyan Xiang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Norman Bethune College of Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Pathophysiology, Norman Bethune College of Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Xiaoning Li
- Department of Pathophysiology, Norman Bethune College of Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Liankun Sun
- Department of Pathophysiology, Norman Bethune College of Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
- *Liankun Sun:
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139
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Schallenberg S, Petzold C, Riewaldt J, Kretschmer K. Regulatory T Cell-Based Immunotherapy. MEDICAL ADVANCEMENTS IN AGING AND REGENERATIVE TECHNOLOGIES 2013. [DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2506-8.ch006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
CD4+CD25+ regulatory T (Treg) cells expressing the forkhead box transcription factor Foxp3 have a vital function in the maintenance of immune homeostasis and the prevention of fatal multi-organ autoimmunity throughout life. In the last decade, Foxp3+ Treg cells have raised the hope for novel cell-based therapies to achieve tolerance in clinical settings of unwanted immune responses such as autoimmunity and graft rejection. Conceptually, the antigen-specific enhancement of Treg cell function is of particular importance because such strategies will minimize the requirements for pharmaceutical immunosuppression, sparing desired protective host immune responses to infectious and malignant insults. This chapter discusses current concepts of Treg cell-based immunotherapy with particular emphasis on antigen-specific Treg cell induction from conventional CD4+ T cells to deal with organ-specific autoimmunity.
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140
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Petzold C, Riewaldt J, Watts D, Sparwasser T, Schallenberg S, Kretschmer K. Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells in mouse models of type 1 diabetes. J Diabetes Res 2013; 2013:940710. [PMID: 23691523 PMCID: PMC3647588 DOI: 10.1155/2013/940710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies on human type 1 diabetes (T1D) are facilitated by the availability of animal models such as nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice that spontaneously develop autoimmune diabetes, as well as a variety of genetically engineered mouse models with reduced genetic and pathogenic complexity, as compared to the spontaneous NOD model. In recent years, increasing evidence has implicated CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells expressing the transcription factor Foxp3 in both the breakdown of self-tolerance and the restoration of immune homeostasis in T1D. In this paper, we provide an overview of currently available mouse models to study the role of Foxp3(+) Treg cells in the control of destructive β cell autoimmunity, including a novel NOD model that allows specific and temporally controlled deletion of Foxp3(+) Treg cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathleen Petzold
- Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Julia Riewaldt
- Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Deepika Watts
- Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Tim Sparwasser
- Institute of Infection Immunology, TWINCORE/Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, 30625 Hanover, Germany
| | | | - Karsten Kretschmer
- Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden, German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), 01307 Dresden, Germany
- *Karsten Kretschmer:
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141
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Graham KL, Sutherland RM, Mannering SI, Zhao Y, Chee J, Krishnamurthy B, Thomas HE, Lew AM, Kay TWH. Pathogenic mechanisms in type 1 diabetes: the islet is both target and driver of disease. Rev Diabet Stud 2012; 9:148-68. [PMID: 23804258 DOI: 10.1900/rds.2012.9.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in our understanding of the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes have occurred in all steps of the disease. This review outlines the pathogenic mechanisms utilized by the immune system to mediate destruction of the pancreatic beta-cells. The autoimmune response against beta-cells appears to begin in the pancreatic lymph node where T cells, which have escaped negative selection in the thymus, first meet beta-cell antigens presented by dendritic cells. Proinsulin is an important antigen in early diabetes. T cells migrate to the islets via the circulation and establish insulitis initially around the islets. T cells within insulitis are specific for islet antigens rather than bystanders. Pathogenic CD4⁺ T cells may recognize peptides from proinsulin which are produced locally within the islet. CD8⁺ T cells differentiate into effector T cells in islets and then kill beta-cells, primarily via the perforin-granzyme pathway. Cytokines do not appear to be important cytotoxic molecules in vivo. Maturation of the immune response within the islet is now understood to contribute to diabetes, and highlights the islet as both driver and target of the disease. The majority of our knowledge of these pathogenic processes is derived from the NOD mouse model, although some processes are mirrored in the human disease. However, more work is required to translate the data from the NOD mouse to our understanding of human diabetes pathogenesis. New technology, especially MHC tetramers and modern imaging, will enhance our understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate L Graham
- St. Vincent´s Institute of Medical Research, Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia
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142
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Wong FS, Wen L. Type 1 diabetes therapy beyond T cell targeting: monocytes, B cells, and innate lymphocytes. Rev Diabet Stud 2012; 9:289-304. [PMID: 23804267 DOI: 10.1900/rds.2012.9.289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent clinical trials, investigating type 1 diabetes (T1D), have focused mainly on newly diagnosed individuals who have developed diabetes. We need to continue our efforts to understand disease processes and to rationally design interventions that will be safe and specific for disease, but at the same time not induce undesirable immunosuppression. T cells are clearly involved in the pathogenesis of T1D, and have been a major focus for both antigen-specific and non-antigen-specific therapy, but thus far no single strategy has emerged as superior. As T1D is a multifactorial disease, in which multiple cell types are involved, some of these pathogenic and regulatory cell pathways may be important to consider. In this review, we examine evidence for whether monocytes, B cells, and innate lymphocytes, including natural killer cells, may be suitable targets for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Susan Wong
- Institute of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, Cardiff School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK.
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143
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Pace L, Tempez A, Arnold-Schrauf C, Lemaitre F, Bousso P, Fetler L, Sparwasser T, Amigorena S. Regulatory T cells increase the avidity of primary CD8+ T cell responses and promote memory. Science 2012; 338:532-6. [PMID: 23112334 DOI: 10.1126/science.1227049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Although regulatory T cells (T(regs)) are known to suppress self-reactive autoimmune responses, their role during T cell responses to nonself antigens is not well understood. We show that T(regs) play a critical role during the priming of immune responses in mice. T(reg) depletion induced the activation and expansion of a population of low-avidity CD8(+) T cells because of overproduction of CCL-3/4/5 chemokines, which stabilized the interactions between antigen-presenting dendritic cells and low-avidity T cells. In the absence of T(regs), the avidity of the primary immune response was impaired, which resulted in reduced memory to Listeria monocytogenes. These results suggest that T(regs) are important regulators of the homeostasis of CD8(+) T cell priming and play a critical role in the induction of high-avidity primary responses and effective memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigia Pace
- INSERM U932, Immunity and Cancer, Institut Curie, F-75248 Paris Cedex 05, France
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144
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Sweet RA, Lee SK, Vinuesa CG. Developing connections amongst key cytokines and dysregulated germinal centers in autoimmunity. Curr Opin Immunol 2012; 24:658-64. [PMID: 23123277 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Systemic autoimmunity owing to overactivity of Tfh and dysregulated germinal centers has been described in mice and humans. Cytokines such as IL-21, IFN-γ, IL-6 and IL-17 are elevated in the plasma of mouse models of lupus, arthritis, and multiple sclerosis, and in subsets of patients with autoimmune disease. Monoclonal antibodies targeting these cytokines are entering clinical trials. While these cytokines exert pleiotropic effects on immune cells and organs, it is becoming clear that each and all of them can profoundly regulate Tfh numbers and/or function and induce or maintain the aberrant germinal center reactions that lead to pathogenic autoantibody formation. Here we review recent discoveries into the roles of IL-21, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-17 in germinal center responses and antibody-driven autoimmunity. These new insights used in conjunction with biomarkers of an overactive Tfh pathway may help stratify patients to rationalize the use of emerging monoclonal anti-cytokine antibody therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A Sweet
- Department of Pathogens and Immunity, John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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145
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Molecular targets related to inflammation and insulin resistance and potential interventions. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012; 2012:379024. [PMID: 23049242 PMCID: PMC3463198 DOI: 10.1155/2012/379024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Revised: 09/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation and insulin resistance are common in several chronic diseases, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. Various studies show a relationship between these two factors, although the mechanisms involved are not completely understood yet. Here, we discuss the molecular basis of insulin resistance and inflammation and the molecular aspects on inflammatory pathways interfering in insulin action. Moreover, we explore interventions based on molecular targets for preventing or treating correlated disorders, advances for a better characterization, and understanding of the mechanisms and mediators involved in the different inflammatory and insulin resistance conditions. Finally, we address biotechnological studies for the development of new potential therapies and interventions.
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146
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Kalim KW, Basler M, Kirk CJ, Groettrup M. Immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 deficiency and inhibition suppresses Th1 and Th17 but enhances regulatory T cell differentiation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:4182-93. [PMID: 22984077 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The immunoproteasome generates peptides presented on MHC class I molecules to cytotoxic T cells. ONX 0914 (formerly called PR-957) is a selective inhibitor of the immunoproteasome subunit low molecular mass polypeptide (LMP) 7 (β5i) that attenuates disease progression in mouse models of diabetes, colitis, and arthritis. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of LMP7-specific inhibition on major Th cell differentiation pathways involved in the progression of autoimmune diseases in vitro and in vivo. We used ONX 0914-treated wild-type CD4(+) T cells and also LMP7(-/-) CD4(+) T cells under different Th cell-polarizing conditions, focusing on the effector cytokines and transcription factors involved, and compared them with wild-type CD4(+) T cells. Mouse models of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis and a T cell transfer model of colitis were used for in vivo assessment. Deletion or inhibition of LMP7 suppressed generation of Th17 but promoted regulatory T cell (Treg) development. In developing Th17 cells, immunoproteasome inhibition blocked phosphorylation of STAT3, whereas in Tregs, SMAD phosphorylation was enhanced. Additionally, LMP7 inhibition led to reduced STAT1 phosphorylation and Th1 differentiation. These findings were confirmed in vivo as LMP7 inhibition or deficiency resulted in reduced Th1 and Th17 expansion while promoting Treg development in dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis. Also, in a T cell-dependent transfer model of colitis, LMP7-specific inhibition led to reduced Th1 and Th17 differentiation in vivo. LMP7 governs Th cell lineage determination by affecting the balance of receptor proximal signals during differentiation. These data render LMP7 a promising drug target for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalid W Kalim
- Division of Immunology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
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147
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Abstract
Regulatory T cells expressing the FoxP3 transcription factor have a profound and nonredundant role in several aspects of immunological tolerance. We will review here the specification of this lineage, its population dynamics, and the diversity of subphenotypes that correlate with their diverse roles in controlling inflammation in a variety of settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Benoist
- Division of Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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148
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Miska J, Bas E, Devarajan P, Chen Z. Autoimmunity-mediated antitumor immunity: tumor as an immunoprivileged self. Eur J Immunol 2012; 42:2584-96. [PMID: 22777737 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201242590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The association of autoimmunity with antitumor immunity challenges a paradigm of selective surveillance against tumors. Aided with well-characterized models of robust autoimmunity, we show that self-antigen-specific effector T (Teff) cell clones could eradicate tumor cells. However, a tumor microenvironment reinforced by Treg cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) presented a barrier to the autoimmune effectors, more so in tumors than in healthy tissues. This barrier required optimal CTLA4 expression in Teff cells. In a spontaneous model of breast cancer, subtle reductions in CTLA4 expression impeded tumor onset and progression, providing the first direct evidence that CTLA4 inhibits spontaneous tumor development. In an adoptive therapy model of lymphoma, self-antigen-specific Teff cells were potentiated by even a modest reduction of CTLA4. A subtle reduction of CTLA4 did not curtail Treg-cell suppression. Thus, Teff cells had an exquisite sensitivity to physiological levels of CTLA4 variations. However, both Treg and Teff cells were impacted by anti-CTLA4 antibody blockade. Therefore, whether CTLA4 impacts through Treg cells or Teff cells depends on its expression level. Overall, the results suggest that the tumor microenvironment represents an "immunoprivileged self" that could be overcome practically and at least partially by RNAi silencing of CTLA4 in Teff cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Miska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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149
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Schallenberg S, Petzold C, Tsai PY, Sparwasser T, Kretschmer K. Vagaries of fluorochrome reporter gene expression in Foxp3+ regulatory T cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41971. [PMID: 22879902 PMCID: PMC3412838 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
CD4+CD25+ regulatory T (Treg) cell lineage commitment and expression of the transcription factor Foxp3 can be induced at the CD4+CD8+ double-positive (DP) and CD4+CD8? single-positive stages of thymic development, as well as in postthymic CD4+ T cells in peripheral lymphoid tissues. The availability of transgenic mice with Foxp3-dependent fluorochrome reporter gene expression has greatly facilitated studies on the intra- and extrathymic generation of murine Foxp3+ Treg cells. Here, we performed a comparative analysis of thymic Treg cell development and peripheral compartments of mature Treg cells in various transgenic strains with gene targeted and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-driven Foxp3-fluorochrome expression. These studies revealed a relative deficiency of Foxp3+ DP thymocytes selectively in mice with targeted insertion of the fluorochrome reporter gene coding sequence into the endogenous Foxp3 gene. While Foxp3 BAC-driven fluorochrome expression in ex vivo CD4+ T cells was found to faithfully reflect Foxp3 protein expression, we provide evidence that Foxp3 BAC transgenesis can result in sizable populations of Foxp3+ Treg cells that lack fluorochrome reporter expression. This could be attributed to both timely delayed up-regulation of BAC expression in developing Treg cells and the accumulation of peripheral Foxp3+ Treg cells with continuous transcriptional inactivity of the Foxp3 BAC transgene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Schallenberg
- Immunotolerance in Regeneration, CRTD/DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Cathleen Petzold
- Immunotolerance in Regeneration, CRTD/DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Pei-Yun Tsai
- Immunotolerance in Regeneration, CRTD/DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Tim Sparwasser
- Institute of Infection Immunology, TWINCORE/Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
| | - Karsten Kretschmer
- Immunotolerance in Regeneration, CRTD/DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
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150
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Zinser E, Rössner S, Littmann L, Pangratz N, Schuler G, Steinkasserer A. The IL-2 diphtheria toxin fusion protein denileukin diftitox modulates the onset of diabetes in female nonobese diabetic animals in a time-dependent manner and breaks tolerance in male nonobese diabetic animals. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:1173-81. [PMID: 22730534 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Denileukin diftitox, also known as DAB(389)IL-2 or Ontak, is a fusion protein toxin consisting of the full-length sequence of the IL-2 protein and as toxophore the truncated diphtheria toxin. As a consequence, it delivers the toxic agent to CD25-bearing cells, whereby CD25 represents the high-affinity α-subunit of the IL-2 receptor. Initially it was developed for the treatment of patients with cutaneous T cell lymphoma. Meanwhile, denileukin diftitox is also used as an adjuvant in other tumor therapies and neoplastic disorders. In this study, to our knowledge we report for the first time that denileukin diftitox has also dramatic effects regarding the pathology of type 1 diabetes using the NOD mouse model. Repeated injections of denileukin diftitox into female NOD mice at 12 wk of age led to a clear acceleration of disease onset, whereas injection at 7 wk of age did not. Using male NOD mice, which are much less susceptible to diabetes, we demonstrate that the injection of denileukin diftitox leads to a dramatic development of type 1 diabetes within days after injection, thereby obviously breaking pre-existing tolerance mechanisms. This is accompanied by an increased IFN-γ production of autoreactive splenic cells and a decreased presence of regulatory CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T cells. In contrast, transfer of CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T cells could correct the defect after denileukin diftitox treatment. Furthermore, whereas IFN-γ production was increased in the pancreata of treated animals, insulin expression was strongly reduced. These finding should be considered when denileukin diftitox is used for the treatment of patients suffering from tumors and/or autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Zinser
- Department of Immune Modulation at the Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Erlangen, D-91052 Erlangen, Germany.
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