101
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Ivarsson MA, Loh L, Marquardt N, Kekäläinen E, Berglin L, Björkström NK, Westgren M, Nixon DF, Michaëlsson J. Differentiation and functional regulation of human fetal NK cells. J Clin Invest 2013; 123:3889-901. [PMID: 23945237 DOI: 10.1172/jci68989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The human fetal immune system is naturally exposed to maternal allogeneic cells, maternal antibodies, and pathogens. As such, it is faced with a considerable challenge with respect to the balance between immune reactivity and tolerance. Here, we show that fetal natural killer (NK) cells differentiate early in utero and are highly responsive to cytokines and antibody-mediated stimulation but respond poorly to HLA class I-negative target cells. Strikingly, expression of killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) did not educate fetal NK cells but rendered them hyporesponsive to target cells lacking HLA class I. In addition, fetal NK cells were highly susceptible to TGF-β-mediated suppression, and blocking of TGF-β signaling enhanced fetal NK cell responses to target cells. Our data demonstrate that KIR-mediated hyporesponsiveness and TGF-β-mediated suppression are major factors determining human fetal NK cell hyporesponsiveness to HLA class I-negative target cells and provide a potential mechanism for fetal-maternal tolerance in utero. Finally, our results provide a basis for understanding the role of fetal NK cells in pregnancy complications in which NK cells could be involved, for example, during in utero infections and anti-RhD-induced fetal anemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin A Ivarsson
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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102
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Marques AH, O'Connor TG, Roth C, Susser E, Bjørke-Monsen AL. The influence of maternal prenatal and early childhood nutrition and maternal prenatal stress on offspring immune system development and neurodevelopmental disorders. Front Neurosci 2013; 7:120. [PMID: 23914151 PMCID: PMC3728489 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2013.00120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The developing immune system and central nervous system in the fetus and child are extremely sensitive to both exogenous and endogenous signals. Early immune system programming, leading to changes that can persist over the life course, has been suggested, and other evidence suggests that immune dysregulation in the early developing brain may play a role in neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia. The timing of immune dysregulation with respect to gestational age and neurologic development of the fetus may shape the elicited response. This creates a possible sensitive window of programming or vulnerability. This review will explore the effects of maternal prenatal and infant nutritional status (from conception until early childhood) as well as maternal prenatal stress and anxiety on early programming of immune function, and how this might influence neurodevelopment. We will describe fetal immune system development and maternal-fetal immune interactions to provide a better context for understanding the influence of nutrition and stress on the immune system. Finally, we will discuss the implications for prevention of neurodevelopmental disorders, with a focus on nutrition. Although certain micronutrient supplements have shown to both reduce the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders and enhance fetal immune development, we do not know whether their impact on immune development contributes to the preventive effect on neurodevelopmental disorders. Future studies are needed to elucidate this relationship, which may contribute to a better understanding of preventative mechanisms. Integrating studies of neurodevelopmental disorders and prenatal exposures with the simultaneous evaluation of neural and immune systems will shed light on mechanisms that underlie individual vulnerability or resilience to neurodevelopmental disorders and ultimately contribute to the development of primary preventions and early interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Horvath Marques
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University New York, NY, USA ; Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University New York, NY, USA
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103
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Y-chromosome DNA is present in the blood of female dogs suggesting the presence of fetal microchimerism. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68114. [PMID: 23861856 PMCID: PMC3704588 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fetal microchimerism has been suggested to play contradictory roles in women’s health, with factors including age of the recipient, time elapsed since microchimerism occurred, and microchimeric cell type modulating disease. Both beneficial and harmful effects have been identified in wound healing and tissue regeneration, immune mediated disease, and cancer. This area of research is relatively new, and hindered by the time course from occurrence of fetal microchimerism to the multi-factorial development of disease. Dogs represent an excellent model for study of fetal microchimerism, as they share our environment, have a naturally condensed lifespan, and spontaneously develop immune-mediated diseases and cancers similar to their human counterparts. However, fetal microchimerism has not been described in dogs. These experiments sought preliminary evidence that dogs develop fetal microchimerism following pregnancy. We hypothesized that Y chromosomal DNA would be detected in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of female dogs collected within two months of parturition. We further hypothesized that Y chromosomal DNA would be detected in banked whole blood DNA samples from parous female Golden Retrievers with at least one male puppy in a prior litter. Amplification of DNA extracted from five female Golden Retrievers that had whelped within the two months prior to collection revealed strong positive bands for the Y chromosome. Of banked, parous samples, 36% yielded positive bands for the Y chromosome. This is the first report of persistent Y chromosomal DNA in post-partum female dogs and these results suggest that fetal microchimerism occurs in the canine species. Evaluation of the contributions of fetal microchimeric cells to disease processes in dogs as a model for human disease is warranted.
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104
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Ma KK, Petroff MG, Coscia LA, Armenti VT, Adams Waldorf KM. Complex chimerism: pregnancy after solid organ transplantation. CHIMERISM 2013; 4:71-7. [PMID: 23974274 DOI: 10.4161/chim.25401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Thousands of women with organ transplantation have undergone successful pregnancies, however little is known about how the profound immunologic changes associated with pregnancy might influence tolerance or rejection of the allograft. Pregnant women with a solid organ transplant are complex chimeras with multiple foreign cell populations from the donor organ, fetus, and mother of the pregnant woman. We consider the impact of complex chimerism and pregnancy-associated immunologic changes on tolerance of the allograft both during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Mechanisms of allograft tolerance are likely dynamic during pregnancy and affected by the influx of fetal microchimeric cells, HLA relationships (between the fetus, pregnant woman and/or donor), peripheral T cell tolerance to fetal cells, and fetal minor histocompatibility antigens. Further research is necessary to understand the complex immunology during pregnancy and the postpartum period of women with a solid organ transplant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly K Ma
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology; University of Washington; Seattle, WA USA
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105
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George D, Czech J, John B, Yu M, Jennings LJ. Detection and quantification of chimerism by droplet digital PCR. CHIMERISM 2013; 4:102-8. [PMID: 23974275 DOI: 10.4161/chim.25400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Accurate quantification of chimerism and microchimerism is proving to be increasingly valuable for hematopoietic cell transplantation as well as non-transplant conditions. However, methods that are available to quantify low-level chimerism lack accuracy. Therefore, we developed and validated a method for quantifying chimerism based on digital PCR technology. We demonstrate accurate quantification that far exceeds what is possible with analog qPCR down to 0.01% with the potential to go even lower. Also, this method is inherently more informative than qPCR. We expect the advantages of digital PCR will make it the preferred method for chimerism analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David George
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine; Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago; Chicago, IL USA
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106
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Pereira FTV, Oliveira LJ, Barreto RDSN, Mess A, Perecin F, Bressan FF, Mesquita LG, Miglino MA, Pimentel JR, Neto PF, Meirelles FV. Fetal-maternal interactions in the synepitheliochorial placenta using the eGFP cloned cattle model. PLoS One 2013; 8:e64399. [PMID: 23724045 PMCID: PMC3665810 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background To investigate mechanisms of fetal-maternal cell interactions in the bovine placenta, we developed a model of transgenic enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (t-eGFP) expressing bovine embryos produced by nuclear transfer (NT) to assess the distribution of fetal-derived products in the bovine placenta. In addition, we searched for male specific DNA in the blood of females carrying in vitro produced male embryos. Our hypothesis is that the bovine placenta is more permeable to fetal-derived products than described elsewhere. Methodology/Principal Findings Samples of placentomes, chorion, endometrium, maternal peripheral blood leukocytes and blood plasma were collected during early gestation and processed for nested-PCR for eGFP and testis-specific Y-encoded protein (TSPY), western blotting and immunohistochemistry for eGFP detection, as well as transmission electron microscopy to verify the level of interaction between maternal and fetal cells. TSPY and eGFP DNA were present in the blood of cows carrying male pregnancies at day 60 of pregnancy. Protein and mRNA of eGFP were observed in the trophoblast and uterine tissues. In the placentomes, the protein expression was weak in the syncytial regions, but intense in neighboring cells on both sides of the fetal-maternal interface. Ultrastructurally, our samples from t-eGFP expressing NT pregnancies showed to be normal, such as the presence of interdigitating structures between fetal and maternal cells. In addition, channels-like structures were present in the trophoblast cells. Conclusions/Significance Data suggested that there is a delivery of fetal contents to the maternal system on both systemic and local levels that involved nuclear acids and proteins. It not clear the mechanisms involved in the transfer of fetal-derived molecules to the maternal system. This delivery may occur through nonclassical protein secretion; throughout transtrophoblastic-like channels and/or by apoptotic processes previously described. In conclusion, the bovine synepitheliochorial placenta displays an intimate fetal-maternal interaction, similar to other placental types for instance human and mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lilian J. Oliveira
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Rodrigo da Silva Nunes Barreto
- Department of Surgery - Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals - College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences - University of São Paulo, Butantã, Brazil
| | - Andrea Mess
- Department of Surgery - Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals - College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences - University of São Paulo, Butantã, Brazil
| | - Felipe Perecin
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Fernandes Bressan
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil
| | - Ligia Garcia Mesquita
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Production - College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences - University of São Paulo, Butantã, Brazil
| | - Maria Angelica Miglino
- Department of Surgery - Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals - College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences - University of São Paulo, Butantã, Brazil
| | - José RodrigoValim Pimentel
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil
| | - Paulo Fantinato Neto
- Department of Surgery - Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals - College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences - University of São Paulo, Butantã, Brazil
| | - Flávio Vieira Meirelles
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil
- Center for Cell-based Theraphy, College of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
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107
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Lepez T, Vandewoestyne M, Deforce D. Fetal microchimeric cells in autoimmune thyroid diseases: harmful, beneficial or innocent for the thyroid gland? CHIMERISM 2013; 4:111-8. [PMID: 23723083 PMCID: PMC3921191 DOI: 10.4161/chim.25055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) show a female predominance, with an increased incidence in the years following parturition. Fetal microchimerism has been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of AITD. However, only the presence of fetal microchimeric cells in blood and in the thyroid gland of these patients has been proven, but not an actual active role in AITD. Is fetal microchimerism harmful for the thyroid gland by initiating a Graft versus Host reaction (GvHR) or being the target of a Host versus Graft reaction (HvGR)? Is fetal microchimerism beneficial for the thyroid gland by being a part of tissue repair or are fetal cells just innocent bystanders in the process of autoimmunity? This review explores every hypothesis concerning the role of fetal microchimerism in AITD.
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108
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Shechter R, London A, Schwartz M. Orchestrated leukocyte recruitment to immune-privileged sites: absolute barriers versus educational gates. Nat Rev Immunol 2013; 13:206-18. [PMID: 23435332 DOI: 10.1038/nri3391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Complex barriers separate immune-privileged tissues from the circulation. Here, we propose that cell entry to immune-privileged sites through barriers composed of tight junction-interconnected endothelium is associated with destructive inflammation, whereas border structures comprised of fenestrated vasculature enveloped by tightly regulated epithelium serve as active and selective immune-skewing gates in the steady state. Based on emerging knowledge of the central nervous system and information from other immune-privileged sites, we propose that these sites are endowed either with absolute endothelial-based barriers and epithelial gates that enable selective and educative transfer of trafficking leukocytes or with selective epithelial gates only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravid Shechter
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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109
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Snyder MW, Simmons LE, Kitzman JO, Santillan DA, Santillan MK, Gammill HS, Shendure J. Noninvasive fetal genome sequencing: a primer. Prenat Diagn 2013; 33:547-54. [PMID: 23553552 DOI: 10.1002/pd.4097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
We recently demonstrated whole genome sequencing of a human fetus using only parental DNA samples and plasma from the pregnant mother. This proof-of-concept study demonstrated how samples obtained noninvasively in the first or second trimester can be analyzed to yield a highly accurate and substantially complete genetic profile of the fetus, including both inherited and de novo variation. Here, we revisit our original study from a clinical standpoint, provide an overview of the scientific approach, and describe opportunities and challenges along the path toward clinical adoption of noninvasive fetal whole genome sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W Snyder
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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110
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Burt TD. Fetal regulatory T cells and peripheral immune tolerance in utero: implications for development and disease. Am J Reprod Immunol 2013; 69:346-58. [PMID: 23432802 PMCID: PMC3951896 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The developing fetus must actively learn to tolerate benign antigens or suffer the consequences of broken tolerance. Tolerance of self-antigens prevents development of autoimmune diseases and is achieved by both deletion of autoreactive T cell clones in the thymus (central tolerance) and by the suppressive influence of CD4(+) CD25(+) FoxP3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the periphery. Fetal CD4(+) T cells have a strong predisposition to differentiate into tolerogenic Tregs that actively promote self-tolerance, as well as tolerance to non-inherited antigens on chimeric maternal cells that reside in fetal tissues. As the fetus nears birth, a crucial transition must occur between the tolerogenic fetal immune system and a more defensive adult-type immune system that is able to combat pathogens. This paper will review the unique tolerogenic nature of fetal T cells and will examine evidence for a novel model of fetal immune development: the layered immune system hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor D Burt
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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111
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Amniotic fluid stem cells and fetal cell microchimerism. Trends Mol Med 2013; 19:271-2. [PMID: 23337352 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Fetal cells (and cell-free, fetal DNA used for non-invasive prenatal diagnosis) are known to exist in the circulation of pregnant women. These cells exhibit stem cell properties when they differentiate at the site of injured maternal tissue, but the origin of these fetal, natural, and probably reparative cells is unknown. During pregnancy, mobilized pluripotent fetal stem cells of yet unidentified in vivo significance float in the amniotic fluid, and we argue that circulating fetal cells and the pluripotent amniotic fluid cells might share a common origin.
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112
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Abstract
The immune cells that reside at the interface between the placenta and uterus are thought to play many important roles in pregnancy. Recent work has revealed that the composition and function of these cells are locally controlled by the specialized uterine stroma (the decidua) that surrounds the implanted conceptus. Here, I discuss how key immune cell types (natural killer cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells) are either enriched or excluded from the decidua, how their function is regulated within the decidua, and how they variously contribute to pregnancy success or failure. The discussion emphasizes the relationship between human and mouse studies. Deeper understanding of the immunology of the maternal-fetal interface promises to yield significant insight into the pathogenesis of many human pregnancy complications, including preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, spontaneous abortion, preterm birth, and congenital infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Erlebacher
- Department of Pathology and NYU Cancer Institute, NYU School of Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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113
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Abstract
Work on the mechanisms of fetomaternal tolerance has undergone a renaissance in recent years, and the general outlines of a solution to this long-standing paradox of 'transplantation' immunology have come into view. Here, we discuss several mechanisms, recently described in mice, that either minimize the activation of maternal T cells with fetal or placental specificity, or minimize the possibility that such T cells, if activated, are able to harm the fetus. The T cell response to antigens expressed by the conceptus serves as a paradigm for the study of tissue-specific immune tolerance and is relevant to the pathogenesis of immune-mediated pregnancy complications.
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114
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Abstract
In humans, naturally acquired microchimerism has been observed in many tissues and organs. Fetal microchimerism, however, has not been investigated in the human brain. Microchimerism of fetal as well as maternal origin has recently been reported in the mouse brain. In this study, we quantified male DNA in the human female brain as a marker for microchimerism of fetal origin (i.e. acquisition of male DNA by a woman while bearing a male fetus). Targeting the Y-chromosome-specific DYS14 gene, we performed real-time quantitative PCR in autopsied brain from women without clinical or pathologic evidence of neurologic disease (n=26), or women who had Alzheimer's disease (n=33). We report that 63% of the females (37 of 59) tested harbored male microchimerism in the brain. Male microchimerism was present in multiple brain regions. Results also suggested lower prevalence (p=0.03) and concentration (p=0.06) of male microchimerism in the brains of women with Alzheimer's disease than the brains of women without neurologic disease. In conclusion, male microchimerism is frequent and widely distributed in the human female brain.
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